Gender, Culture and Society Past Paper PDFs 2022

DIRE DAWA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY COURSE TITLE: GENDER, CULTURE AND SOCIETY Prepared By: Mr. Walelegn Wassie (BA in Social Anthropology) August 2022...

DIRE DAWA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY COURSE TITLE: GENDER, CULTURE AND SOCIETY Prepared By: Mr. Walelegn Wassie (BA in Social Anthropology) August 2022 DIRE DAWA ETHIOPIA 1  CHAPTER ONE 1.1 The Concept of Gender Introduction 1.1 What is Gender? Gender: - Gender refers to the social attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female, the relationships between women and men and girls and boys, and the relations between women and between men. These attributes, opportunities and relationships are socially constructed and learned through the socialization processes. They are context-/time-specific and changeable. Gender determines what is expected, allowed and valued in a women or a man in a given context. In most societies there are differences and inequalities between women and men in decision making opportunities, responsibilities assigned, activities undertaken, and access to and control over resources. Gender is part of the broader sociocultural context. Other important criteria for sociocultural analysis include class, race, poverty level, ethnic group and age Gender refers to the roles and responsibilities of men and women that are created in our families, our societies and our cultures. The concept of gender also includes the expectations held about the characteristics, aptitudes and likely behaviors of both women and men (femininity and masculinity). Gender roles and expectations are learned. They can change over time and they vary within and between cultures. Systems of social differentiation such as political status, class, ethnicity, physical and mental disability, age and more, modify gender roles. The concept of gender is vital because, applied to social analysis; it reveals how women‘s subordination (or men‘s domination) is socially constructed. As such, the subordination can be changed or ended. It is not biologically predetermined nor is it fixed forever. 1.2 "Sex" and "gender" Biological Sex refers to the physiological and anatomical Characteristics of maleness and/or femaleness with which a person is born  Gender Identity refers to one‘s psychological sense of oneself as a male, female, gender transgressed, etc. 2   Gender Role refers to the socially constructed and culturally specific behavior and expectations for women (i.e. femininity) or men (i.e. masculinity) and is based on hetero normativity.  Gender Expression refers to the behavior and/or physical appearance that a person utilizes in order to express their own gender. This may or may not be consistent with socially constructed gender roles. Sex describes the biological differences between men and women, which are universal and determined at birth. The term „sex‟ and „gender‟ are concepts used by academicians, researchers and feminist writers to make a distinction between the biologically different „male‟ and „female‟ and between the socially different „man‟ and „woman‟. Feminist sociologists suggest that there is a need to understand and distinguish between the two terms „sex‟ and „gender‟ in academic discourses and writings. Sex: In a very broad way, „sex‟ refers to the biological and physiological differences between male and female sex. The term sex is a physical differentiation between the biological male and the biological female. Thus, when an infant is born, the infant comes to be labeled ―boy‖ or ―girl‖ depending on their sex. The genital differences between male and female are the basis of such characterization. There is a biological difference between the sexes and most people are born (expect for a few ambiguous cases) as one sex or another. However, it has been argued that having been born into one sex or another, individuals are then socialized according to specific gender expectations and roles. Biological males learn to take on masculine roles. They are socialized to think and act in masculine ways. Biological females learn to take on feminine roles. They are socialized to think and behave in feminine ways. As the feminist writer Simone de Behavior puts it „one is not born a man but becomes one‟, „one is not born a woman but becomes one‟. 3 At birth, besides the basic biological differences in the genitals and reproductive organs, there is not much difference between the male child and the female child. Society makes the differences between boy and girl through gender constructions. The biological differences between the sexes do to some extent explain certain psychological and socially constructed differences. This view is criticized by some feminist writers like Judith Butler. Judith Butler argues that sex is natural and comes first. Gender is perceived as a secondary construct 3 which is imposed over the top of this natural distinction. Viewed thus, Butler argues „sex‟ itself becomes a social category. This means that the distinction between „male‟ and „female‟ is a social distinction made by the society, that is, it is a social construction. It is a particular way of perceiving and dividing the differences between „male‟, „female‟. Butler explains that „sex‟ though seen as biological is as much a product of society as it gender. So the term sex is also socially constructed. Gender: The concept of gender in feminist writings and other sociological discourses became popular in the early 1970. In simple terms, gender explain the differences between men and women in social terms as men, and as what a man can do; as „woman‟, and as what a woman can or cannot do. Therefore, gender is a analytical category that is socially constructed to differentiate the biological difference between men and women. The term gender is also used to describe the differences in behavior between men and women which are described as „masculine‟ and „feminine‟. Feminist writings focus on this aspect and claim that these differences are not biological but are social constructions of patriarchal society. Some theorists suggest that the