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CHAPTER 10 Principle of Language Developement  Language is defined as a communication system in which a limited number of signals that can be sounds or letters (or gestures, in the case of sign language used by deaf people) —can be combined according to agreed-upon rules to produce an...

CHAPTER 10 Principle of Language Developement  Language is defined as a communication system in which a limited number of signals that can be sounds or letters (or gestures, in the case of sign language used by deaf people) —can be combined according to agreed-upon rules to produce an infinite number of messages (Sigelman & Rider, 2009).  To master a spoken language such as Filipino, a child must learn basic sounds, how sounds are combined to form a word, how words are combined to form meaningful statements, what words and sentences mean, and how to use language effectively in social interactions. Language development, of course, plays a crucial role in education (Menyuk & Brisk, 2005). It is the principal medium of instruction both through the air and in written form as well as affecting social interaction and development in all areas. How well children acquire language will have a marked effect on their academic performance and their social adjustments.  FIVE BASIC COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE  PHONEMES - are the basic units of sound in any given language (Spilt et al., 2015). These are the sounds we create with the letters of the alphabet. Infants are sensitive to rhythm and intonation of language — the variations in pitch, loudness, and timing used when saying words or sentences, and often considered the “melody” of speech. MORPHEME - is the smallest grammatical unit of speech; it may be a word, like “place” or “an,” or an element of a word like re – and - ed as in “reappeared”.  SYNTAX -is the structure of language — the grammar. It is the arrangement of words into a sentence that make sense in a given language. Syntax also refers to the rules and principles that govern sentence structure in a language, i.e., how words and phrases may be joined.  SEMANTICS OR MEANING OF LANGUAGE. Infants come to understand many words before they can produce them. That is, comprehension (or reception) is ahead of production (or expression) in language development. Ten- month-olds can comprehend, on average, about 50 words.  PRAGMATICS - refers to use or application of language. It is typically viewed as a social aspect of language. Pragmatics is about applying language so that others understand what are you trying to convey. For example, someone who is good at pragmatics may be able to say one thing and covey a completely different message, if needed. THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT The earliest theory about language development assumed that children acquire language through imitation (Menyuk & Brisk, 2005). While research has shown that children who imitate the actions of those around them during their first year of life are generally those who also learn to talk more quickly. There is also evidence that imitation alone cannot explain how children become talkers (Sigelman & Rider, 2009). THE NATIVIST THEORY: NOAM CHOMSKY Noam Chomsky nativist perspective posits that humans have an innate capacity for language, called the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). This device, part of the brain’s structure, allows children to acquire and understand language through exposure to linguistic input. According to Chomsky, infants are born with a universal grammar that helps them grasp syntax across different languages, using innate mechanisms to learn and test language rules.  THE COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY PERSPECTIVE: JEAN PIAGET  Jean Piaget Cognitive Development Theory suggests that language development is closely linked to stages of cognitive development. Unlike the nativist perspective, Piaget does not propose an inborn mechanism but instead argues that language emerges as children achieve cognitive milestones, such as object permanence. Once children can mentally represent symbols, they begin to form words and acquire language. THE BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE: BF SKINNER The behaviorist perspective, as proposed by B.F. Skinner, emphasizes the role of nurture in language development. According to Skinner, language is learned through environmental reinforcements. Infants associate stimuli with specific responses, and positive reinforcement encourages the repetition of certain sounds and behaviors. Through operant conditioning, children imitate speech sounds they hear, and continued positive reinforcement supports their language development. However, this perspective struggles to explain why children create their own words. THE INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE: LEV VYGOTSKY  The interactionist perspective, as proposed by Lev Vygotsky, asserts that language development is primarily influenced by social interaction rather than reinforcement. Vygotsky believed that children acquire language through communication in various social contexts, which helps them learn according to societal and cultural norms. This perspective emphasizes the role of social environments and interaction in language development, incorporating elements from various theories and focusing on how children develop language skills through engaging with their surroundings and understanding communication patterns. STAGES IN SPEECH DEVELOPMENT  PRIMITIVE OR NATURAL STAGE This is characterized by three non-intellectual speech functions: 1. Emotional release 2. Social reactions 3. Substitutes for object and desires. These are words learned by conditioning, by parents and siblings matching the words frequently to objects. NAÏVE PSYCHOLOGY Children discover that words can have a symbolic function, and they display this discovery by frequently asking what things are called.  