Environmental Animal Health Management (EAHM) Policy Brief 2010 PDF

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299675536 What is Environmental Animal Health Management? Technical Report · July 2010 DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3666.7289 CITATIONS READS 2 6,794 14 authors, including: Carolyn Benigno David Bourn Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Regional Office for Asia a… University of Oxford 23 PUBLICATIONS 943 CITATIONS 100 PUBLICATIONS 1,477 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE Sar Chetra Jose Molina Ministry of agriculture, forestry and fisheries of Cambodia 4 PUBLICATIONS 3 CITATIONS 5 PUBLICATIONS 3 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by David Bourn on 05 April 2016. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. GCP/RAS/244/ITA A core component of the Sub-Regional Environmental Animal Health Management Initiative for Enhanced Smallholder Production in South East Asia is the compilation, analysis and dissemination of a broad range of information relevant to stakeholders in animal health and production, from planners and policy makers to producers and consumers. Policy Brief: What is Environmental Animal Health Management ? 30 July 2010 Contents Acronyms........................................................................................................................................................... 1 Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................................ 1 1 Summary and Introduction......................................................................................................................... 2 2 On Farm and Local Community Based Approaches..................................................................................... 3 2. 1 General husbandry practices................................................................................................................. 3 2. 2 Bio-security........................................................................................................................................... 3 2. 3 Feeding - improved pasture and provision of fodder.............................................................................. 3 2. 4 Housing, ventilation and shade............................................................................................................. 5 2. 5 Water supply and drainage................................................................................................................... 5 2. 6 Waste disposal, biogas production and recycling................................................................................... 5 2. 7 Farm layout and separation of production units.................................................................................... 6 3 Extensive "Area-Wide" Approaches............................................................................................................ 7 3. 1 Land use planning and zoning............................................................................................................... 7 3. 2 Control of disease vectors and intermediate hosts................................................................................. 7 3. 3 Control of animal movements............................................................................................................... 9 3. 4 Isolation (quarantine) of suspected disease carriers.............................................................................. 9 3. 5 Data collection, reporting and analysis.................................................................................................. 9 3. 6 Modelling and disease risk mapping.................................................................................................... 12 3. 7 Policy formulation and legislation....................................................................................................... 13 4 Discussion and Conclusions....................................................................................................................... 13 5 References................................................................................................................................................. 14 Figures Figure 1: Variety and Scale of Environmental Animal Health Management Measures......................................... 2 Figure 2: Smallholder Animal Housing in Northern Laos...................................................................................... 4 Figure 3: Biodigester for Cooking, Lighting and Fertilizer..................................................................................... 6 Figure 4: Confirmed Cases of Rabies in Laos: 2002-09......................................................................................... 9 Figure 5: Examples of GPS Device and GIS Data Layers...................................................................................... 10 Figure 6: FMD Outbreaks in Relation to Roads, Cattle, People and Topography in Cambodia........................... 11 Figure 7: Baseline and Predicted Fasciolosis Distributions in the Philippines..................................................... 12 Figure 8: Baseline and Predicted Trypanosomosis Distributions in the Philippines:........................................... 