biological differences between men and women also result in their mental and physical differences. They argue that biologically, men are physically and mentally superior to women. Other theorists suggest that the biological difference between men and women are exaggerated. The differences are socially constructed by the patriarchal system of society by which men are described as superior to women. Therefore women become subordinate to men in the society. Ann Oakley in her book, sex, gender and Society written in 1972 explores the term gender. Oakley says that in the Western culture women play the roles of the „housewife‟ and „mother‟. This is because women are made to play these roles because of their biology. The western culture also believes that any effort to change the traditional roles of men and women in the society can cause damage to the social fabric of the society. Oakley concludes that this view regarding the roles of men and women helps to support and maintain the patriarchal society. Simone de Beauvoir in her book „The Second Sex‟ says that ―one is not born, but rather becomes a woman‖. She explains that gender differences in the society make the man superior through his role as the bread winner. It gives him a position of power in the society and family. Gender differences are set in hierarchal opposition such that men are superior and women are subordinate. Women‘s position is that of the „other‟ and women are the continual outsiders. Civilization was masculine to its very depth. 4 1.3 Gender Roles A gender role, also known as sex role, is a social role encompassing a range of behaviors and attitudes that are generally considered acceptable, appropriate or desirable for people based on their actual or perceived sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of feminity and masculinity although there are exceptions and variations. The specifics regarding these gendered exceptions may vary substantially among cultures, while other characteristics may be common throughout a range of cultures. Gender roles as ―Socially constructed roles, behaviors and activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women‖. ―Gender role is a constellation of qualities an individual understands to characterize males and females in his or her culture. These qualities include activities, role relations, social position, personality characteristics and a host of abilities and behaviors‖. Gender roles in society means how we are expected to act, speak, dress, groom, and conduct ourselves based upon our assigned sex. For example, girls and women are generally expected to dress in typically feminine ways and be polite, accommodating, and nurturing. Men are generally expected to be strong, aggressive, and bold. This is generally the set of roles, activities, expectations, and behaviors assigned to females and males by society Our culture recognizes two basic gender roles:  Masculine (having the qualities attributed to males); and  Feminine (having the qualities attributed to females). Nature of Gender Roles  Gender roles are learned behavior.  These roles vary in their social, economic, and political dimension across cultures. Values and norms differ widely from culture- to- culture.  Gender roles have certain universality, but are largely culturally determined.  Gender roles are affected by a number of factors such as age, class, race, ethnicity, religion and ideologies, in addition to geographical, economic, and political environment.  Roles may be complementary or conflicting. Factors Determining Gender Roles/Stereotypes 5   Personality Traits –Women are often expected to be accommodating and emotional, while men are expected to be self-confident and aggressive.  Domestic Behaviors –Some people expect that women will take care of the children, cook, and clean the home, while men take care of finances, work on the car, and do the home repairs.  Occupations – Some people are quick to assume that teachers and nurses are women, and those pilots, doctors, and engineers are men.  Physical Appearance –Women are expected to be thin and graceful, while men are expected to be tall and muscular. Men and women are also expected to dress and groom in ways that are stereotypical to their gender (men wearing pants and short hairstyles, women wearing dresses and makeup). 1.4 Gender Socialization Gender socialization: - is the process through which children learn about social expectations, attitudes, and behaviors typically associated with boys and girls (Encyclopedia of Early Childhood Development). ―Gender Socialization refers to the learning of behavior and attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex‖. Cynthia Vinney (2019) defines it as ―Gender Socialization is the process by which we learn our culture‘s gender related rules, norms and expectations‖. As we summarize these definitions, we realize that gender socialization is a process in which one learns the behaviors, attitudes, and norms, and understand the social and cultural expectations in relation to one‘s gender. Let us see from where we inherit or learn the so- called right attitudes and behaviors in relation to our gender. CHAPTER TWO Theories of Gender Gender theory is the study of what is understood as masculine and/or feminine and/or queer behavior in any given context, community, society, or field of study. Two Major goals of gender theory 1. To challenge the hierarchical placement of feminine-gendered attributes (such as passivity, cooperativeness, an orientation toward relationships) as inferior to masculine-gendered attributes (such as aggressiveness, competitiveness, an orientation toward public rules and laws). 6 2. To reduce or remove coercion, so that individual women and men can freely be as masculine and/or feminine as they wish to be. In this way, there is a plurality, multiplicity, and expected complexity in being gendered. 1. Biological Theory  Biological theories of gender argued that, there are some innate differences between male and female, and that we may- to some extent be born masculine or feminine.  