EGOCENTRIC SPEECH It is when children talk to themselves while playing or working, and Vygotsky saw this as a crucial developmental tool. He believed that this self-talk helps shapes their thinking, as their spoken words influence their thought processes. Vygotsky studied how egocentric speech varies with task difficulty and age.  INGROWTH STAGE Children learn to manipulate language in their heads in the form of soundless speech, thinking by means of logical memory that employs inner signs for solving problems.  The Language Development Chart AGE OF CHILD TYPICAL LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT Vocalization with intonation Responds to his name Responds to human voices without visual 6 months cues by turning his head and eyes Responds appropriately to friendly and angry tones  Uses one or more words with meaning (this may be a fragment word) Understands simple instructions, especially if vocal or physical cues are 12 months given Practices inflection Is aware of the social value of speech  Has vocabulary of approximately 5-20 words Vocabulary made up chiefly of nouns Some echolalia (repeating a word or 18 months phrase over and over) Much jargon with emotional content Is able to follow simple commands  Can name a number of objects common to his surroundings Is able to use at least two prepositions, usually chosen from the following: in, on, 24 months under Combines words into a short sentence- largely noun-verb combination (mean) length of sentences is given as 1.2 words  Approximately 2/3 of what child says should be intelligible Vocabulary of approximately 150-300 words 24 months Rhythm and fluency often poor Volume and pitch voice not yet well- controlled Can use two pronouns correctly: I, me, you, although me and I are often confused  My and mine are beginning to emerge Responds to such commands as “show 24 months me your eyes (nose, mouth, hair)”  Use pronouns I, you, me correctly Is using some plurals and past tenses Knows at least three prepositions, usually in, on, under 36 months Knows chief parts of body and should be able to indicate these if not name Handles three word sentences easily  Has in the neighborhood of 900-1000 words About 90% of what child says should be intelligible 36 months Verbs begin to predominate Understands most simple questions dealing with his environment and activities Relates his experiences so that they can be followed with reason  Able to reason out such question as “what must you do when you are sleepy, hungry, cool, or thirsty?” Should be able to give his sex, name, age 36 months Should not be expected to answer all questions even though he understands what is expected  Knows names of familiar animals Can use at least four prepositions or can demonstrate his understanding of their meaning when given commands 48 months Names common objects in picture books or magazines Knows one or more colors Can repeat 4 digits when they are given slowly  Can usually repeat words of four syllables Demonstrates understanding of over and under Has most vowels and diphthongs and the 48 months consonants p, b, m, w, n well established Often indulges in make-believe Extensive verbalization as he carries out activities  Understands such concepts as longer, larger, when a contrast is presented Readily follows simple commands even though the stimulus objects are not in 48 months sight Much repetition of words, phrases, syllables, and even sounds  Can use many descriptive words spontaneously-both adjectives and adverbs Knows common opposites: big-little, 60 months hard-soft, heavy-light, etc Has number concepts of 4 or more Can count to ten  Speech should be completely intelligible, in spite of articulation problems Should have all vowels and the consonants, m,p,b,h,w,k,g,t,d,n,ng,y 60 months (yellow) Should be able to repeat sentences as long as nine words  Should be able to define common objects in terms of use(hat, shoe, chair) Should all be able to follow three commands given without interruptions 60 months Should know his age  Should have simple time concepts: morning, afternoon, night, day, later, after, while, tomorrow, yesterday, today Should be using fairy long sentences and 60 months should use some compound and some complex sentences Speech on the whole should be grammatically correct  In addition to the above consonants these should be mastered: f, v, sh, zh, th, 1 He should have concepts of 7 Speech should be completely intelligible 6 years and socially useful Should be able to tell one a rather connected story about a picture, seeing relationships between objects and happenings  Should have mastered the consonants s-z, r, voiceless th, ch, wh, and the soft g as in George Should handle opposite analogies easily: 7 years girl-boy, man-woman, flies-swims, blunt- sharp, short-long, sweet-sour, etc Understands such terms as; alike, different, beginning, end, etc  Should be able to tell time to quarter to hour Should be able to do simple reading and to write or print many words 7 years  Can relate rather involved accounts of events, many of which occurred at some time in the past Complex and compound sentences should 8 years be used easily Should be few lapses in grammatical constrictions-tense, pronouns, plurals  All speech sounds, including consonant blends should be established Should be reading with considerable ease and now writing simple compositions 8 years Social amenities should be present in his speech in appropriate situations  Control of rate, pitch and volume are generally well and appropriately established Can carry on conversation at rather adult 8 years level Follows fairly complex directions with little repetition Has well-developed time and number concepts  CHAPTER 11 Emergent Literacy  Before learning how to read and write, children already acquire knowledge and skills that are somehow related to their reading and writing development. (Menyuk & Brisk, 2005), Educators have stressed the importance of book reading to infants. The reading can play an important role in oral and signed language acquisition as well as in the development of literacy. Emergent literacy -refers to the behaviors of very young children which reflected an understanding of reading and writing when children were not yet reading and writing in conventional sense (Rhyner, Haebig, & West, 2009).  