PSY 103 - Psychology for Freshman - Module 1.1

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY MODULE 1.1: SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT SIGMUND FREUD (1856 - 1939) An Austrian neurologist who was fascinated by...

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY MODULE 1.1: SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT SIGMUND FREUD (1856 - 1939) An Austrian neurologist who was fascinated by patients suffering from “hysteria” and neurosis. HISTORY Hysteria was an ancient diagnosis for disorders, primarily of women with a wide variety of symptoms, STRUCTURALISM including physical symptoms and emotional WILHELM WUNDT (1832 - 1920) disturbances, none of which had an apparent Father of Psychology physical cause. a German scientist who was the first person to be Theorized that many of his patients’ problems arose referred to as a psychologist. His famous book from the unconscious mind. In Freud’s view, the entitled Principles of Physiological Psychology was unconscious mind was a repository of feelings and published in 1873. urges of which we have no awareness. Gaining Viewed psychology as a scientific study of conscious access to the unconscious, then, was crucial to the experience, and he believed that the goal of successful resolution of the patient’s problems. psychology was to identify components of According to Freud, the unconscious mind could be consciousness and how those components combined accessed through dream analysis, by examinations of to result in our conscious experience. the first words that came to people’s minds, and Used introspection (he called it “internal perception”), through seemingly innocent slips of the tongue. a process by which someone examines their own Psychoanalytic theory focuses on the role of a conscious experience as objectively as possible, person’s unconscious, as well as early childhood making the human mind like any other aspect of experiences, and this particular perspective nature that a scientist observed. dominated clinical psychology for several decades This attempt to understand the structure or Freud’s ideas were influential, and you will learn more characteristics of the mind was known as about them when you study lifespan development, structuralism. Wundt established his psychology personality, and therapy. For instance, many laboratory at the University at Leipzig in 1879. In this therapists believe strongly in the unconscious and the laboratory. impact of early childhood experiences on the rest of a person’s life. FUNCTIONALISM The method of psychoanalysis, which involves the WILLIAM JAMES (1842 - 1910) patient talking about their experiences and selves, First American psychologist who espoused a different while not invented by Freud, was certainly perspective on how psychology should operate. popularized by him and is still used today. Key to that theory is the idea that natural selection Freud introduced or developed, such as the leads to organisms that are adapted to their importance of childhood experiences in adult environment, including their behavior. Adaptation motivations, the role of unconscious versus means that a trait of an organism has a function for conscious motivations in driving our behavior, the fact the survival and reproduction of the individual, that motivations can cause conflicts that affect because it has been naturally selected. behavior, the effects of mental representations of Functionalism focuses on how mental activities help ourselves and others in guiding our interactions, and an organism fit into its environment. Functionalism the development of personality over time. has a second, more subtle meaning in that Some current practices in psychotherapy involve functionalists were more interested in the operation of examining unconscious aspects of the self and the whole mind rather than of its individual parts, relationships, often through the relationship between which were the focus of structuralism. the therapist and the client. Freud’s historical Like Wundt, James believed that introspection could significance and contributions to clinical practice merit serve as one means by which someone might study his inclusion in a discussion of the historical mental activities, but James also relied on more movements within psychology. objective measures, including the use of various recording devices, and examinations of concrete products of mental activities and of anatomy and physiology.  A major object of study by behaviorists was learned GESTALT behavior and its interaction with the inborn qualities of MAX WERTHEIMER (1880 - 1943), the organism. Behaviorism commonly used animals KURT KOFFKA (1886 - 1941) & in experiments under the assumption that what was WOLFGANG KÖHLER (1887 - 1967) learned using animal models could, to some degree, Three German psychologists who immigrated to be applied to human behavior. the United States in the early 20th century to escape Behaviorism is largely responsible for establishing Nazi Germany. psychology as a scientific discipline through its Credited for introducing the Gestalt Principle objective methods and especially experimentation. In The word Gestalt roughly translates to “whole”; a addition, it is used in behavioral and cognitive- major emphasis of Gestalt psychology deals with the behavioral therapy. Behavior modification is fact that although a sensory experience can be commonly used in classroom settings. Behaviorism broken down into individual parts, how those parts has also led to research on environmental influences relate to each other as a whole is often what the on human behavior. individual responds to in perception. For example, a song may be made up of individual B.F. SKINNER (1940 - 1990) notes played by different instruments, but the real An American psychologist. Like Watson, Skinner nature of the song is perceived in the combinations of was a behaviorist, and he concentrated on how these notes as they form the melody, rhythm, and behavior was affected by its consequences. harmony. Therefore, Skinner spoke of reinforcement and Gestalt principles are still very influential today. punishment as major factors in driving behavior. Considering the human individual as a whole rather Skinner’s focus on positive and negative than as a sum of individually measured parts became reinforcement of learned behaviors had a lasting an important foundation in humanistic theory late in influence in psychology that has waned somewhat the century. The