The biological basis of sex differences is obvious for physical traits. WOMEN MEN  Produce ova  Give birth & lactate (produce milk)  Their body produce more estrogen(female hormone)  Have bigger hip & breast more body fat  Women typically have less body hair than men do  Produce sperm  Men‟s body produce more androgen(male hormone)  Men have broader shoulder & more muscle mass than women do : - Therefore, these differences mold their behavior. 2. Evolutionary Theory  Evolutionary theory of gender proposes that, because of difference between male and female reproduction, men and women evolved to have somewhat different reproductive strategies and physical & behavioral traits.  This theory use Darwin‟s theory of evolution as an organizing framework.  The traits of all living things show variation  Traits can be passed from generation to generation (principle of inheritance or heredity).  Natural selection is the ―Filter‖ that determines which traits are passed from generation and to generation. The principle of natural selection Darwin‟s theory proposes that: it is the organism‟s environment that selects which traits are passed from generation to generation. 7  According to Edward O.Wilson(1975,1978), Hominid women were responsible for bearing, nursing, & caring for children, they evolved to be more nurturing.  And because men were responsible for hunting and fighting, they evolved more aggressiveness & better visual-spacial ability.  Generally, evolutionary theory, describes how traits are selected based on their adaptiveness in particular environments. 3. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY  Biological theories entertain the possibility that some differences between men and women may be innate. In contrast, social learning theories argue that the differences are learned.  According to the theorists such as Albert Bandura & Walter Mischel (1999, 1966), the differing behaviors of women and men can best be explained in terms of wellunderstood principle of learning such as: Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Modeling 3.1 Classical conditioning According to Walter Michael (1966), classical conditioning helps explain why ―labels like „sissy‟ „pansy‟ „tough‟ or „sweet‟ acquire different values for the two sexes. The word sissy is usually used to ridicule a boy, and because it is associated with events that trigger shame & disgust, it becomes a very unpleasant labels for most boys. A boy will not want to loathing in him. Boys often are unwilling to engage in ―girlish‖ activities such as playing with dolls, playing house & ―dress up‖.  According to Michael, this may be because boys are conditioned to have horrible feeling about some such activities. 3.2 Operant conditioning 8  This kind of conditioning occurs when voluntarily (consciously controlled & chosen) behaviors are molded by rewards and punishment. Social learning theorists argue that boys and girls are systematically rewarded and punished for different kinds of behaviors throughout their lives. 3.3 Modeling Finally, children learn to behave as boys or girls by observing & imitating the behaviors of others. Children learn to be male or female by imitating same-sex parents, siblings, friends, and media figures. 4. COGNITIVE THEORIES OF GENDER  Social learning theories portray the learning of gender as a rather passive process.  Girls & boys behave as conditioning, rewards and social models dictate. For human being, however, gender is ―In the mind‖ as well as in the environment.  According cognitive theory of gender, becoming male or female is not just a matter of genes, hormones, and social conditioning. It also depends on how we view ourselves.  For example: Children identify their sex by age 2 and 3 & they understand that people come into two varieties, male and female. At the same time, children understand the difference between male and female.  Therefore, they categorize themselves as male or female.  Social learning theory argues for a different sequence: ―I want rewards, I‟m rewarded for doing boy things, and therefore I want to be a boy‖ But it is not rewards that make the boy masculine, according to cognitive theory.  Rather it is identifying oneself as male that make masculine activities rewarding.  Cognitive theory assumes this sequence: „I‟m a boy, therefore I want to do boy things, therefore the opportunity to do boy things….is rewarding. „ 5. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF GENDER  According this theory, the current setting is a major cause of our behavior.  Gender stereotypes & beliefs also have an important role in many social psychological theories of gender. 9  Stereotype is ―pictures‖ that we carry around in our heads about social groups.  And it is probabilistic beliefs that hold about groups of people.  It is oversimplification of reality and it may cause us to overestimate the differences between groups and to underestimate the variability within groups.  Stereotypes may distort our perception.  People hold strong stereotypes about the personality traits & roles possessed by men women.  In most cultures, women & men occupy quite different roles.  For example: women are more responsible for child rearing, foraging and domestic duties.  Men are more responsible for hunting, fishing, and in modern society, producing income.  These roles therefore, determine and people‟s stereotypes about women and men.  Generally, social psychological theories of gender emphasize the power of the social setting to create sex differences and focus on gender stereotypes, their cause and consequence. 6. FUNCTIONALISM  Functionalism is the view that society consist of institutions that serve vital purposes for people.  Functionalist perspective sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity & stability.  Functionalism addresses society as a whole in terms of the function of its constituent elements namely: norm, customs, traditions, and institutions  According to Herbert Spenser, these parts of society as ―organs‖ that work toward the proper functioning of the ―body‖ as whole.  Functionalist perspective of gender inequality was articulated in the 1940s and 1950s and largely developed by Talcot Parsons.  