Emergent literacy knowledge -refers to while the children learn about reading and writing before they are considered as readers and writers Emergent literacy skills -the ways that children demonstrate knowledge  EMERGENT LITERACY KNOWLEDGE AS A CONTINUUM OF DEVELOPMENT 1. Literacy development begins early in life and long before formal literacy instruction in school. 2. There is an interrelationship between oral language skills and written skills such that the skills develop concurrently and interrelatedly rather than in some sequence. 3. The functions of literacy are as important as the forms of literacy to the child's literacy development in early childhood.  4. Children's active exploration of print within their environment and their social interactions with adults (especially with their parents) within reading and writing contexts provide important opportunities for adults to model literacy behaviors for children to learn. 5. There is variability for typically developing children in the age and sequence of acquisition of emergent literacy knowledge and skills across the continuum of literacy development.  TIMING OF THE EMERGENT LITERACY STAGE - Emergent literacy stage denotes the period of time during which children acquire a variety of emergent literacy knowledge and skills (Rhyner et al., 2009). The emergent literacy stage begins at birth and for normal developing children, it is expected to last until the age 5 before entering school. As children enter school, they are now subjected to the use of formal instruction in reading and writing.  PERSPECTIVE ON THE EMERGENT LITERACY STAGE In categorizing frameworks for Emergent Literacy stage, there are three main perspectives: a developmental perspective, a components perspective, and a child and environmental influences perspective (Rhyner et al., 2009). The earliest frameworks offered more of a developmental perspective wherein the description of changes in children's conceptual understanding about the reading process and/or emergent literacy skills were more general. With increasing knowledge comes a shift in the perspective wherein emphasis was on perspectives identifying component knowledge and skills associated with emergent literacy. DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE These developmental frameworks provide a general approach conceptual knowledge about literacy for hergent literacy skills. The Goodman (1986) Framework This framework describes five areas in which children's knowledge and skills progress in developing the roots of literacy. These areas are: a. Print Awareness in Situational Context Can be observed when the child begins to learn and recognize his/her environment. b. Print Awareness in Discourse Occurs when the child is beginning to be exposed to print in books, magazines, tabloids, and in electronic sources in which the child learns that each symbol that he/she sees in print serve a particular purpose. Child then learns to manipulate media that they are being exposed to like turning the pages of a book from left to right. c. Functions and Forms of Writing Begins when the child writes by scribbling or drawing lines that represent letters d. Oral Language to Talk About Written Language This occurs when the child begins to understand that print has functions and he/she may begin to talk about R. A child may say that books convey stories through the use of word and pictures.  e. Metacognitive and Metalinguistic Awareness about Written Language This is when the child understands literacy terms and uses words to describe what he/she is reading. The McCormick and Mason (1986) Framework The framework devised by McCormick and Mason suggests that there is a hierarchy of knowledge and skills when learning to read that children progress through.  a. Functions of Print Children's understanding of literacy starts as beng context-dependent wherein children may start to read environmental print but are not able to read sarne exact environmental print in other situations. b. Form of Print They now learn about grapheme-phoneme and experiment through the use of their increased reading exposure. c. Coordination of the Form of Print and Function of Print They now have clearer and more efficient ways to decode printed words and also give attention to word meanings. Strommen and Mates (2000) Framework This framework originated from a longitudinal study which aims to determine whether children were similar in their concepts about what readers do and demonstrated a similar sequence in their development of these concepts. 1. Book reading is viewed as a social routine in which the book itself has a minor role. 2. Readers focus on the book. 3. Readers construct a sequenced account. 4. Readers reconstruct a specific amount. They recognize that the content of a story is unique to each book; in reconstructing a story, the words can change or stay the same. 5. Printed text is needed to reconstruct a story, however the relationship between decoding print and reading is not always understood. 