12 Acronyms BAI Bureau of Animal Industry EAHM Environmental Animal Health Management EAHMI Environmental Animal Health Management Initiative FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations IPM Integrated Pest Management NPB National Biodigester Programme OIE World Animal Health Organisation SPC Sub-regional Project Coordinator WHO World Health Organisation Acknowledgements Many people have contributed to developing the concept and practice of environmental animal health management, including: Carolyn Benigno, David Bourn, Davinio Catbagan, Rubina Cresencio, Sar Chetra, Marites Gealone, Percival Gealone, Raffaele Mattiole, Jose Molina, Reildrin Morales, Jan Slingenbergh, Settha Sinthasak, Rafael Umbrero and William Wint. -1- What is Environmental Animal Health Management ? 1 Summary and Introduction Environmental animal health management (EAHM) relates to those aspects of animal health and welfare that are determined by physical, chemical and biological factors, external to the animal in the local farm setting and the broader environmental context of animal production. It also refers to the theory and practice of assessing, correcting, controlling and preventing those factors that may have adverse effects on the health of animal and human populations, and the wider environment1. With increasing demand for livestock products and the complex mosaic of traditional, semi-intensive and highly intensive forms of livestock production that prevail across much of South East Asia, the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations is keen to pursue a broad, holistic approach to disease control and environmental protection. EAHM is being promoted in line with FAO's long-term goal of sustainable agricultural and rural development. EAHM studies seek to assess and understand animal diseases in their environmental and production/farming system context, both in space and time. With relatively minor, progressive changes in animal husbandry practices and modification of the production environment (better nutrition, waste-management, bio-security, vector and intermediate host reduction, movement control, land use zoning), substantial benefits can accrue to animal and human health, and the environment. EAHM seeks to identify cost-effective means of enhanced animal husbandry and disease management, aimed particularly at smallholders with limited access to veterinary services. There are many different forms of EAHM, which can operate at various levels from basic on farm measures and community based activities, to municipal, provincial and national programmes, and international agreements, as indicated in Figure 1. Many of these management activities span a range of intervention levels, and this is where integrated planning, cooperation and coordination are essential for their effective implementation. The various examples presented in this Policy Brief are broadly divided into local on farm/community based and more extensive "area-wide" approaches. Figure 1: Variety and Scale of Environmental Animal Health Management Measures Scale / Range of Potential Impacts Municipality / Province / Management Activity Farm Community District / City Catchment National International General husbandry practices Bio-security Feeding - fodder and feeds Housing, ventilation and shade Water supply and drainage Waste disposal, biogas production and recycling Farm layout and separation of production units Land use planning and zoning Control of disease vectors and intermediate hosts Control of animal movements Isolation (quarantine) of suspect disease carriers Data collection, reporting and analysis Modelling and disease risk mapping Policy formulation and legislation 1 This description is based on the World Health Organisation’s (WHO) definition of environmental health for people, which “addresses all the physical, chemical, and biological factors external to a person, and all the related factors impacting behaviours. It encompasses the assessment and control of those environmental factors that can potentially affect health. It is targeted towards preventing disease and creating health-supportive environments. This definition excludes behaviour not related to environment, as well as behaviour related to the social and cultural environment, and genetics.” (http://www.who.int/topics/environmental_health/en/). -2- What is Environmental Animal Health Management ? EAHM builds on the successes and extensive application of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in which a variety of approaches, including: biological, chemical, genetic and husbandry, are employed in concert, or in sequence, to reduce crop losses to acceptable levels, without excessive expenditure of time or money in the often elusive goal of eradication. This broad, holistic approach to animal health management is consistent with recent inter-agency proposals for coordinated, interdisciplinary responses to address health risks at the diverse interfaces between animals, people and ecosystems in different geographical regions, recently outlined by the Food and Agriculture Organisation, the World Animal Health Organisation and the World Health Organisation (FAO-OIE-WHO, 2010). 2 On Farm and Local Community Based Approaches 2.1 General husbandry practices Various basic measures can be taken by farmers to reduce disease risk to animals, either individually or collectively. Such measures, include: avoiding/minimising the mixing of animals from different farms; fencing of grazing areas and farm boundaries; management and allocation of grazing lands and stocking levels to ensure availability of adequate fodder; avoiding/minimising stress due to: temperature extremes, overcrowding, deprivation of water and food, prolonged journeys. etc., which predispose animals to infection; ensuring access to water and/or provision of water; avoidance of areas and habitats associated with high risk of disease transmission; removal of ticks and other ecto- parasites by hand, dipping or topical application of repellents or insecticides/acaricides; regular washing and cleaning of animals; removal and recycling of waste products; provision of bedding materials; and ensuring adequate shade and ventilation. 