This theory suggests that gender inequalities exist as an efficient way to create a division of labor.  The division of labor (women take care of the home while men provide family) to maximize resources and efficiency. Therefore, according structural functionalist 10 perspective, gender like other social institutions, contributes to maintain social order by providing & ensuring the stability of society as a whole. 7. CONFLICT THEORY  Social conflict is the struggle between two parties for valued resource, power & status.  Conflict theories draw attention to power differences, such as gender, class & race conflict, and contrast historically dominant ideologies.  It is therefore, a macro level analysis of society that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and social change.  Conflict theory look at how ―social patterns‖ can cause some people in society to be dominant, and others to be oppressed.  Conflict theory of gender argued that, gender is best understood as men attempting to maintain power & privilege to the detriment of women.  Conflict b/n the two groups caused things like the women‟s suffrage movement & were responsible for social change.  Thus, men become dominant group and women become subordinate group. 8. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM  Symbolic interaction, also known as interactionism.  This theory emphasis on micro-scale social interaction to provide subjective meaning in human behavior, the social process and pragmatism.  Theory sees society as the product of the everyday intervention of individuals.  People interact in countless settings using symbolic communications.  According to gender interactionists, gender stratification exists because people act toward each other on the basis of the meanings they have for each other, & that meanings are derived from social interaction.  Therefore, masculinity & feminity characteristics & practices are socially constructed, reproduced, reinforced through daily interaction. Thus, gender is the result of human interaction. 9. FEMINISM AND ITS BRANCHES 11  Feminism: is a collection of movements aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights for women.  The theory focuses on how gender inequality shapes social life.  This approach shows how sexuality both reflects patterns of social inequality and helps to perpetuate them.  Feminism, from a social conflict perspective, focuses on gender inequality and links sexuality to the domination of women by men.  Feminism: - is a movement to end sexism, sexist exploitation, and oppression‖  is an awareness of womens oppression and exploitation in society at the place of work and with the family and the conscious action to change  is an awareness of patrician control, Exploitation and oppression of material and ideological levels of womens labor fertility and sexuality  Feminism: - is not a static notion; rather it evolves with us throughout our lives and is shaped by the various lenses Feminist theory is founded on three main principles 1. Women have something valuable to contribute to every aspect of the world. 2. As an oppressed group, women have been unable to achieve their potential, receive rewards, gain full participation 3. Feminist research should do more than critique, but should work toward social transformation  All feminists are concerned with improving women‟s status within society. There are differences like: - Liberal feminism, Radical feminism, Socialist feminism, Marxist feminism, Eco feminism, Condition feminism, and New-wave feminism. Feminist perspectives on sex and gender The Sex/Gender Distinction  Sex denotes human females and males depending on biological features (chromosomes, sex organs, hormones and other physical features ―Gender‖ denotes women and men depending on social factors social role, position, behavior or identity. Biological determinist argued that social, psychological and behavioral traits were caused by metabolic state, Women supposedly conserve energy (being anabolic) and 12  this makes them passive, conservative, sluggish, stable and uninterested in politics, Men expend their surplus energy (being katabolic) Biological determinism, feminists have argued that behavioral and psychological differences have social, rather than biological, causes. Biological determinism of the kind endorsed by Geddes and Thompson is nowadays uncommon; the idea that behavioral and psychological differences between women and men have biological causes has not disappeared. 10. Masculinity  Masculinity and femininity are concepts which signify the social outcomes of being male or female  Male associated with masculinity and female with femininity.  With each construction the biological differences between men and women get translated into social terms and descriptions.  Feminist writers argue that biological differences get heightened through social descriptions of masculinity and femininity.  Masculinity is not valued unless performed by biological male.  The male body is imbued in our culture with certain traits that characterize maleness or masculinity. Gender terminology  Biological differences from social/psychological ones and to talk about the latter, feminists appropriated the term ―gender‖  Psychologists writing on trans-sexuality were the first to employ gender terminology in this sense.  