6. Readers reconstruct texts by using multiple strategies to interpret the language decoded by print.  The Van Kleeck Framework In this framework, van Kleeck identifies two stages of emergent literacy wherein children acquire knowledge and skills. a. First stage (infancy: 3 to 4 years):During shared book readings, print-meaning relationship can both be observed in the behavior of the adult and the child. Children also learn to rhyme and name letters as well as retell stories upon looking at pictures in books. b. Second stage: During the second stage, they learn how to write letters and match these according to their sounds, create detailed stories, and be able to predict events in stories even if it is orally read to them.  COMPONENTS PERSPECTIVE In contrast to developmental frameworks, the primary focus of the components perspective on the past to developed for characterize the emergent literacy stage in other work the components frameworks attempt to address the questions (1) What do children learn about reading and writing (knowledge) they are readers and writers in the conventional sense? and (2) How do they demonstrate that knowledge (skills)? The Storch and Whitehurst (2002) Framework This framework is based on the perspective that children gain literacy knowledge and skill throughout the stage that influence literacy development later on. Code-related Skills Components A. Conventions of print (directionality of reading) B. Beginning forms of writing (writing one's name) C. Grapheme knowledge (identifying letters of the alphabet) D. Grapheme-phoneme correspondence (knowledge that the letter m makes the /m/sound E. Phonological awareness (knowledge that the word "book" begins with a/b/sound) Oral Language Skills A. Semantic knowledge (work knowledge, expressive and receptive vocabulary) B. Syntactic knowledge (knowledge of word order and grammatical rules) C. Narrative discourse (telling a story) D. Conceptual knowledge (knowledge of the world)  According to this framework, these skills that the child acquires during emergent literacy would later form the foundation of conventional literacy. During preschool and kindergarten, code- related skills and oral-language skills have a strong reciprocal relationship which diminishes and becomes independent of each other. For the first and second grade, code-related skills continue to affect a child's reading development while oral language skills have little to no influence on the child's reading development. In the third and fourth grades, oral language skills have an indirect effect on the child's reading comprehension. The Van Kleeck (1998, 2003) a.) The context processor - Enables children to comprehend and interpret text that is being read to them before they can read. It include world knowledge, syntactic knowledge, narrative development, book conventions, abstract language, and functions of print. b.) The meaning processor - Important to children's ability to apply lexical knowledge to meanings of individual words. It include word awareness and vocabulary development. c.) The orthographic processor - Ability to recognize individual letter units that enable the child to identify individual letters. It include print convention and letter knowledge. d.) The phonological processor - It convert printed letter into sounds and sound sequence. It include syllable segmentation, rhyming, and phoneme segmentation. The McNaughton (1955) Framework This framework suggest that a child's emergent literacy development is structured within initial family experiences built from specific activities, and formed into systems of expertise. a.) Family practices - Are how children are socialize, creating ways of thinking, acting and using language. This results to children being exposed to written language within different context. b.) Activities -Literacy activities can also be observed in reading and writing activities done by the family. c.) Systems for learning and development. -These occur within the family and interact with the activities that provide learning context. d.) Relationship between settings - This influence how child learns and develops different areas of expertise The Wasik and Hendrickson (2004) Framework There are 4 major variables that influence literacy development in young children. a) Parental Characteristics Culture and ethnicity: affect areas such as expectations for education, patterns for language, preference for types of literacy activities and the structures of task. Parental beliefs: these include family's beliefs about the role of the educational system. Socioeconomic status of the family: can affect how much time spent in literacy development of children. b.) Child Characteristics - The child's level of engagement and interaction in literacy related activities, language proficiency, cognitive abilities, developmental achievements, motivation, attention and health conditions that can affect language and literacy development. c.) Home Literacy Environment - This includes book sharing between parents and children. Direct literacy -related activities is where the child engages fall, Indirect literacy -related activities child learning through observation of others as they engage in activities d.) Parent-Child Relationship - Literacy-Interaction between the child and his/her parent nurture the child's emergent literacy skills.  