ideas of Gestalt have continued to since the growth of research in cognitive psychology. influence research on sensation and perception. Despite this, conditioned learning is still used in human behavioral modification. Skinner’s two widely Structuralism, Freud, and the Gestalt read and controversial popular science books about psychologists were all concerned in one way or the value of operant conditioning for creating happier another with describing and understanding inner lives remain as thought-provoking arguments for his experience. But other researchers had concerns that inner experience could be a legitimate subject approach. of scientific inquiry and chose instead to HUMANISM / HUMANISTIC exclusively study behavior, the objectively observable outcome of mental processes. ABRAHAM MASLOW (1908 - 1970) An American psychologist who is best known for BEHAVIORISM proposing a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior. JOHN B. WATSON (1878 - 1958) Maslow asserted that so long as basic needs An influential American psychologist whose most necessary for survival were met (e.g., food, water, famous work occurred during the early 20th century shelter), higher-level needs (e.g., social needs) would at Johns Hopkins University. While Wundt and James begin to motivate behavior. According to Maslow, the were concerned with understanding conscious highest-level needs relate to self-actualization, a experience, Watson thought that the study of process by which we achieve our full potential. consciousness was flawed. Because he believed that Focus on the positive aspects of human nature that objective analysis of the mind was impossible are characteristic of the humanistic perspective is Watson preferred to focus directly on observable evident behavior and try to bring that behavior under control. Humanism is a perspective within psychology that Watson was a major proponent of shifting the focus emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all of psychology from the mind to behavior, and this humans. Two of the most well-known proponents of approach of observing and controlling behavior humanistic psychology are Abraham Maslow and came to be known as behaviorism. Carl Rogers.  Humanistic psychologists rejected, on principle, the revolution (Miller, 2003). By 1967, Ulric Neisser research approach based on reductionist published the first textbook entitled Cognitive experimentation in the tradition of the physical and Psychology, which served as a core text in cognitive biological sciences, because it missed the “whole” psychology courses around the country. human being. Noam Chomsky was very influential in the early Beginning with Maslow and Rogers, there was an days of this movement. Chomsky (1928–), an insistence on a humanistic research program. This American linguist, was dissatisfied with the program has been largely qualitative (not influence that behaviorism had had on psychology. measurement-based), but there exist a number of He believed that psychology’s focus on behavior was quantitative research strains within humanistic short-sighted and that the field had to re-incorporate psychology, including research on happiness, self- mental functioning into its purview if it were to offer concept, meditation, and the outcomes of humanistic any meaningful contributions to understanding psychotherapy. behavior. Furthermore, psychologists began to cooperate with scientists in other fields, like anthropology, linguistics, computer science, and neuroscience, among others. This interdisciplinary approach often was referred to as the cognitive sciences, and the influence and prominence of this particular perspective resonates in modern-day psychology. FEMINIST PSYCHOLOGY The science of psychology has had an impact on human well-being, both positive and negative. The CARL ROGERS (1902 - 1987) dominant influence of Western, white, and male Also an American psychologist who, like Maslow, academics in the early history of psychology meant emphasized the potential for good that exists within that psychology developed with the biases inherent in all people. Rogers used a therapeutic technique those individuals, which often had negative known as client-centered therapy in helping his consequences for members of society who were not clients deal with problematic issues that resulted in white or male. their seeking psychotherapy. Unlike a psychoanalytic Women, members of ethnic minorities in both the approach in which the therapist plays an important United States and other countries, and individuals role in interpreting what conscious behavior reveals with sexual orientations other than heterosexual had about the unconscious mind, client-centered therapy difficulties entering the field of psychology and involves the patient taking a lead role in the therapy therefore influencing its development. They also session. suffered from the attitudes of white, male Rogers believed that a therapist needed to display psychologists, who were not immune to the three features to maximize the effectiveness of this nonscientific attitudes prevalent in the society in particular approach: unconditional positive regard, which they developed and worked. Until the 1960s, genuineness, and empathy. Unconditional positive the science of psychology was largely a “womanless” regard refers to the fact that the therapist accepts psychology meaning that few women were able to their client for who they are, no matter what he or she practice psychology, so they had little influence on might say. Provided these factors, Rogers believed what was studied. In addition, the experimental that people were more than capable of dealing with subjects of psychology were mostly men, which and working through their own issues. resulted from underlying assumptions that gender had no influence on psychology and that women THE COGNITIVE REVOLUTION were not of sufficient interest to study. By the 1950s, new disciplinary perspectives in linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science were emerging, and these areas revived interest in the mind as a focus of scientific inquiry. This particular perspective has come to be known as the cognitive An article by Naomi Weisstein, first published in 1968 (Weisstein, 1993), stimulated a feminist MODULE 1.2: 5 MAJOR revolution in psychology by presenting a critique of PERSPECTIVE/APPROACHED psychology as a science. She also specifically OF PSYCHOLOGY criticized male psychologists for constructing the psychology of women entirely out of their own cultural biases and without careful experimental tests to verify THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH any of their characterizations of women. Crawford & Marecek (1989) identify several feminist The biological approach to psychology focuses on approaches to psychology that can be described as examining our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors feminist psychology. These include re-evaluating and from a strictly biological point of view. In this discovering the contributions of women to the history approach, all thoughts, feelings, and behaviors would of psychology, studying psychological gender have a biological cause differences, and questioning the male bias present This approach is relevant to the study of psychology across the practice of the scientific approach to in three ways: knowledge. 