Until the 1960s, ―gender‖ was often used to refer to masculine and feminine words, like le and la in French  The terms ―sex‖ to pick out biological traits and ―gender‖ to pick out the amount of femininity and masculinity a person exhibited. CHAPTER THREE Gender socialization  Gender socialization is a ―process by which individuals develop, improve and learn to ‗do‘ 13  Gender socialization: females become women through a process whereby they acquire feminine traits and learn feminine behavior  Masculinity and femininity are thought to be products of develop or how individuals are brought up  Gender differences to have ―essentially cultural, rather than biological bases‖ that result from differential treatment  It is ―the sum total of the parents, the peers', and the culture's notions of what is fitting to each gender by way of temperament, character, interests, status, worth, gesture, & expression‖  Feminine and masculine gender-norms are problematic in that gendered behavior conveniently fits with and reinforces women's subordination  Socialization is more obvious: dressed in gender conventional clothes and colors (boys are dressed in blue, girls in pink) and parents tend to buy their children gender stereotypical toys Gender as Feminine and Masculine Personality Gender is a matter of having feminine and masculine personalities that develop in early infancy as responses to prevalent parenting practices Gendered personalities develop because women tend to be the primary caretakers of small children Mothers tend to care for infants; infant male and female mental development differs Mother unconsciously discourages the daughter from individuating herself thereby prompting the daughter to develop flexible and blurred ego boundaries Childhood gender socialization further builds on and reinforces these unconsciously developed ego boundaries finally producing feminine and masculine persons Women are stereotypically emotional, men are stereotypically aggressive Feminine and masculine personalities play a crucial role in women's oppression since they make females excessively attentive to the needs of others and males emotionally deficient In order to correct the situation, both male and female parents should be equally involved in parenting Agents of Gender Socialization 14   The main agents of gender socialization include family, the media, school, peer groups, religion, economic systems, legal systems, penal systems, and language  These factors form a child‘s self-concept and gender identity and teach gender roles to children, in the processes of gender socialization Types of socialization & its characteristics 1. Primary form of Socialization  Primary socialization or basic socialization, is essential for harmonious physical and mental development of the child  Primary socialization involves "learning the rules of behavior, norms and values that can be treated at early ages and that is informational and emotional baggage of any person"  Primary socialization is equal to individual humanization, where the socialization is best achieved, the process of transformation of children into true social human beings, by teaching basic values  Primary socialization is a process deeply emotional character, unlike the other forms of socialization, Primary socialization has a strong maternal character associated to some degree with the father‘s influence.  Mother or father educates a child, which has a beneficial role on the child, giving her valuable and varied experience. Family: - is considered to be the first and one of the most important agents of gender socialization, girls and boys take on different identities as feminine and masculine beings  Family is the first agent of socialization; Mothers and fathers, relatives and grandparents, plus extended family, and all teach a child what he or she needs to know  Parents have different behavioral patterns for their girls and boys; they have different behavioral expectations of their children based on children‘s gender.  Parents have different languages, tolerance levels, and behaviors toward girls and boys and teach different values to their children based on their gender roles.  Parents treat their children according to gender labels and lead their children to gender roles, parents have different expectations for their boys and girls in masculine and feminine ways 15   Family is the first and most important institution that teaches children to be in different roles as a woman or a man. 2. Secondary socialization  Secondary refers to the period in which a child begins to interact strongly with other social environments than the family.  Secondary continues throughout the entire life of the individual, with the purposeful creation and strengthening of personality,  Secondary socialization continues, identifying it with "formal education ―, WHICH is the stage immediately following the primary phase  In this stage young (and later the adult) acquires a series of statuses and consequently successive roles, with integration into various group structure  Secondary socialization takes place within educational institutions and professional or formal structures of various groups, amid a climate of progressive emotional neutrality, as the person grow and mature.  The process of socialization is not achieved at once, but gradually, influenced by factors Peer group: - socialization begins in the earliest years, such as when kids on a playground teach younger children the norms about taking turns, the rules of a game, or how to shoot a basket  Peers have strong impacts on forming gender self-concepts and gender stereotypes through interactions, friendships, and norms  Peer groups provide adolescents‘ first major socialization experience outside the realm of their families.  Gender Socialization when children are playing together, it may seem as if they are engaged in aimless, unstructured behavior, but there is something much deeper than that going on, as indicated by functions.  The first function suggests that behaviors are ―tried out‖ on friends, and if they are rewarded, they will continue  The little boy who enjoys having tea parties with his teddy bears and is jeered at or otherwise discouraged from this activity by friends who call it ―sissy‖ behavior will probably stop engaging in this type of play. School: - has a significant role in the process of gender socialization, formal education systems are designed to transfer the values, behavior patterns 16  Teachers contribute to the formation of gender roles and identities when they use different toys and activities for girls and boys  The notion of socialization is very broad; scholars may discuss occupational socialization, religious socialization, political socialization, or socialization to school.  Gender socialization appears to be one of the most basic aspects of this large and complex process.  In part this reflects the fact that children's realization that they are male or female tends to come at a fairly young age. Government: - We do not think about it, many of the rites of passage people go through today are based on age norms established by the government.  