Ethical Concepts & Theories Lecture Notes PDF

Ethical Concepts & Theories Topic 2 (Part 1 & 2) Lecture: Wednesday (14 August 2024) 5.30 – 7.30pm at Lecture Theatre 5 Lecture: Thursday (15 August 2024) 4.30 – 6.30pm at Lecture Theatre 5...

Ethical Concepts & Theories Topic 2 (Part 1 & 2) Lecture: Wednesday (14 August 2024) 5.30 – 7.30pm at Lecture Theatre 5 Lecture: Thursday (15 August 2024) 4.30 – 6.30pm at Lecture Theatre 5 1 Outline Part 1 Introduction Branches of ethics Ethical concepts: Value vs Preferences Values & Values of Judgement 2 Introduction Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals with morality and how it shapes behavior. Different branches of the study of ethics look at where our views of morality come from and how they shape our everyday lives. 3 Branches of Ethics (1) Meta-Ethics: This branch investigates the nature of moral judgments and the origins of our ethical principles. It explores questions such as: Are moral values universal or relative? Do they exist independently of human beliefs, or are they constructed by societies? 4 Branches of Ethics (2) Normative Ethics: Normative ethics seeks to establish guidelines or rules for determining what is morally right or wrong. It examines various ethical theories, such as utilitarianism (which focuses on the consequences of actions), deontology (which emphasizes duties and rules), and virtue ethics (which centers on the character and virtues of the individual). 5 Branches of Ethics (3) Applied Ethics: Applied ethics takes ethical principles and applies them to real-world situations, such as medical ethics, business ethics, and environmental ethics. It addresses practical moral issues and dilemmas, helping individuals and societies navigate complex situations where moral values may conflict. 6 Branches of Ethics (4) Descriptive Ethics: This branch is concerned with describing and understanding how people actually behave and what moral beliefs they hold. It looks at the moral standards that prevail in different cultures and societies, often drawing insights from anthropology and sociology. 7 Ethical Concepts 8 VALUES VS PREFERENCES 9 Values Distinguished from Preferences The question of what is good or bad, better or worse, and more or less desirable is a question of someone's merit. It is a question of values and it calls for a value judgment. A value judgment is any judgment that can be expressed in the form "X is good, meritorious, worthy, desirable" or "X is bad, without merit, worthless, undesirable." 10 Values Distinguished from Preferences The first point to consider is the difference between being desirable or worthy in some respect, and simply being desired, liked or preferred by some person or group. This distinction is crucial to later discussion of ethical judgments and standards for engineering practice. 11 Values Distinguished from Preferences Consider the sentences below: (1) "I like fried peppers." (2) "I am unalterably opposed to having cats in the neighborhood." Are those statement preferences or judgements? 12 Values Distinguished from Preferences Those are statements of preference, that is of liking and disliking, rather than judgments about whether something is good or bad in some respect. More specifically, it is a statement about the speaker's feelings, views or attitudes toward the thing in question. Statements of preference are false only if they are not true of the speaker. 13 Values Distinguished from Preferences The strength of one's feelings are not a reliable guide to the gravity of an offense. As people mature they learn to distinguish between their feelings on a subject and their moral judgments. 14 Values Distinguished from Preferences Example: Someone believe that, ethically speaking, shooting a person is much worse than shooting a dog. However, if someone recently shot and killed his dog, and he had never been personally acquainted with any person who was shot to death, that person might have a much stronger emotional reaction when hearing about the shooting of a pet than when hear about the murder of a person. 15 Values Distinguished from Preferences A person may know the origins of her preferences and attitudes and may give causal explanations in terms of psychological factors that have contributed to their development. 16 Values Distinguished from Preferences Example: "When I was a young child, my closest friend was attacked by a cat". We may analyze her preferences to identify more precisely what it is she likes or dislikes: "I can't stand the sound of cats fighting." Such a person may even give you reasons for thinking that what she prefers is desirable or at least desirable for her, such as: "Cats carry disease." "I am extremely allergic to cats." 17 Values Distinguished from Preferences However, we need not give any reasons for a preference. For some matters, such as preferring one flavor of ice cream to another, people usually do not have reasons for their preference. When you state your preference, you are stating your own attitudes or feelings, not giving a reasoned judgment. 18 Values Distinguished from Preferences Given the differences between value judgments and statements of preferences, you may expect that others expect you to back up your judgments and preferences in different ways. 19 Values Distinguished from Preferences If you make a value judgment, others are likely to ask you for the reasons you judge it rational to want (or not to want) whatever is the object of your judgment. If, on the other hand, you merely state your preference, you need give no further reasons for your liking or disliking. You may or may not have reasons underlying your preference. 