2.2 Bio-security In general terms, any measure that reduces the risk of introducing disease agents (pathogens) into, or spreading within a farm, will improve its bio-security2. In particular this relates to the on and off farm movement of animals, people and vehicles. Much, of course, depends on the type and size of farm, and the species kept, but controlling and limiting the number of visitors or stray animals are key safety precautions. Confinement, fencing, gates, farm layout, building design and disinfection are other potential options for improving on farm bio-security. Bio-security is especially important in large-scale, intensive production systems (feedlots, piggeries, poultry and dairy farms), where many animals are kept close together, but the same basic considerations and remedies apply to smallholder production systems (FAO, 2008). Keeping animals away from roads, footpaths and other farms reduces the risk of contact with outside sources; keeping animals in small isolated groups, rather than in a single large group, makes it less likely that the entire holding will become infected. If new animals must be brought in, they should be kept in isolation for a period of observation to confirm that they are healthy. Total bio-security is very difficult and expensive to achieve, and is only justified in very special circumstances, such as high security disease investigation laboratories. For any on farm bio-security measure to be adopted and maintained, it must be appropriate to local circumstances and make sense to the farmer, and its benefits must exceed its costs. 2.3 Feeding - improved pasture and provision of fodder "Pasture" is a general term for grazing land with low lying vegetation cover consisting of various grasses, legumes, forbs and shrubs. Depending on circumstances, the quality of pasture can be improved by: the removal of unpalatable species; planting of more nutritious leguminous species; 2 Defined by FAO as: "implementation of practices that create barriers in order to reduce the risk the introduction and spread of disease agents" (FAO, 2008) Animal Health and Production Paper 165.) -3- What is Environmental Animal Health Management ? drainage; irrigation; and the application of manure or artificial fertilizer. "Fodder" refers to food given to domestic animals, rather than that which they obtain for themselves by grazing and browsing. Most fodder is derived from plants and includes: hay, straw, silage, grains, legumes and pelleted concentrates. A wide range of fodder crops can be grown, including a variety of soil-enriching, leguminous, herbaceous species, including: Alfalfa/Lucerne, groundnuts and Stylosanthes spp.. Various leguminous trees and shrubs can also be used as intercrops, live fencing and/or windbreaks, including: Albizia, Leucina and Acacia spp. The nutritional status of an animal is a key determinant of its overall productivity and ability to resist and overcome infections. Keeping animals well fed, not only increases production, but also reduces the chances and impacts of infection. Improved animal nutrition results in: better physical condition; stronger immune system; enhanced animal health; more efficient rumen digestion; reduced methane production in ruminants; and greater overall productivity. Animal nutrition can be improved in a variety of ways, depending on circumstances. With large and small ruminants in extensive farming systems, forage quality can be enhanced by: planting leguminous pastures and trees for grazing and browsing. Forage crops are also often harvested and stored for subsequent use as fodder, when conditions are less favourable. Dietary supplements, including salts and other micro-nutrients in mineral and/or molasses-urea blocks, can also be provided for improved nutrition and digestive efficiency. Confined, zero grazing, cut and carry, smallholder fattening of both small and large ruminants is becoming more common in Cambodia, Laos and the Philippines. In more intensive smallholder and medium sized operations, animal nutrition is increasingly dependent on the supply of artificial feeds and concentrates, especially for pigs and poultry. Large scale piggeries and poultry farms are almost exclusively dependant on artificial feeds and concentrates, which may be locally produced, or imported from faraway places. Figure 2: Smallholder Animal Housing in Northern Laos Y -4- What is Environmental Animal Health Management ? 2.4 Housing, ventilation and shade Free range animals are prone to accidents and predation, and are subject to high mortality. Full or partial confinement and the provision of housing, feed and water (Figure 2) increases survival and productivity, but require investment in construction and more management. If animals are to be confined, it is essential to ensure adequate and reliable supplies of food and drinking water. Waste management and good drainage are also important to avoid/ minimise contamination of fodder and the accumulation of waste as a potential source of infection and breeding ground for disease vectors. Provision of shade and ventilation are also essential to avoid temperature extremes that are deleterious to animal production and health. 