To be defined as an ―adult‖ usually means being eighteen years old, the age at which a person becomes legally responsible for him- or herself.  And sixty-five years old is the start of ―old age‖ since most people become eligible for senior benefits at that point.  Each time we embark on one of these new categories—senior, adult, taxpayer—we must be socialized into our new role.  Seniors must learn the ropes of Medicare, Social Security benefits, and senior shopping discounts.  Eighteen, they must register with the Selective Service System within thirty days to be entered into a database for possible military service.  These government dictates mark the points at which we require socialization into a new category. Mass Media: - distribute impersonal information to a wide audience, via television, newspapers, radio, and the Internet.  With the average person spending over four hours a day in front of the television (and children averaging even more screen time)  media greatly influences social norms of the People learn about objects of material culture (like new technology and transportation options),  Non-material culture—what is true (beliefs), what is important (values), and what is expected (norms). 17  CHAPTER FOUR The Concept Society  A society is a grouping of individuals, which is characterized by common interest and may have distinctive culture and institutions.  A "society" may refer to a particular ethnic group, example as the Nuer, to a Nation State, to a broader cultural group  An organized group of people associated together for religious, kind, cultural, scientific, political, patriotic  A society, or a human society, is a group of people involved through persistent relations, sharing the same geography or dominant cultural expectations.  Human societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent members. Historical Survey of Human Society th  The term society emerged in the 15 C and is derived from the French société, a word, in turn, had its origin in the Latin societas, "a friendly association with others," from socius meaning "companion, associate, comrade or business partner."  A society is an interdependent community, the "society" is the actual arrangement of social relations  Society has been used to mean a group of people that form a semi-closed social system, in which most interactions are with other individuals belonging to the group. According to sociologist Richard Jenkins, the term addresses a number of important existential issues facing people: 1. Humans think and exchange information, human experience, so in order to understand the world, conceive of Human interaction, namely society. 2. Phenomena cannot be reduced to individual behavior, in order to explain certain conditions; a view of something "greater than the sum of its parts" is needed. What are the stages of the historical development of society? 18 Thus there is agreement on at least three major stages of societal development, or civilizations: the pre agricultural (hunting and gathering) stage, the agricultural stage, and the industrial stage. Organization of a society  Human societies are often organized according to their primary means of subsistence, as noted as hunter-gatherer societies, nomadic pastoral societies, horticulturalist or simple farming societies, and societies,  Societies may also be organized according to their political structure, in order of increasing size and complexity, the bands, tribes or chiefdoms, and state societies, in varying degrees of political power, depending on the cultural geographical, and historical environments  A society that is unable to offer an effective response to other competing societies will usually be subsumed into the culture of the more successful,  Traditionally, when an individual requires aid, at birth, death, sickness, or disaster, members of that society will rally others to render help  Many societies will distribute largess, at the request of some individual or some larger group of people. Classification of Societies 1. Band  A band society is the simplest form of human society. A band generally consists of a small kinship group, often no larger than an extended family or small clan.  Bands have very informal leadership; the older members of the band generally are looked to for guidance and advice, but there are none of the written laws and law enforcement like that seen in more complex societies.  Band customs are almost always transmitted orally, with formal social institutions are few or non-existent.  Religion is generally based on family tradition, individual experience, or counsel from a shaman.  Bands are distinguished from tribes in that tribes are generally larger, consisting of many families. 2. Clan 19  A clan is a group of people united by kinship and descent, which is defined by perceived descent from a common ancestor.  Even if actual lineage patterns are unknown, clan members nonetheless recognize a founding member or "apical ancestor."  Kinship based bonds can be merely symbolic in nature some clans share a "stipulated" common ancestor, which is a symbol of the clan's unity.  Kinship differs from biological relation, as it also involves adoption, marriage, and fictive genealogical ties.  Clans can be most easily described as sub-groups of tribes and usually constitute groups of seven to ten thousand people. 3. Tribe  A tribe consists of a social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states, though some modern theorists hold that "contemporary" tribes can only be understood in terms of their relationship to states.  Tribes have more social institutions and clearly defined leadership such as a "chief," or "elder―, and Tribes are also more permanent than bands; a band can cease to exist if only a small group walks out.  The term is often loosely used to refer to any non-Western or indigenous society.  The word "tribe" is a social division within a traditional society consisting of a group of interlinked families or communities sharing a common culture and dialect.  