20 VALUE & VALUE JUDGEMENT 21 Value It refers to the significance, worth, or importance that something holds. It can be understood in various contexts, such as moral, economic, aesthetic, or personal. Value is often determined by the benefits, utility, or meaning that an object, action, or idea provides to an individual or society. 22 Value Values can be: Objective: Based on universal principles or standards that are widely accepted. Subjective: Based on individual preferences, emotions, or personal experiences. 23 Types of Value (1) Intrinsic Value: Refers to the value something has in itself, for its own sake. This value is independent of external factors or outcomes. Example: Happiness or well-being might be considered intrinsically valuable because they are desirable for their own sake. 24 Types of Value (2) Instrumental Value: This type of value is attributed to something because it helps achieve something else that is considered valuable. Example: Money is often seen as instrumentally valuable because it allows individuals to purchase goods or services that contribute to their well-being. 25 Types of Value (3) Extrinsic Value: Similar to instrumental value, extrinsic value depends on external factors. However, it specifically refers to value derived from the relationship with something else. Example: A medal may have extrinsic value as a symbol of achievement or recognition. 26 Types of Value (4) Aesthetic Value: This type of value pertains to the appreciation of beauty or artistic expression. Example: A painting may hold aesthetic value due to its artistic composition and emotional impact. 27 Types of Value (5) Moral Value: Associated with ethical or moral considerations, this type of value is concerned with what is right or wrong. Example: Honesty is often considered a moral value because it aligns with ethical principles. 28 Value Judgments Value judgments are assessments that determine the worth, significance, or importance of something based on a particular set of values or standards. These judgments are subjective and can vary greatly depending on cultural, social, or individual perspectives. 29 Types of Value Judgement (1) Subjective Value Judgement: Based on personal opinions, feelings, or preferences. Example: "This novel is the best book ever written." This is a subjective value judgment influenced by personal taste. 30 Types of Value Judgement (2) Objective Value Judgement: Attempts to assess value based on universal or widely accepted criteria. Example: "This law is just because it aligns with principles of fairness and equality." 31 Types of Value Judgement (3) Moral Value Judgement: Involves evaluating actions or behaviors based on ethical principles. Example: "Lying is wrong because it deceives others and breaks trust." 32 Types of Value Judgement (4) Economic Value Judgement: Pertains to the worth of goods or services in terms of economic value. Example: "This house is overpriced based on current market conditions." 33 Summary of Part 1 Through these branches, ethics provides a comprehensive framework for analyzing how moral values are developed and how they shape our everyday decisions, from personal choices to broader societal policies. By studying ethics, we gain a deeper understanding of the moral foundations that influence human behavior, allowing us to critically evaluate and improve our actions and the impact they have on the world around us. 34 Summary of Part 1 Understanding these concepts can help in analyzing various situations, whether in ethics, economics, or personal decision-making. They are fundamental to how we perceive and interact with the world around us. To be continued more in Part 2 35 Theories of ethics Outline Part 2 Theories of ethics The importance of it The 4 main theories: Deontology, Utilitarianism, Right & Virtue Categories of ethics theory; Consequential ethics & Non-consequential ethics Applications of ethical theories to cyber ethics 37 Theories of Ethics Various theories of ethics provide frameworks to determine what is right and wrong, guiding individuals and societies in making moral decisions. Learning theories of ethics is crucial for several reasons, as it equips individuals with the tools and frameworks necessary to navigate the complex moral landscapes of both personal and professional life. Why do you think theories of ethics is important? 39 The Importance of Theories of Ethics Guiding Moral Decision-Making Promoting Critical Thinking Enhancing Personal and Professional Integrity Facilitating Ethical Leadership Navigating Cultural and Social Differences Moral Development Theories of ethics There are four major ethical theories: Deontology (or duty) Utilitarianism Rights Virtue Each one of these theories looks at our ethical behavior in different ways. Theory of Deontology The theory of deontology states that when we have to make ethical decisions, our first thoughts are on our duties and obligations. According to this theory, what we believe our duties are will drive how we act in different situations. For example, we may make decision based on following the law or based on our loyalty toward friends or family members. Theory of Deontology The biggest issue in the theory of deontology is that there is no standard for what a person’s duties and obligations are. Philosophers who do not agree with this theory believe that everyone’s duties are different, so there is no way to know what drives a person to make a particular decision. Theory of utilitarianism According to the theory of utilitarianism, people choose their actions based on how their decisions will benefit the most people. You make a decision that will be best for everyone involved. There are two sides to this theory: (1) Act utilitarianism says you will make decisions based on