1. Comparative method: different species of animals can be studied and then compared to MULTICULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY each other. This helps us better understand human behavior. Culture has important impacts on individuals and 2. Physiology: the study of how the nervous social psychology, yet the effects of culture on system and hormones work, how the brain psychology are under-studied. There is a risk that functions, how changes in the structure and/or psychological theories and data derived from white, function can affect our behavior. For example, American settings could be assumed to apply to how prescribed drugs to treat depression can individuals and social groups from other cultures, but affect our behavior through their interaction with this is unlikely to be true the nervous system. One weakness in the field of cross-cultural 3. Investigation of inheritance: the study of psychology is that in looking for differences in what we inherit from our parents (through psychological attributes across cultures, there genetics). For example, whether high intelligence remains a need to go beyond simple descriptive is inherited from one generation to the next. statistics.In this sense, it has remained a descriptive science, rather than one seeking to determine cause THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH and effect. The history of multicultural psychology in the United The psychodynamic approach to psychology is most States is a long one. The role of African American well-known for its ties to Sigmund Freud and his psychologists in researching the cultural differences followers. This approach includes all theories in between African American individuals and social psychology that see humans functioning based on psychology is but one example. In 1920, Cecil the interaction of drives and forces within the person, Sumner was the first African American to receive a particularly unconscious and between the different Ph.D. in psychology in the United States. Sumner structures of the personality. established a psychology degree program at Howard Freud developed a collection of theories (most of University, leading to the education of a new which were based on what his patients told him generation of African American psychologists. during therapy) that formed the basis of the Much of the work of early African American psychodynamic approach. psychologists (and a general focus of much work in The psychodynamic approach can be best described the first half of the 20th century in psychology in the in basic assumptions that: United States) was dedicated to testing, and 1. Our behavior and feelings are powerfully intelligence testing in particular (Black et al., 2004). affected by unconscious motives. That emphasis has continued, particularly because of 2. Our behavior and feelings as adults are rooted the importance of testing in determining opportunities in childhood experiences. for children, but other areas of exploration in African- 3. All behavior has a cause, and that cause is American psychology research include learning style, usually an unconscious one. sense of community and belonging, and spiritualism 4. Personality is made of three parts (ID, ego, and super-ego).  This approach puts emphasis on the uniqueness of THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH every person and every situation, suggesting that the The behavioral approach to psychology focuses on other studies can never be fully accurate as there is how one’s environment and external stimuli such a wide range of thoughts, feelings, and human impact a person’s mental states and behaviors that can adapt and change as we do. development. More importantly, it focuses on how these factors specifically “train” us for the behaviors MODULE 1.3: FIELDS/BRANCHES we exhibit later on. OF PSYCHOLOGY People who support this approach to psychology over others may believe that the concept of “free will” is an ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY illusion because all behaviors are learned and based Abnormal psychology looks at psychopathology and on our past experiences. In other words, that we’ve abnormal behavior. It involves the study of people's been conditioned to act the way we act so nothing is emotional, thought, and behavior patterns to ever truly our own choice. identify, understand, and potentially resolve any issues that may be negatively affecting a person's THE COGNITIVE APPROACH life. The cognitive approach to psychology shifts away Mental health professionals in this branch of from conditioned behavior and psychoanalytical psychology assess, diagnose, and treat a wide notions to the study of how our mind works, how variety of psychological disorders, including anxiety we process information, and how we use that and depression. Counselors, clinical psychologists, processed information to drive our behaviors. and psychotherapists often work directly in this field. This approach focuses on: BEHAVIORAL PSYCHOLOGY 1. The meditational processes that occur between Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, the stimulus and our response to the stimulus. is a theory of learning based on the idea that all 2. Human beings are information processors and behaviors are acquired through conditioning. all learning is based on the relationships we form Behavioral strategies such as classical conditioning with various stimuli. and operant conditioning are often utilized to teach or 3. Internal mental behavior can be scientifically modify behaviors. studied using experiments that show us how we For example, A