The tribe is typically associated with a seat of traditional authority (tribal leader) with whom the representatives of external powers (the governing state or occupying government) interact. 4. Chiefdom  A chiefdom is any community led by an individual known as a chief, in one model of human social development describes  Chiefdom as a form of social organization more complex than a tribe, and less complex than a State.  Chiefdom is an autonomous political unit comprising a number of villages or communities under the permanent control of a paramount chief" 20  Chiefdoms have been shown by anthropologists and archeologists to be a relatively unstable form of social organization.  Although commonly referred to as tribes, the Germanic Peoples were by anthropological definition not tribes, but chiefdoms.  A complex social hierarchy consisting of kings, a warrior Aristocracy, common freemen, serfs, and slaves.  Chiefdoms are characterized by pervasive inequality of peoples and centralization of authority. 5. State  A state is a political association with effective dominion over a geographic area which usually includes the set of institutions that claim the authority to make the rules that govern the people of the society in that territory  A state often depends in part on being recognized by a number of other states as having internal and external sovereignty over it.  The state is identified Max Weber, as that organization that has a "monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory," which may include the armed forces, civil service, or state bureaucracy, courts, and polices.  The modern nation-state is larger and more populous than the city-states of ancient Greece or Medieval Europe which states were governed through face-to-face relationships of people  The nation-state also differs from an empire, which does usually an expansive territory comprise numerous states and many nationalities which is united by political and military power, and a common currency.  The language of an empire is often not the mother tongue of most of its inhabitants.  The modern nation-state is relatively new to human history, emerging after the Renaissance and Reformation. CHAPTER FIVE Concept and components of culture  The term culture is not used with consistent meanings. It is used with various meanings in common-sense. Anthropologists and sociologists define culture in different ways. 21 Some of their definitions have been quoted below:  Edaward Edward Burnett Tylor wrote in 1871 that "culture or civilization, taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.  The etymological analysis of ―culture‖ is quite uncontroversial. But in the field of anthropology, the situation is much more complex.  Definitions of culture abound and range from very complex to very simple. For example, a complex definition was proposed by Kroeber and Parsons (1958): ―transmitted and created content and patterns of values, ideas, and other symbolic- meaningful systems as factors in the shaping of human behavior‖ (p. 583).  A widely accepted and the more comprehensive definition of culture were provided by the British anthropologist Edward B. Tylor. He defined culture as ―a complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society‖.  B. Malinowski has defined culture ―as cumulative creation of man". He regarded culture as the handiwork of man and the medium through which he achieves his ends.  Robert Bierstedt says, ―Culture is the complex whole that consists of everything we think and do and have as members of society.‖ Major Features of Culture 1. Culture is all- encompassing: - Culture encompasses all aspects that affect people in their everyday lives. Culture comprises countless material and non-material aspects of human lives. Thus, when we talk about a particular culture, we are referring to all of its manmade objects, ideas, activities whether traditional, things of the past, or those created lately. Culture is the sum total of human creation: intellectual, technical, artistic, physical, and moral. It is the complex pattern of living that directs human social life (Kottak, 2002; Scupin and DeCorse, 1995). 2. Culture is general and specific: - generally all human societies of the world have culture. It distinguishes them from other nonhuman beings. In particular, there are as specific cultures as there are diverse peoples in the world. Humanity shares a capacity for culture (general), but people live in diverse cultures where they are encultured. 22 3. Culture is socially learned: - Culture is a natural outgrowth of the social interactions that constitute human groups whether in societies or organizations. Whenever and wherever people come together over time, culture develops. The essence of culture is that it is learned, shared, interrelated, and adaptive.  Culture is learned through social interactions. And the learned behavior is communicated in the group through forms of socialization such as observation, instruction, reward, punishment and experience. Three different ways of learning should be noted here:  Individual situation learning: this means an individual animal or person learns something by itself/himself as specific situations lead him.  Social situational learning: this involves learning from other members of a group, through imitation. Even animals can learn this way.  Cultural learning: this is uniquely human. It is possible only through the utilization of intelligence and the ability to communicate through attaching meanings to words, objects or things. This is called symbolic communication. People learn culture directly and through observation and social interaction. 4. Culture is symbolic: - Symbolic thought is unique and crucial to humans and to culture.  Symbolic thought is the human ability to give a thing or event an arbitrary meaning and grasp and appreciate that meaning.  