helping others (2) Rule utilitarianism says you will act out of fairness. Theory of utilitarianism Those who do not agree with this theory believe that nobody can predict outcomes, so we cannot know what the benefits of our actions will be. Comparing consequences can be hard, so some philosophers say that we cannot truly make utilitarian decisions. Theory of rights The rights theory of ethics says that people make decisions based on the rights that their society agrees to. What the majority of people in that society believes is important will drive decisions. Theory of rights For example, the rights of a citizens towards their Constitution should be factors in our decision-making according to this theory. Rights, such as freedom of speech and freedom of religion, should help us decide how to behave. Theory of rights People who do not agree with this theory believe that a society’s rights are too complicated to figure out. They say it is too hard to tell what most people think is important to the whole society, so it is a messy idea to base decisions on. Societies that do not have written laws make this theory less believable, according to some philosophers. Theory of virtue The ethical theory of virtue states that we can judge a person’s decisions based on his or her character and morality. The way someone lives his or her life can explain any ethical decision according to this theory. For example, a person who lies and cheats to get ahead in life probably makes decisions based on advancing his or her own interests according to the virtue theory. Theory of virtue The biggest issue in this theory is that people can change their moral character, and the theory does not take changes in morality into account. The virtue theory puts people in boxes based on their reputations at one point in time. Categories of ethics theories 51 Categories of ethics theories Those four theories fall into one of two categories: (1) Consequential ethics (2) Non-consequential ethics Consequential ethics Consequential ethics, states that outcomes determine ethical decisions. Therefore, the result of a situation makes that decision acceptable. For example, it’s ethical for you to tell a white lie if it achieves what you need or want it to. Consequential ethics The theory of utilitarianism falls into this category because the benefit of decisions is the biggest factor. The virtue theory can fit into consequential ethics because a person’s reputation can be based on the consequences of his or her decisions. Non-consequential ethics Nonconsequential ethics is the other side of the coin to consequential ethics. It says that people base their decisions not on the result but on the values and beliefs that they hold deeply. Non-consequential ethics In nonconsequential ethics, you will decide on a situation based on what you believe rather than what may happen. For example, you won’t lie in a situation if you believe that honesty is important. Non-consequential ethics The theory of deontology falls under this type of ethics because people make decisions based on their duty to those around them. Likewise, the rights theory belongs in this category because the rights that society holds dear are important over any other factor. Virtue could also fit here because people of high moral character can decide based on their values. Applications of ethical theories to cyber ethics 58 Applications of ethical theories to cyber ethics The application of ethical theories to cyber ethics is crucial in navigating the complex and ever-evolving digital landscape. Cyber ethics involves the study of moral principles and values concerning the responsible use of technology, online behavior, and the ethical implications of digital interactions. Applications of ethical theories to cyber ethics Here are some examples of how ethical theories can be applied to cyber ethics: Utilitarianism: In cyber ethics, utilitarianism can guide decisions regarding data privacy and security. For instance, when a company collects user data, a utilitarian approach would consider the overall happiness and well-being of users by ensuring their data is securely stored and used responsibly to avoid potential harm from data breaches or misuse. Applications of ethical theories to cyber ethics Deontology: Deontological ethics can be applied to issues such as online honesty and trustworthiness. For example, in the context of social media, individuals adhering to deontological principles would prioritize telling the truth and avoiding deception, even if they believe that lying could achieve a desired outcome. Applications of ethical theories to cyber ethics Theory of rights: Theory of rights can be applicable for promoting digital inclusivity. This is to ensure that access to the internet and digital resources is available to all individuals, irrespective of their background, socioeconomic status, or physical location. Bridging the digital divide is essential to guarantee equal access to information and opportunities online. Applications of ethical theories to cyber ethics Theory of Virtue: The theory of virtue emphasizes the cultivation of virtuous character traits. One example of applying this theory is by practicing empathy when interacting with others online. Recognize that there are real people behind the screens, and your words and actions can have emotional consequences. Can you think of other examples of applications of ethical theories to cyber ethics? 64 Summary – Part 2 There 4 main theories of ethics – deontology, utilitarianism, rights and virtue. These four theories are categorized into two; (1) Consequential (2) Non-consequential These theories of ethics are be applied in our everyday life as part of decision making.