2.5 Water supply and drainage Access to, or the provision of, adequate water supplies is essential to the survival and well being of livestock and poultry: water for drinking; water for washing and cleaning; and water for swimming and wallowing in. Wallowing, especially by buffalo, is a way of staying cool and avoiding biting flies. Swimming and dabbling for plants, insects and snails is a vital part of duck husbandry. Whist water is essential to life, too much of it can cause major problems of flooding, which is widespread, seasonal occurrence in many parts of lowland South-East Asia. Other than ducks and buffalo, livestock and poultry are generally not well adapted to aquatic environments and prefer dry land. Animal housing, feeds and fodder reserves must be kept dry and above flood levels, either by building on stilts, which is common in lowland Cambodia and Laos, and parts of the Philippines, or by locating farms on higher ground, which is not prone to flooding. Slope and drainage are critical factors in farm management and avoidance or mitigation of adverse environmental impacts of animal production. Wherever animals congregate, waste accumulates, unless it is processed and recycled. With the general intensification of animal production associated with economic development, the downstream impacts of farm drainage and waste disposal are issues of increasing environmental concern, especially in densely settled, peri-urban areas, such as Laguna Province, adjacent to Metro Manila in the Philippines. These issues and concerns, which relate to both smallholders and larger scale producers alike, can be addressed at various levels from on farm waste management, through local planning ordinances and designation of animal production areas, to broader environmental legislation (Espaldon et al., 2008). Various methods are available for dealing with animal waste, the simplest of which is to collect it and scatter on nearby fields as an organic fertiliser before planting. More elaborate schemes of waste disposal include: the excavation of pits and construction of bio-digesters to utilise animal waste and produce bio-gas for lighting and heating; and the construction of tiered downstream ponds or lagoons, through which waste water flows slowly and is cleaned by ecological processes. The preferred scale of water resource management and pollution control is to take a catchment or micro-catchment based approach, in which all clean water sources and potential sources of contamination within a particular catchment are identified and regularly monitored, with incentives to reduce pollution and/or penalties for excessive discharges. 2.6 Waste disposal, biogas production and recycling The management of animal and human waste for the generation of biogas for cooking, heating and/or lighting is a potential, Win-Win, farm management option in many areas. The technology has been developed and extensively demonstrated in China, India and many countries in South-East Asia, including Cambodia, Laos and the Philippines. Since 2005, more than 8,000 biodigesters have been installed through the National Biodigester Programme (NPB) in Cambodia (http://www.nbp.org.kh/). The technology is feasible for farms with at least 6 pigs or 3 cows, producing 50+kg of manure a day. -5- What is Environmental Animal Health Management ? Figure 3: Biodigester Outputs for Cooking, Lighting and Fertilizer Bio-digester under Construction Gas for Cooking Gas for Lighting Liquid Bio-fertilizer Source: National Bidigester Programme, Cambodia. For the smallholder, biogas provides clean cooking energy, reduces indoor air pollution and reduces the time needed for traditional biomass (firewood) collection. The slurry is a clean organic fertilizer that can be used to improve soil fertility and agricultural productivity. With regard to animal health, the removal and processing of animal waste in an anoxic environment has major benefits in that disease transmission via dung and bedding material is greatly reduced and potential breeding sites for biting flies and other insects are effectively eliminated. Use of bio-digester slurry to fertilise fishponds also has a major advantage over unprocessed manure in that virtually all of the organic material has been removed, so that dissolved oxygen content of pond water is not depleted and fish survival is not threatened. 2.7 Farm layout and separation of production units Animal production and health can also greatly benefit from strategic planning of farm layout and land use with regard to: fodder and feeds; water supply; drainage; waste management; and minimising the risk of introducing, sustaining and spreading disease. This depends on farm size and location, but most animal farms, whether large or small, can benefit from improved organisation and management that makes the most of local environmental conditions, with the regard to slope, drainage and water supply; risk of flooding; exposure and ventilation; availability of shade; risk of excessive temperatures; isolation of individual production units; location of roads, tracks and footpaths; and control over external access. -6- What is Environmental Animal Health Management ? 3 Extensive "Area-Wide" Approaches 3.1 Land use planning and zoning Just as farm layout can be arranged to improve bio-security and reduce disease risk, so can farm sites be selected or relocated, so that they can be maintained in relative isolation from each other. This "area-wide" approach to bio-security obviously requires cooperation and coordination between farmers and local communities, which can be greatly facilitated by disease control legislation and local planning ordinances to zone and regulate land use, as has recently been proposed for establishing disease free zones in Mindanao, southern Philippines (Morales, pers. com. 2010). More generally, as human populations increase and land becomes more densely settled, urban land values increase more rapidly than in rural areas. Over time, this differential in land prices tends to drive farmers out of urban and peri-urban areas into more rural areas, where land is still available