teacher might use a reward system to react to certain stimuli. teach students to behave during class. When The cognitive approach focuses on how our students are good, they receive gold stars, which can brains react to the environment around us and then be turned in for some sort of special privilege. how our cognitive brain has very specific ways of processing certain stimuli which can explain why BIOPSYCHOLOGY we think, feel and behave in certain ways. Biopsychology is a psychological area focused on how the brain, neurons, and nervous system THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. The biopsychology field draws upon many different The humanistic approach to psychology was disciplines, including basic psychology, cognitive considered something of a rebellion against what psychology, experimental psychology, biology, psychologists saw as the limitations of the behaviorist physiology, and neuroscience. and psychodynamic theories of psychology. It’s the Biopsychology is also sometimes referred to as idea that we should approach psychological physiological psychology, behavioral neuroscience, studies uniquely for each individual because we or psychobiology. are all so vastly different. People who work in this type of psychology often This approach focuses on: study how brain injuries and brain diseases impact The idea that we all have free will. human behavior. The idea that people are all basically good and that we have an innate need to make ourselves and the world better. That we are motivated to self-actualize, grow, and thrive. That our experiences are what drive us CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY Clinical psychology is the branch of psychology Cross-cultural psychology is a branch of psychology concerned with the assessment and treatment of that looks at how cultural factors influence human mental illness, abnormal behavior, and behavior. This may involve looking at differences psychiatric disorders. Clinicians often work in between collective and individualist cultures, for private practices, but many also work in community instance. Cross-cultural psychologists might also look centers or at universities and colleges. at how cultures vary in terms of emotion, personality, You can even find clinical psychology professionals in or child development. hospital settings and mental health clinics. In these This type of psychology has continued to grow and organizations, they often work as part of a develop since that time, with increasing numbers of collaborative team that may include physicians, psychologists investigating how behavior differs psychiatrists, and other mental health professionals. among cultures throughout the world. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Cognitive psychology is a psychological area that Developmental psychology focuses on how people focuses on internal mental states. This area has change and grow throughout life. This area of continued to grow since it emerged in the 1960s and psychology seeks to understand and explain how and is centered on the science of how people think, learn, why people change. Developmental psychologists and remember. study physical growth, intellectual development, Professionals who work in this type of psychology emotional changes, social growth, and perceptual typically study cognitive functions such as perception, changes that occur throughout the lifespan. motivation, emotion, language, learning, memory, Some professionals may specialize in infant, child, attention, decision-making, and problem-solving. adolescent, or geriatric development, while others Cognitive psychologists often use an information- might primarily study the effects of developmental processing model to describe how the mind works, delays. This psychology branch covers a huge range suggesting that the brain stores and processes of topics, ranging from prenatal development to information much like a computer. Alzheimer's disease. COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Comparative psychology is the branch of psychology Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with the study of animal behavior. This concerned with schools, teaching psychology, is important because the study of how animals educational issues, and student concerns. behave can lead to a deeper and broader Educational psychologists often study how students understanding of human psychology. learn. They may also work directly with students, This psychology subtype has its roots in the work of parents, teachers, and administrators to improve researchers such as Charles Darwin and George student outcomes. Romanes and has grown into a highly Professionals in this type of psychology sometimes multidisciplinary subject. In addition to psychologists study how different variables influence individual contributing to this field, so do biologists, students. They may also study learning disabilities, anthropologists, ecologists, geneticists, and several giftedness, and the instructional process. others. EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGY Experimental psychology is the psychological area Counseling psychology is one of the largest areas of that utilizes scientific methods to research the psychology. It is centered on treating clients in brain and behavior. Many of these techniques are mental distress who may be experiencing a wide also used in other psychology areas to study variety of psychological symptoms. everything from childhood development to social The Society of Counseling Psychology explains that issues. professionals working in this type of psychology can Experimental psychologists work in a wide variety of improve their clients' interpersonal functioning settings, including colleges, universities, research throughout life. centers, government, and private businesses. They They do this by improving the client's social and utilize the scientific method to study a range of emotional health, as well as addressing concerns human behaviors and psychological phenomena. about health, work, family, marriage, and more.  