Symbols are the central components of culture. Symbols refer to anything to which people attach meaning and which they use to communicate with others. More specifically, symbols are words, objects, gestures, sounds or images that represent something else rather than themselves. It is the human ability to give a thing or event an arbitrary meaning and grasp and appreciate that meaning. There is no obvious natural or necessary connection between a symbol and what it symbolizes. Culture thus, works in the symbolic domain emphasizing meaning, rather than the technical/practical rational side of human behavior. 5. Culture seizes nature: - Culture imposes itself on nature. It suppresses the natural, biological instincts in us and expresses it in particular ways. For example, we as biological beings feel the desire for food; but what type of food to eat, how many times per day to eat, with whom to eat, how much to eat, how fast or slow to eat, etc, are all determined by the cultural values and norms of a particular group of people. Or, we feel the desire to urinate, 23  but one cannot do that anytime and anywhere unless one is an animal, a child or a mentally sick person. 6. Culture is shared: - It is a possession of individuals as members of a social group. Culture is shared in the sense that people learn by observing, listening, talking and interacting with other people. Culturally distinct ways of thinking, behaving, feeling, and responding become habitual very early in life through sharing. Behavior and ways of thinking or interacting must be shared within a group of people in order to be considered part of culture. Some cultural patterns are shared by nearly all people in some culture; and shared culture gives people common experiences. However, we should note that not all things shared among a group of people are cultural. There are many biological and psychological characteristics that are shared among a group of people. 7. Culture is patterned: - Cultures are not haphazard collection of customs and beliefs, but are integrated and patterned systems. The parts are interrelated. Culture is an integrated whole, that is the parts of culture are interrelated to one another. No one single cultural trait has its meaning outside of its integrated context. 8. Culture is adaptive and maladaptive: - People adapt themselves to the environment using culture. The ability to adapt to any ecological condition unlike other animals makes human beings unique. This ability is attributed to human‘s capacity for creating and using culture. Culture has also maladaptive dimensions. That is, the very cultural creations and achievements of peoples may turn out to threaten their survival. For instance, when we see the contemporary problems of the environment and the negative side effects of rapid growth of science and technology, we see that culture is also maladaptive. 9. Culture is Dynamic: - when culture comes into contact with other cultures, it can change. That is cultural diffusion, the spread of cultural traits from one area to the other. Culture changes not only because of direct or indirect contacts between cultures, but also through innovation and adaptation to new circumstances. Thus, the forces of culture change are not only external, but also internal. In understanding the concept of culture, anthropologists tend to define key terms such as Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism. Ethnocentrism versus Cultural Relativism 24 Ethnocentrism: - All of us often judge the behavior of other people in other groups by the standards of our own culture.  Because of ethnocentrism, we often operate on the premise that our own society‘s ways are the correct, normal, better ways, for acting, thinking, feeling and behaving. We scale and rate all other cultures with reference to our own culture. Ethnocentrism makes us minimize our indebtedness to other people (Zanden, 1990:74).  Anthropologists attempt to avoid ethnocentrism. It is not logically possible and proper to underestimate or overestimate or judge other cultures on the basis of one's cultural standards.  Ethnocentrism can therefore, be understood as an attitude of considering one's cultural ways of life as the best and the center of all other cultures.  It is the tendency to apply one's own cultural values in judging the behavior and beliefs of people raised in other cultures.  It is a cultural universal. People everywhere think that familiar explanations, opinions, and customs are true, correct, proper and moral. They regard different behaviors as strange or savage. Cultural Relativism: - we cannot grasp the behavior of other people if we interpret what they say and do in the light of our values, beliefs, and motives. Instead, we need to examine their behavior as insiders, considering it within the framework of their values, beliefs and motives. This approach is called cultural relativism.  It suspends judgment and views the behavior of people from the perspective of their own culture.  Every society has its own culture, which is more or less unique. Every culture contains its own unique patterns of behavior, which may seem alien to people from other cultural backgrounds. We cannot understand the practices and beliefs separately from the wider culture of which they are part. A culture has to be studied in terms of its own meanings and values.  Cultural relativism describes a situation where there is an attitude of respect for cultural differences rather than condemning other people's culture as uncivilized or backward. Respect for cultural differences involves  appreciating cultural diversity 25   accepting and respecting other cultures  understanding every culture and its elements in terms of its context and logic  Accepting that each body of custom has inherent dignity and meaning as the way of life of the group it serves. Besides, respect for cultural differences encompasses concepts of recognizing what is immoral, ethical, or acceptable in one culture may not be the case in another culture.  Cultural relativism may be regarded as the opposite of ethnocentrism. Anthropologists aim to provide accurate accounts of cultural phenomena. They do not have to approve customs such as infanticide, cannibalism or torture. Anthropologists respect human diversity. Although they are sensitive to objectivity, they respect international standards of justice and morality (Scupin and DeCorse, 1995; Kottak, 2002). 26