and prices are lower. Farmers, however, do not want to move too far away from their main markets, because transport costs rise with increasing distance, so they tend to congregate within a few hours drive of major urban centres, such as Manila, Phnom Penh and Vientiane. The concept of land use planning and the designation of rural and urban areas, and special zones for housing, commerce, industry, recreation, tourism and environmental protection, is well recognised in most countries, but the extent of coverage and degree of compliance varies greatly, both within and between countries. Local community and municipal ordinances may proscribe the keeping of livestock and poultry in certain areas, or within a specified distance of human settlement, because of health and environmental concerns, but are not always enforced. Nevertheless, land use planning has an important role to play in demarcating land use zones and identifying suitable sites for animal production, with limited access, good water supply and drainage, few people and minimum risk of disease introduction, both at the macro and micro levels. 3.2 Control of disease vectors and intermediate hosts Various measures can be taken by farmers to reduce disease transmission risks, especially when diseases pass through intermediate hosts or vectors, which are themselves limited by environmental constraints and by the availability of suitable habitats. The most obvious management strategy is to avoid such habitats wherever possible. In the case of Liverfluke (Fasciolosis), this means avoiding wetland areas, where the intermediate host, a snail, is found; or, in the case of Surra (Trypanosomosis), avoiding areas of scrub, woodland and riverine vegetation frequented by blood sucking, biting flies, which transmit the disease from one animal to another. Where avoidance is impractical, the time spent in risky areas should be minimised. Traps and/or insecticide impregnated targets may also be used to attract and kill biting flies, and can, depending on circumstances, be highly effective at reducing challenge and the risk of disease transmission. Other disease vectors, such as ticks, can either be removed by hand, or by regular dipping or spraying with acarcides, or by the use of topical repellents. 3.2.1. Fasciola Fasciola, or Fasciolosis, is probably the most widespread and important constraint on ruminant production in South East Asia (Gray et al., 2008). The infection, caused by the parasitic liver fluke Fasciola gigantica, is particularly prevalent in areas where rice is grown using irrigation because rice paddies are ideal homes for a snail, which is the intermediate host for the parasite. When cattle and buffalo dung are used as fertiliser in the rice fields, the parasite can infect the snail, which is an essential stage in its life cycle. Later, the parasite leaves the snail, lives briefly in the water and contaminates the rice plants; when the rice straw is fed to cattle or buffalo the infection cycle is completed. -7- What is Environmental Animal Health Management ? Infected animals are anaemic and, compared to healthy counterparts, are slow-growing and achieve a lower final weight and size. As well as less efficient feed conversion and lower meat and milk production, working capacity is also reduced In countries, such as Cambodia, Laos and the Philippines, where much of the power for land cultivation is provided by cattle and buffalo, loss of draught power is especially significant. Farmers do little to control the problem; the disease is so common and unspectacular that it is either simply accepted or is not recognised at all, and the poor condition of infected animals is considered normal. Recommended measures for the control of Fasciolosis by farmers are:  Prevent animals grazing in rice fields adjacent to a village or cattle pen for up to a month after harvest, to reduce their risk of ingesting the infective agent called "metacercariae";  Feed only the top two-thirds of freshly cut rice stalks, cut 20-30 cm above ground level, to avoid feeding the metacercariae;  Kill metacercariae on the lower third of the rice stalks by exposing them to sunlight for three days before feeding to cattle;  Before using cattle or buffalo dung as fertiliser in rice fields, mix it with duck or chicken manure that has been naturally infected with the poultry fluke;  Treat cattle with triclabenzadole (an anthelmintic medication) about 6 weeks after harvesting the second seasonal rice crop. 3.2.2. Surra Surra (Trypanosoma evansi) is a blood borne, parasitic disease of mammals transmitted by biting flies, which infects livestock in many countries across Africa, Asia and South America (Luckins, 1988; Venturina et al. 2008). Surra in Asia is very much a neglected disease and has not been widely studied. However, numerous studies in Africa (Ford, 1971; and Bourn et al., 2001) have shown that Trypanosomosis can be eliminated from extensive areas by the reduction of wildlife reservoirs of the disease and the transformation of habitats suitable for the biting flies (tsetse - Glossina spp.) that transmit the disease from one animal to another. Although hunting, deforestation and agricultural expansion have greatly reduced the extent and severity of Trypanosomosis in Africa, the disease remains a constraint on livestock production in many areas. Considerable effort and ingenuity have gone into the design and deployment of traps and targets (Kuzoe and Schofield, 2004) and the use of insecticide-treated animals (Vale and Torr, 2004) to control tsetse effectively and reduce disease transmission. The situation in South East Asia is somewhat different in that tsetse are not present and there is no biological cycle of disease transmission. Surra is transferred mechanically from one animal to another by biting flies of the genera Tabanus, Stomoxys and Lyperosia. This means that Surra should be easier to control. In the Philippines, Surra affects domestic mammals (e.g. buffaloes, cattle, dogs, goats, horses, pigs and sheep), with horses being very susceptible and leading to death within weeks, or months. Although goats, pigs and dogs are susceptible to T. evansi infection, they are not usually infected under natural conditions, as they are only rarely bitten by tabanids (Manuel, 1998). 