This type of psychology is often viewed as a distinct Human factors psychology focuses on human error, subfield, but experimental techniques and methods product design, ergonomics, human capability, and are used extensively throughout every branch. Some human-computer interaction. Its goal is to improve of the methods used include experiments, how people interact with products and machines. This correlational studies, case studies, and naturalistic might involve helping to design products intended to observation. minimize injury or creating workplaces that promote greater accuracy and safety. FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY Research in I/O psychology is known as applied Forensic psychology deals with issues related to research because it seeks to solve real-world psychology and the law. Those who work in this problems. These types of psychologists study topics branch apply psychological principles to legal issues. such as worker attitudes, employee behaviors, This may involve studying criminal behavior and organizational processes, and leadership. treatment or working directly in the court system. Forensic psychologists perform a wide variety of PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY duties, including providing testimony in court cases, Personality psychology is the branch of psychology assessing children in suspected child abuse cases, that focuses on the study of thought patterns, preparing children to give testimony, and evaluating feelings, and behaviors that make each individual the mental competence of criminal suspects. unique. Classic theories of personality include In many cases, people working in forensic Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality and psychology aren't necessarily "forensic Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. psychologists." These individuals might be clinical Personality psychologists might look at how different psychologists, school psychologists, neurologists, or factors (such as genetics, parenting, and social counselors who lend their psychological expertise to experiences) influence personality development and provide testimony, analysis, or recommendations in change. They may also be involved in the creation or legal or criminal cases. administration of personality tests. HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY Health psychology (also sometimes called medical School psychology is a type of psychology that psychology or behavioral medicine) focuses on how involves working in schools to help kids deal with biology, psychology, behavior, and social factors academic, emotional, and social issues. School influence health and illness. This area of psychologists also collaborate with teachers, psychology involves the promotion of health across a students, and parents to help create a healthy wide variety of domains, as well as the prevention learning environment. and treatment of disease and illness. Most school psychologists work in elementary and Health psychologists often deal with health-related secondary schools, but others can be found in private issues such as weight management, smoking clinics, hospitals, state agencies, and universities. cessation, stress management, and nutrition. They Some go into private practice and serve as might also research how people cope with illnesses, consultants—especially those with a doctoral degree helping patients learn more effective coping in school psychology. strategies. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Some professionals in this branch of psychology Social psychology seeks to understand and explain assist with the design of disease prevention and social behavior. It looks at diverse topics including public awareness programs, while others work within group behavior, social interactions and perceptions, the government to improve health care policies. leadership, nonverbal communication, and social INDUSTRIAL-ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY influences on decision-making. Industrial-organizational psychology applies Social influences on behavior are a major interest in psychological principles to workplace issues. social psychology, but these types of psychologists This psychological area, often referred to as I/O are also focused on how people perceive and interact psychology, seeks to improve productivity and with others. This branch of psychology also includes efficiency in the workplace while maximizing the well- topics such as conformity, aggression, and prejudice. being of employees. It includes areas such as human factors. SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY PREDICT Sports psychology is the study of how psychology Making predictions about how humans and animals will influences sports, athletic performance, exercise, think and act is the third goal of psychology. By looking at and physical activity. Individuals may work with a past observed behavior (describing and explaining), sports psychologist to improve their focus, develop psychologists aim to predict how that behavior may mental toughness, increase motivation, or reduce appear again in the future, as well as whether others sports-related anxiety. might exhibit the same behavior. Some sports psychologists work with professional athletes such as pro sports players and top Psychologists can use knowledge gleaned from previous Olympians. Others utilize exercise and sports to studies to predict why, when, and how observed enhance the health and well-being of non-athletes behaviors might happen in the future. Psychologists can throughout their lifespan. then foresee a pattern of behavior. By being able to predict patterns of behavior, psychologists can better MODULE 1.4: GOALS OF understand the underlying causes of our actions. Prediction, at least in theory, gives psychologists the PSYCHOLOGY ability to change or control behavior, the last goal of psychology. DESCRIBE We describe things every day with no conscious thought CHANGE / CONTROL or effort, but the describing of psychology has a slightly Psychology aims to change, influence, or control different meaning than the describing we do in our day- behavior to make positive, constructive, meaningful, to-day lives. Accurately describing a problem, an issue, and lasting changes in people’s lives and to influence or a behavior is the first goal of psychology. Descriptions their behavior for the better. This is the final and most help psychologists to distinguish between typical and important goal of psychology. These four goals of atypical behaviors and gain more accurate psychology are not that different from how you would understandings of human and animal behaviors and naturally interact with others. Suppose, for example, that thoughts. A variety of research methods, including case someone did something they weren’t supposed to do, studies, surveys, self-tests, and natural observation