CHAPTER 12 Language Development and It’s Pedagogical Implications  The passage focuses on the variability in children's language development, highlighting that some children acquire multiple languages simultaneously or learn a second language later, while others may face language learning challenges. These differences are influenced by various factors, both personal and external, which can either accelerate or slow down language development. Educators should be aware of these variations and understand that language learning is a gradual process with no sharp distinctions between different groups of children. The Intended Learning Outcome (ILO) emphasizes the importance of parental involvement in fostering emergent literacy among children. For optimal language and literacy development, which is crucial for school success, the passage suggests several interventions, including: 1. Encouraging vocal interaction from an early age to promote turn-taking. 2. Using clearly intoned and repeated utterances to engage active participation. 3. Referring to objects and events while speaking to children to support lexical development. 4. Acknowledging children's references to further enhance language growth. 5. Reading to children to support literacy development. 6. Providing opportunities for drawing and scribbling. 7. Offering additional strategies specifically for bilingual children. These strategies aim to support children’s language and literacy development regardless of their background or language abilities.  When it comes to multilanguage learning, these suggestions were found effective in studies on emergent literacy (Foster et al., 2005): 1. Reassure families that bilingualism is possible, desirable and supports language development. 2. Speak to bilingual children in the same manner as to monolingual children. This will expose the child to other languages in a natural way. 3. Address and include children who speak another language. This helps language development even if they do not initially understand. 4. Use language consistently at the nursery and reassure parents that they should do so in the home. This helps bilingual language development. 5. Suggest to parents that providing a good model of a language will assist children. 6. Help parents make the appropriate language choice for use with their child.  In addressing the needs of learners with disabilities, there are suggestions for interventions to effectively facilitate their progress in language development: 1. Work cooperatively with the aid that accompanies the child. 2. Interact as normally as possible with these children. 3. Be aware of both the techniques that can be used to communicate with these children, and the particular constraints that these children have in processing language information.  There seem to be certain pragmatic developments that are in the process of evolving during the high school years. They are: 1. Having knowledge of the different registers that are required in certain situations. 2. Learning how to take the perspective of others in multiple ways such as listening to others, agreement about turn taking, and sticking to the topic. 3. Varying the topics of conversation from personal to societal to world issues. Below is a list of those pragmatic developments that occur during the high school years. These developments may or may not be evident among students during these years. In conversation 1. Increasing sensitivity to situational variables. 2. Use of variable registers. 3. Better able to take perspective of other. In connected discourse 1. Better organized narrative. 2 Clearer use of anaphora (use of a word referring to or replacing a word used earlier in a sentence) 3. Increasing distinctions in linguistic forms for different genres. Implications of the perspectives for fostering Emergent Literacy Development Development Perspective This perspective aims to target knowledge and skills that are built upon one another in bolitating the child towards conventional literacy. It is important to understand how children acquire emergent literacy knowledge and skills. In order to determine chid’s progress, McCormick and Mason (1980) stressed the importance of giving evaluation to the child’s emergent literacy development. For Strommen and Mates (2000), professionals must 1. Formulate a hypothesis regarding the child’s idea of reading 2. Introduce new skills for and ideas about reading 3. Set goals for reading performance that consider the child’s ideas about reading. Components Perspective In developing a child’s emergent literacy development, specific knowledge and skills must be identified and targeted. Print Meaning This centers on the idea that printed text contain meaning Knowledge and skills related to print meaning are important in the development of reading comprehension. In promoting print meaning, activities such as dialogic and shared book reading are effective. Print Form Decoding abilities of children are dependent on the knowledge and skills of children in terms of print form which can also aid in the skills and knowledge in phonological and orthographic processors as included in the framework of Van Kleeck Child and Environmental Influences Perspective The emphasis in this perspective falls on comprehensive family literacy practices that enable children to achieve conventional literacy. The literacy environment of a child can also have positive effects on the child’s emergent literacy. Combined Perspectives Combining perspectives can offer a more comprehensive approach to intervention compared to solely using one perspective. Embedded-Explicit Approach Basic goals involve development of basic literacy skill linked with reading achievement and positive literacy learning attitude in children and an understanding of the function and intention of literacy via literacy embedded activities. The two goals reflect that of components perspective and child and environmental influences perspective. THANK YOU FOR LISTENING