3.2.3. Ebola Reston Virus Ebola Reston Virus (ERV), which can infect monkeys and pigs in the Philippines, is believed to be transmitted by fruit bats. Removal of fruit trees from the vicinity of pig farms and placement of screens to prevent access of bats or other potential avian carriers into piggeries and feed storage areas are likely to the reduce risk of disease transmission. -8- What is Environmental Animal Health Management ? 3.3 Control of animal movements Regulation of animal movements is essential for the control and prevention of infectious diseases, such as Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), and has been particularly important in the final phase of its control and eradication in the Philippines (Morales and Umandal, 2006) in which certified disease- free areas have been expanded progressively northwards from Mindanao to Luzon. Key components of animal movement control in the Philippines are:  Permit system to authorise animal movements from their origin to destination;  Regulations and rules enabling the declaration of FMD disease free status;  Requirements that allow movement of pigs to FMD protected areas;  Ability to hold pigs in quarantine; and  Formal legislation to return pigs to their place of origin, or to destroy them if necessary. Most movements are from production farms to metropolitan markets and slaughterhouses. All pigs, without exception, require a permit to move from their place of origin to their final destination. There is also an embargo on the transport of pigs from the north to the FMD-free southern areas. Permits are issued by registered government officers of the Bureau of Animal Industry(BAI) and some non government veterinarians. Permits are examined at checkpoints by provincial veterinary staff and at slaughterhouses by the National Meat Inspection Service (NMIS). There are no fines for non compliance, but pigs can be sent back to their place of origin. Although some unregulated, illegal movements are the suspected cause of various isolated FMD outbreaks in the past, the permit system has proved to be highly effective in preventing the reintroduction of the disease into certified FMD free areas. 3.4 Isolation (quarantine) of suspected disease carriers Temporary isolation (quarantine) of newly imported animals, potentially capable of carrying diseases from affected areas (within a country, or from another country) is necessary to ensure that they are disease free and that there is no risk of introducing unwanted pathogens. For instance, the 2,000 Murra Buffalo recently imported from Brazil by the Philippines for diary development and breed improvement have had to be quarantined for six months after arrival before they could be distributed to dairy cooperative and breeding ranches, because of concerns that they were potential carriers of Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD). 3.5 Data collection, reporting and analysis Standard methods of animal disease data collection, reporting and analysis are required to provide reliable information for better epidemiological understanding, and as a basis upon which to: develop disease control strategies; assess priorities; target interventions; and monitor progress. Such records should be maintained and archived for future analysis to assess seasonal patterns, inter-annual variation (as shown in Figure 4)and long term changes in geographical distribution. Figure 4: Confirmed Cases of Rabies in Laos: 2002-09 Dry Season Peak Significant Upward Trend = Data Source: EAHMI, Department of Livestock and Fisheries, Laos. -9- What is Environmental Animal Health Management ? A variety of additional datasets are also required for general mapping and analytical purposes, including: the most detailed data available on the distribution of: livestock; poultry; people; poverty, land use; vegetation; elevation; slope; water resources; climate; administrative boundaries; agro- ecological zones; protected areas; river catchments; and road, rail and other trade networks. Remote sensing and information technology provide a range of standard, environmental information and a variety of software tools for: geo-location; data management; error checking; analysis; and mapping; to support decision makers in policy and disease control strategy formulation. Familiarisation with and practical use of: satellite derived, digital elevation data; hand held, Global Positioning System (GPS) devices for accurate geo-location (Figure 5); spreadsheet analysis; database management; and Geographical Information System (GIS) software for mapping and spatial analysis; are essential for better understanding of epidemiology and environmental animal health management. Figure 5: Examples of GPS Device and GIS Data Layers Global Positioning System (GPS) Geographical Information System (GIS) Hand Held Location Device Data Layers One of the many advantages of using GIS software is its ability to display spatial data and overlay different datasets (Figure 5) to see how they relate to each other. Disease outbreak data can, thus, be compared with the distribution of animals, infrastructure, and environmental conditions, as illustrated in Figure 6, which shows the cumulative distribution of FMD outbreaks in Cambodia from 2005-2009 in relation to the distribution of roads, topography, people and cattle. - 10 - Figure 6: FMD Outbreaks in Relation to Roads, Cattle, People and Topography in Cambodia Cumulative FMD Outbreaks: 2005-09 Cattle 2009 People Topography - Elevation above Sea Level Data Source: EAHMI, Department of Animal Production and Health, Cambodia. - 11 - What is Environmental Animal Health Management ? 