allow and this action had a negative impact on their life. You psychologists to pursue this goal. may want to try to help or resolve the issue andthe following questions might naturally run through your EXPLAIN mind: In addition to describing, psychologists seek to be able to “What happened?” (describing) explain behaviors. The goal of explaining is to provide “Why did they do that?” (explaining) answers to questions about why people react to certain “What would happen if they did this?” (predicting) stimuli in certain ways, how various factors impact “What can they do next time to reach a different personalities and mental health, and so on. Psychologists outcome?” (changing) often use experiments, which measure the impacts of variables upon behaviors, to help formulate theories that HOW CAN THE FOUR GOALS OF explain aspects of human and animal behaviors. PSYCHOLOGY HELP YOU? Explaining is the process of trying to figure out why Many psychologists have developed numerous theories something is happening, and this can be done by over the past two centuries to explain various human reflecting on a personal experience that might hold behaviors. Some theories have been debunked or some type of explanation for your habit or behavior. replaced by more recent findings, while others have Asking yourself “why” questions can be helpful in endured and maintained their acceptance by the scientific reaching the goal of explaining. If the habit you wish community. Some theories focus on explaining small to change is biting your nails, for example, you might aspects of human behavior, like Pavlov’s theory of have observed from describing your feelings that your classical conditioning and Bowlby’s attachment theory. work is stressful and keeps you at a desk when you Others set out to describe human behavior in its entirety, would rather engage in more movement. You might like Erickson’s eight stages of human development and then realize an explanation—you could be biting your Freud’s Freudian theory of personality. nails because you are seeking a physical or sensory activity during work. NEUROTRANSMITTERS MODULE 2.5: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM (PART 1) NEURONS Neurons are the nerve cells of the central nervous system that transmit information through electrochemical signals throughout the body. Neurons contain a soma, a cell body from which the axon extends. Axons are nerve fibers that are the longest part of the neuron, which conduct electrical impulses away from the soma. There are dendrites at the end of the neuron, which are branch-like structures that send and receive information from other neurons. A myelin sheath, a fatty insulating layer, forms around the axon, allowing nerve impulses to travel down the axon quickly. There are different types of neurons. Sensory neurons transmit sensory information, motor neurons transmit motor information, and relay neurons allow sensory and motor neurons to communicate.  The communication between neurons is called synapses. Neurons communicate with each other via synaptic clefts, which are gaps between the endings of neurons. During synaptic transmission, chemicals, such as neurotransmitters, are released from the endings of the previous neuron (also known as the presynaptic neuron). These chemicals enter the synaptic cleft to then be transported to receptors on the next neuron (also known as the postsynaptic neuron). Once transported to the next neuron, the chemical messengers continue traveling down neurons to influence many functions, such as behavior and Brain Hemisphere movement. Hemispheric lateralization is the idea that each hemisphere is responsible for different functions. BRAIN PARTS Each of these functions is localized to either the right The brain is composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum, or left side. and brainstem. The left hemisphere is associated with language functions, such as formulating grammar and vocabulary and containing different language centers (Broca’s and Wernicke’s area). The right hemisphere is associated with more visuospatial functions such as visualization, depth perception, and spatial navigation. These left and right functions are the case in most people, especially those who are right-handed. The cerebrum is the largest and most recognizable part of the brain. It consists of grey matter (the cerebral cortex ) and white matter at the center. The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres, the left and right, and contains the lobes of the brain (frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes). The cerebrum produces higher functioning roles such FRONTAL LOBES as thinking, learning, memory, language, emotion, movement, and perception. The frontal lobes are located at the front of the brain, behind the forehead Right brain vs. Left Brain Their main functions are associated with higher The cerebrum is divided into two halves: the right and cognitive functions, including problem-solving, left hemispheres. The left hemisphere controls the decision-making, attention, intelligence, and voluntary right half of the body, and the right hemisphere behaviors. controls the left half. The frontal lobes contain the motor cortex The two hemispheres are connected by a thick band responsible for planning and coordinating of neural fibers known as the corpus callosum, movements. consisting of about 200 million axons. It also contains the prefrontal cortex, which is The corpus callosum allows the two hemispheres to responsible for initiating higher-lever cognitive communicate and allows information being processed functioning, and Broca’s Area, which is essential for on one side of the brain to be shared with the other. language production.  