3.6 Modelling and disease risk mapping Animal diseases are dynamic and often elusive entities, requiring special skills and techniques for detection and diagnosis, which are not always used, or applied and interpreted consistently. Available records are, therefore, often incomplete, patchy and of uncertain provenance. However, uncertainty is inherent to most, if not all, biological and agricultural datasets, and is not necessarily an insurmountable obstacle to further investigation. Mathematical modelling provides an objective means of filling in gaps in animal disease records and predicting the potential distribution of disease occurrence, which adds substantial value to existing information by facilitating: comparison between provinces and regions; formulation of disease control strategies; and targeting and prioritisation interventions, as indicated in the maps of predicted Fasciola and Surra risk in the Philippines, shown in Figure 7 and Figure 8. Figure 7: Baseline and Predicted Fasciolosis Distributions in the Philippines Laboratory Confirmed Cases/Square Kilometre Source: BAI, EAHMI, Philippines (Bourn et al., 2010). Figure 8: Baseline and Predicted Trypanosomosis Distributions in the Philippines: Laboratory Confirmed CATT Positives/Square Kilometre Source: EAHMI (2008a); and Bourn et al. (2010). - 12 - What is Environmental Animal Health Management ? The reliability and credibility of modelling and disease risk maps obviously depends on the quality of underling field data. Follow up field investigations are required at provincial level to test the validity of these predictions by systematic sampling of predicted areas of high and low risk. 3.7 Policy formulation and legislation A policy is a clearly stated principle or rule to guide decision-making within an organisation towards achieving a specific desired outcome. Policies are not laws; they are formulated to provide guidance to decision makers. Legislation is prepared and laws are enacted to achieve policy objectives. Thus, animal production and health legislation is required to: maintain food safety standards; enforce disease control policies; regulate the movement of animals; and minimise adverse environmental impacts. Disease control policy formulation is a complex process and should be based on a sound understanding of epidemiology; objective evidence of disease distribution and frequency of occurrence; relative risk assessment compared with other diseases; environmental implications; and benefit-cost analysis. Policy Briefs, such as this document (EAHMI, 2010a) contribute to the policy formulation process by summarising the current state of knowledge about a specific policy objective or other closely related topic to inform decision making. Other policy briefs produced by the Environmental Animal Health Management Initiative (EAHMI) have focused on: Animal disease distribution modelling and risk mapping in the Philippines (EAHMI, 2008a); Livestock and poultry manure use in aquaculture in the Philippines; (EAHMI, 2008b); Land suitability modelling and mapping for integrated aquaculture and livestock/poultry production in the Philippines (EAHMI, 2008c); and Expert panel recommendations for control of surra (Trypanosoma evansi) (EAHMI, 2008d). More are expected to follow...... 4 Discussion and Conclusions With the rapid pace of economic development and urbanisation in much of South East Asia, demand for animal products has increased rapidly in recent years, and seems set to continue for the foreseeable future. The need for greater national production to supply increasing urban demand is obvious. If that demand is not satisfied by local production, it will be met by imports. As with Integrated Pest Management (IPM) for crops, EAHM seeks to identify and promote cost- effective means of enhanced animal production and disease management, aimed particularly at smallholders, who are the de facto managers of the great majority of livestock and poultry resources in most South East Asian countries. EAHM takes a broad, interdisciplinary, holistic approach to animal production and health, and encompasses a wide range of measures to improve productivity, control diseases, and mitigate adverse environmental impacts. With relatively minor, progressive changes in animal husbandry and farm management, including: better nutrition; bio-security; vector and intermediate host reduction; movement control; waste management; and land use zoning; substantial benefits can accrue to both animal and human health, and the environment. Both horizontal and vertical integration of EAHM are required for effective implementation of local on farm and community based measures, and more extensive "area-wide" approaches. Horizontal integration to facilitate planning, cooperation and coordination at farm and community levels; and vertical integration through agricultural sector planning and policy formulation. GIS and GPS technology provides a variety of very useful tools for the collection, management, display and integration of information for policy formulation, planning, targeting, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. Their use is becoming increasingly widespread in many sectors, but there is a general shortage of reliable field data and analytical skills in the animal production and health sub-sector. Further capacity building is required to strengthen information collection, data management and analytical capacity to interpret findings. - 13 - What is Environmental Animal Health Management ? 