There is a temporal lobe in both the left and right There are four types of MS: hemispheres. The left temporal lobe, which is usually Relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS), the most dominant in people, is associated with Secondary-progressive multiple sclerosis (SPMS), language, learning, memorizing, forming words, and the most common type remembering verbal information. Primary-progressive multiple sclerosis (SPMS) The left lobe also contains a vital language center Progressive-relapsing multiple sclerosis (PRMS) known as Wernicke’s area, which is essential for HOW IS FRONTAL LOBE DAMAGE TREATED? language development. The right temporal lobe is Treatment of frontal lobe damage varies based on the usually associated with learning and memorizing non- cause. Some factors may cause permanent frontal verbal information and determining facial lobe damage, and the treatment mainly involves expressions. rehabilitation therapies to learn new coping WHAT DOES THE TEMPORAL LOBE DO? mechanisms. The treatment plan usually includes a The temporal lobe is involved in: team of several different healthcare professionals. Understanding and remembering what we see Treatment options include: (vision). Physical therapy: To maintain or regain mobility, Understanding speech and language. muscle strength, and flexibility. Understanding and managing emotions. Occupational therapy: To learn new skills and Storing and recalling memories. perform daily tasks and activities more easily. Vocational counseling: To help return to work or WHAT CAUSES TEMPORAL LOBE LESIONS? studies. There are many possible causes of temporal lobe Speech-language therapy: To improve lesions. The most common causes include: communication. A stroke. A stroke usually affects other parts of the Cognitive therapy: To learn skills to help brain but may occur in the temporal lobe. improve memory, planning, and judgment Brain tumors may also affect the temporal lobe of the Psychological therapy: To help improve brain. relationships and manage emotions and mood A serious head injury or a surgical operation to swings remove a brain tumor may may also cause damage Surgery: Surgery may be advised in cases of a to the temporal lobe. trauma or brain tumor involving the frontal lobe Progressive worsening of language can be part of a Medications: Medications may be prescribed in type of dementia called frontotemporal dementia. case of infections or neurodegenerative diseases The temporal lobe can be affected by an infection of such as Parkinson’s the brain (encephalitis), especially encephalitis due to herpes simplex virus. TEMPORAL LOBES Other conditions affecting the brain, such as multiple sclerosis, can also affect the temporal lobes of the brain. WHAT SYMPTOMS DO TEMPORAL LOBE LESIONS CAUSE? A temporal lobe lesion may cause various symptoms which may not be noticed by other people. These symptoms may include forgetfulness, problems with speech and language (especially understanding what is being said by others) and problems with vision. Temporal lobe lesions may also cause fits (seizures). Other symptoms may include problems with hearing, The temporal lobes are located on both sides of the identifying objects, learning new information and brain, near the temples of the head, hence the name being unable to identify emotions in others. Temporal temporal lobes lobe lesions may also cause problems with memory The main functions of these lobes include and cause changes in your personality. understanding, language, memory acquisition, face recognition, object recognition, perception, and auditory information processing.  PARIETAL LOBES The parietal lobe is located at the top of the brain, between the frontal and occipital lobes, and above the temporal lobes The parietal lobe is essential for integrating information from the body’s senses to allow us to build a coherent picture of the world around us. These lobes allow us to perceive our bodies through THALAMUS AND HYPOTHALAMUS somatosensory information (e.g., through touch, The thalamus relays information between the pressure, and temperature). It can also help with cerebral cortex, brain stem, and other cortical visuospatial processing, reading, and number structures. representations (mathematics). Because of its interactive role in relaying sensory and The parietal lobes also contain the somatosensory motor information, the thalamus contributes to many cortex, which receives and processes sensory processes, including attention, perception, timing, information, integrating this into a representational and movement. The hypothalamus modulates a map of the body. range of behavioral and physiological functions. This means it can pinpoint the exact area of the body It controls autonomic functions such as hunger, thirst, where a sensation is felt, as well as perceive the body temperature, and sexual activity. To do this, the weight of objects, shape, and texture. hypothalamus integrates information from different brain parts and responds to various stimuli such as CEREBRAL CORTEX light, odor, and stress. The cerebral cortex is primarily constructed of grey HIPPOCAMPUS matter (neural tissue made up of neurons), with The hippocampus is a curved-shaped structure in the between 14 and 16 billion neurons found here. limbic system associated with learning and memory. The many folds and wrinkles of the cerebral cortex This structure is most strongly associated with the allow a wider surface area for an increased number formation of memories, is an early storage system for of neurons to live there, permitting large amounts of new long-term memories, and plays a role in the information to be processed. transition of these long-term memories to more permanent memories. DEEP STRUCTURES BASAL GANGLIA AMYGDALA The amygdala is a structure deep in the brain that is involved in the processing of emotions and learning. The amygdala is a part of the limbic system, a neural network that mediates emotion and memory. This structure also ties emotional meaning to memories, processes rewards, and helps us make decisions. This structure has also been linked with the fight-or-flight response. LYMBIC SYSTEM The basal ganglia are a group of structures that regulate the coordination of fine motor movements, balance, and posture alongside the cerebellum. These structures are connected to other motor areas and link the thalamus with the motor cortex. The basal ganglia are also involved in cognitive and emotional behaviors, as well as playing a role in reward and addiction. BRAINSTEM MEDULLA OBLONGATA The brainstem is located at the base of the brain. The medulla oblongata is the brain section This area connects the cerebrum and the cerebellum responsible for conscious thought and the regulation to the spinal cord, acting as a relay station for these of involuntary action. It lies on the brain stem edge, in areas. the front of the cerebellum. The brainstem regulates automatic functions such as Your medulla oblongata plays a vital role in regulating sleep cycles, breathing, body temperature, digestion, those involuntary processes. Without this vital section coughing, and sneezing. of your brain, your body and brain wouldn’t be able to communicate with each other. WHAT DOES THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA DO? It’s critical for relaying information between your spinal cord and brain. It also regulates your cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Four of your 12 originate on this region. Your brain and spine communicate through columns of nerve fibers that run through your medulla called spinal tracts. These tracts can be ascending (sending information toward your brain) or descending (carrying information to your spinal cord). Each of your spinal tracts carries a specific type of PONS information. For example, your lateral spinothalamic The pons is located in the brainstem, which is the tract carries information related to pain and area where the brain connects to the spinal cord. The temperature. brainstem includes three pieces—the midbrain, pons, WHAT HAPPENS IF THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA IS and medulla oblongata. Each piece plays a different DAMAGED? role, relaying messages from the brain to the rest of Damage to your medulla oblongata can lead to: the body breathing problems Injury can occur to the pons from trauma or other tongue dysfunction injury to the brainstem. An injury to the pons would vomiting impair the cranial nerve functions associated with this loss of gag, sneeze, or cough reflex part of the brain stem. You could experience damage problems swallowing to facial sensation, eye movement, hearing, taste, loss of muscle control and more. balance problems One example of an injury to the pons is the pontine stroke. This can be caused by a blood uncontrollable hiccups clot or a broken blood vessel that causes loss of sensation in your limbs, torso, or face bleeding in or around the brain. Either way, these CERTAIN DISEASES THAT AFFECT THE MEDULLA strokes cut off the oxygen supply to the affected OBLONGATA? area of the brain, causing damage to the areas PARKINSON’S DISEASE where the clot or bleeding occurred. Other A progressive disease that affects your brain and conditions, such as tumors or demyelinating nervous system. The major symptoms are: disease, can also affect the pons tremors slow movements stiffness in limbs and torso trouble balancing The exact cause of Parkinson’s is still unknown, but many of the symptoms are due to the degradation of neurons that produce a neurotransmitter called dopamine.  MODULE 2.9: DIVISION OF THE BRAIN HINDBRAIN Medulla oblongata - coordinates many basic reflexes and bodily functions Pons and cerebellum - responsible for monitoring and coordinating body movements MIDBRAIN Processes several types of sensory input Controls sophisticated tasks FOREBRAIN Higher functions of conscious thought, planning and emotion Cerebrum Cerebral cortex - outer layer of cerebrum Thalamus and hypothalamus Page 30 HINDBRAIN MIDBRAIN FOREBRAIN  CEREBELLUM MODULE 2.10: BRAIN VS. MIND Cerebellum is situated right under the cerebrum and coordinates muscle movement, maintenance of balance and posture, among others. WHAT IS BRAIN? BRAINSTEM The brain is a critical component in our central nervous Brainstem connects cerebrum and cerebellum with the system located within the skull. It is the nodal point for spinal cord and performs functions such as controlling receiving, organizing and distributing information all body temperature, heart rate, breathing, sleep cycles, across the body. It controls the function of most of the digestion etc. organs in our body. DID YOU KNOW? HOW ARE THE BRAIN AND Human brain, weighing about 3 pounds, is made up of MIND DIFFERENT? 60% fat and generates close to 23 watts of power while the person is awake. It requires a steady blood The brain is the physical organ of the body that is supply, and an individual may lose consciousness present in the skull inside the head of all animals even in a gap of 8-10 seconds. There are 100 billion including in. neurons present in the brain, and the blood vessels This part of the body governs all the activities stretch 100,000 miles in length. performed by an organism like a central processing unit in your computers. It consists of tissues and nerve cells that are very WHAT IS MIND? complex with different sections dedicated to carrying Mind pertains to a complex of faculties that are involved out different specific functions. in remembering, perceiving, evaluating, considering and It is connected to all parts of the body through nerve deciding among others. Even though mind and brain are cells and neurons that transfer the external stimuli felt used interchangeably in common phrasing, these two by the body through electrical signals. These mean two distinct things. electrical signals are in turn transferred by the chemicals present at the end of each nerve cell and Our mind is categorized into three distinct levels – their reactions with each other. 5 The brain is a conscious, subconscious, and unconscious. tangible organ that commands the muscle tissues in our body to contract and expand for movement. CONSCIOUS It is the first level of our consciousness and refers to The brain is also responsible for experiencing different immediate experiences. It deals with the input from our feelings and depositing these feelings as memories in senses, analysis of information, and undertaking their designated sections and forming fine fibers as decisions based on collated information. studied in Neurology. But against all this, there is another SUBCONSCIOUS intricate activity carried out by the brain for the Subconsciousness is the next state that holds information processing of feelings and memories that we gain as we which is beneath our immediate awareness. Such live. This is termed as an experience in general terms. All information may be archived as memories which do not these experiences collectively develop into a definite readily come to the fore. identity of a person and are termed the mind. It is not tangible like the brain but creates the thought process UNCONSCIOUS and perception ability of a person. Unconsciousness is much deeper than our conscious awareness and is made up of primitive and instinctual The brain can be divided into three main parts – desires. It influences our behavior to a large extent, even cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem. though we may not be categorically aware of it. CEREBRUM Cerebrum comprises the right and left hemisphere, and it is the largest part of the brain. It performs functions like interpretation of hearing, vision and touches as well as controlling learning and emotion, among others.