5 References Bourn, D., R. Cresencio, M. Gealone, J. Molina, R. Morales and W. Wint (2010). Disease risk modelling and mapping in the Philippines. Poster presentation at the EDEN International Conference on Emerging Vector Born Diseases, Le Corum, Montpellier, France. Bourn, D., R. Reid, D. Rogers, W. Snow and G. R. W. Wint (2001). Environmental change and the autonomous control of tsetse and trypanosomosis in Sub- Saharan Africa - case histories from Ethiopia, The Gambia, Kenya, Nigeria and Zimbabwe. Oxford: Environmental Research Group Oxford Limited. EAHMI (2008a). Animal disease distribution modelling and risk mapping in the Philippines. EAHMI Philippines Policy Brief. Quezon City: Environmental Animal Health Management Initiative: 4. EAHMI (2008b). Livestock and poultry manure use in aquaculture in the Philippines. EAHMI Philippines Policy Brief. Quezon City: Environmental Animal Health Management Initiative: 4. EAHMI (2008c). Land suitability modelling and mapping for integrated aquaculture and livestock/poultry production in the Philippines EAHMI Philippines Policy Brief. Quezon City: Environmental Animal Health Management Initiative: 4. EAHMI (2008d). Expert panel recommendations for control of Surra (Trypanosoma evansi) in the Philippines. EAHMI Philippines Policy Brief. Quezon City: Environmental Animal Health Management Initiative: 4. EAHMI (2010a). What is environmental animal health management ? EAHMI Policy Brief. Phnom Penh, Quezon City and Vientiane: Environmental Animal Health Management Initiative: 10. EAHMI (2010b). Foot and Mouth Disease in Cambodia. EAHMI Cambodia Policy Brief. Phnom Penh: Environmental Animal Health Management Initiative: 10. Espaldon, M. V. O., A. J. Alcantara, C. Valdez, C. Sevilla, M. V. Paraso, A. De la Cruz, S. A. Alaira and M. J. Sobremisana (2008). GIS-aided study of environmental animal health and production in Laguna Province, Philippines: synthesis report. Los Baños: University of the Philippines, School of Environmental Science and Management: 81. FAO (2005). Mid-term evaluation of GCP/PHI/049/AUL: Eradication of foot-and-mouth disease in the Philippines. Manila: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations Mid-term Evaluation Mission. FAO (2008). Bio-security for Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza - issues and options. Animal Production and Health Paper 165. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. FAO-OIE-WHO (2010). Tripartite concept note for sharing responsibilities and coordinating global activities to address health risks at the animal-human-ecosystems interfaces: Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the World Animal Health Organisation (OIE) and the World Health Organisation (WHO). Distributed during the International Ministerial Conference on Animal and Pandemic Influenza held in Hanoi, Vietnam (19-21 April 2010): http://www.fao.org/docrep/012/ak736e/ak736e00.pdf. Ford, J. (1971). The role of the trypanosomiases in African ecology. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Gray, G. D., R. S. Copland and D. B. Copeman, Eds. (2008). Overcoming liver fluke as a constraint to ruminant production in South-East Asia. Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research: Monograph 133. http://aciar.gov.au/publication/MN133. - 14 - What is Environmental Animal Health Management ? Kuzoe, F. A. S. and C. J. Schofield (2004). Strategic review of traps and targets for tsetse and African Trypanosomiasis control. Geneva: World Health Organisation: http://apps.who.int/tdr/publications/tdr-research-publications/strategic-review-traps- targets-tsetse/pdf/tsetse_traps.pdf. Luckins, A. G. (1988). "Trypanosoma evansi in Asia." Parasitology Today 4: 137-142. Manuel, M. F. (1998). "Sporadic outbreaks of Surra in the Philippines and it economic impact." Journal of Protozoological Research 8: 131-138. Morales, R. and A. C. Umandal (2006). Progressive zoning approach in the final phase of FMD control and eradication in the Philippines. International Symposia on Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics (ISVEE) proceedings, ISVEE 11: Proceedings of the 11th Symposium of the International Society for Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics, Theme 6 - Global response & emerging diseases: Foot and Mouth Disease session, Cairns, Australia. Vale, G. A. and S. J. Torr (2004). Development of bait technology to control tsetse. In: I. Maudlin, P. H. Holmes and M. A. Miles, Eds. The Trypanosomiases, 509-523. Wallingford, UK: CABI International. Venturina, V. M., E. C. Molina, C. Y. J. Domingo, E. A. Gonzaga, N. P. Medina, N. B. Salcedo, V. M. Venturina and R. J. Garduque (2008). Collaborative technical review of the current state of knowledge about Surra (Trypanosoma evansi) in the Philippines. Science City of Munos: College of Veterinary Science and Medicine, Central Luzon State University, Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija and College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Southern Mindanao, Kabacan, North Cotabato: 53. Wint, W. (2007). Spatial analysis of animal disease distribution in the Philippines. Step three: Multivariate distribution modelling. Oxford: Environmental Research Group Oxford Limited: 47. - 15 - View publication stats

Environmental Animal Health Management (EAHM) Policy Brief 2010 PDF

Document Details

Tags

Related

Summary

Full Transcript

Upgrade to continue