FIRST YEAR QUALIFYING_FINAL PDF

THE SUPEREXTREMEMEGALARGE QUALIFYING EXAM REVIEWER OF A CERTAIN SUNFLOWER FIRST YEAR – SY-2324  KASAYSAYAN Midterms Reviewer – Based on Isaiah’s SALAYSAY siy...

THE SUPEREXTREMEMEGALARGE QUALIFYING EXAM REVIEWER OF A CERTAIN SUNFLOWER FIRST YEAR – SY-2324  KASAYSAYAN Midterms Reviewer – Based on Isaiah’s SALAYSAY siyentipikong metodolohiya sa pananaliksik/pag- - nakalipas na pangyayaring may saysay aaral sa nakaraan batay sa mga dokumento SAYSAY ANG KASAYSAYAN BILANG ISANG AGHAM - salitang-ugat nito kaya binibigyan-diin ang PANLIPUNAN elemento ng pagiging makabuluhan at pagsasalaysay -isang sistematikong pag-aaral ng nakaraan, gumagamit ng siyentipikong metodolohiya sa pananaliksik katuwang ang iba pang agham PAANO NAIIBA ANG KASAYSAYAN SA panlipunan (Agham Pampulitika, Ekonomiks, HISTORY? Antropolohiya, Sosyolohiya, Sikolohiya, - ang pagiging likas nito sa kultura at kamalayang Heograpiya, Arkeolohiya, Paleontolohiya, atb.) Pilipino sapagkat mayroon nang salitang “kasaysayan” sa bokabularyo ng mga sinaunang Mga Batayang Konseptong Gumagabay sa mga Pilipino. Mag-aaral ng Kasaysayan: HISTORY - nagmula sa Kanluraning karanasan at diskurso. 1. Pagpapatibay ng kabuluhang pangkasaysayan - nanggaling sa tradisyon ng mga Griyego at - ituring na may kabuluhang pangkasaysayan dinala sa Pilipinas ng mga Espanyol noong dantaon 16. 2. Primaryang Batis/Sanggunian (PRIMARY SOURCE) KASAYSAYAN - ang pagkakaroon ng “saysay” o pagiging 2.1 Primarya makabuluhan ng nakaraan, nakatuon naman ang - nagbibigay ng direktang ebidensya tungkol sa “history” sa “story” o sa pagsalaysay na walang isang kaganapan, lugar, tao, o bagay. partikular na diin sa kolektibong kabuluhan - Hal: mga sulat, talambuhay, ulat, at panayam. 2.2 Sekondarya Etimology: Kasaysayan VS History - mga ebidensyang walang direktang ugnayan Ka-saysay-an sa kaganapan, lugar, tao, o bagay na inaaral. Ka (unlapi – may ugnayan, koneksyon) - Mga Teksbuk at mga artikulo sa dyornal at An (hulapi – maramihan, kolektibo) paglalarawan, pagsusuri, o pagbubuod na lamang ito ng mga primayang sanggunian. Salaysay – (kuwento, naratibo) Saysay – (kabuluhan) 3. Pagbabago at Pagpapatuloy (Change and Continuity) History (English) - Isang likas na proseso sa buhay ng tao ang - Pagsisiyasat, impormaysion mula sa pagbabago pananaliksik - mga kaganapang nagdulot ng malaki o malawak Historia – (Latin) na pagbabago sa buhay ng tao o sa mas Ιστορία – (Greek) malawak na lipunan. HISTORY (TRADITIONAL) 4. SANHI AT EPEKTO (CAUSE AND EFFECT) - nakabatay sa mga dokumentong nakasulat. - mapapansin natin na ang mga kaganapan ay - No Document = No History hindi hiwalay sa isa’t isa; bagkus, mahigpit ang ugnayan ng mga ito sa bawat isa. KASAYSAYAN - Tinatawag ding Bagong Kasaysayan 5. PANANAW PANGKASAYSAYAN - Nakabatay sa mga Alamat, Epiko o Guman - Involves Perspective (Pasalita) Tarsila - kinakailangang may kakayahan din siyang intindihan ang gawi at pag-iisip ng mga taong - Historia (Kronika) Na Dala ng mga Espanyol nabuhay sa nakaraan. - Dala ng mga Amerikano (Positibismo) o mga - Ginagawa ito sa pamamagitan ng pagtingin sa mga kaisipan o paniniwala na gumabay sa mga PAMBANSANG MUSEO SA MAYNILA desisyon o aksyon na ginawa ng mga tao sa mga (NATIONAL MUSEUM) nakalipas na panahon. - ay tahanan ng mga bagay na natagpuan ng mga historyador, archeologists, at iba pang mga 6. ETIKAL NA ASPEKTO mananaliksik at nag-aaral ng tungkol sa Pilipinas. - Hindi maiwasan na matuklasan natin ang ilang mga isyu na kontrobersyal o mahirap tanggapin. 3. MGA SINUPAN O ARCHIVES - Halimbawa: ang pang-aabuso ng rehimeng - matatagpuan ang mga nakasulat na tala, o mga Marcos sa karapatang pantao ng mga Pilipino dokumento ng nakalipas na panahon na noong panahon ng Batas Militar. maaaring magamit ng mga mananaliksik para gumawa ng isang kasaysayang magpapaliwanag PRIMARYA AT SEKONDARYANG BATIS NG ng mga pangyayari noong nasulat ang mga KASAYSAYAN nasabing dokumento. BATIS (SOURCES) 4. MGA LUMANG GUSALI, BAHAY AT MGA - tawag sa mga pangunahing pinagkunan ng mga GUHO kasaysayan. - Isa pang maaaring pagkunan ng kasaysayan, - Maaaring ang mga ito ay nakasulat o di ay ang mga lumang gusali, bahay (ancestral nakasulat, mga artifacts o labi na kayang homes), at mga guho. magbigay ng mga paliwanag sa mga kaganapan noong panahong ang mga ito ay gamit ng mga KRITISISMONG PANGKASAYSAYAN taong nabubuhay. ANG KRITIKANG PANLABAS O KRITIKA NG 2 URI NG BATIS KAPANTASAN a. Primaryang Batis (PB) 1. KRITIKANG PANLABAS b. Sekundaryang Batis (SB) - kailangan upang makilala ang dokumentong huwad at ang dokumentong tunay. A. PRIMARYANG BATIS - mga bagay na kayang makapagbigay ng direkta 1.1 Restitusyon at unang ebidensya tungkol sa isang pangyayari, - Ito ang pagwawasto ng nakasulat sa dokumento isang bagay, isang tao o grupo ng mga tao, o upang maibalik ito sa orihinal. isang obra maestra ng isang pintor. -Dito ay hahanapin ang mga pagkakamali hinggil Halimbawa: Relics at Artifacts, Mga sa pangkalahatang kaisipan ng may-akda upang Dokumentong pangkasaysayan, Diaries, Legal mapalitaw ang mga isinisingit na lang sa orihinal Papers na kasulatan, at ang pagwawasto ng mga teknikal na pagkakamali at mga nawawalang B. SEKUNDARYANG BATIS kataga o mga kataga. - Mga Testimonya ng sinuman na hindi partisipante o saksi (eyewitness) sa pangyayari 1.2 Pagtatakda – PETSA, LUGAR AT MAY- na kanyang kinukuwento o pinag-aaralan. AKDA HALIMBAWA: mga artikulo mula sa mga - Sa mga bagong dokumentong nakasulat, pahayagan, dyornal, book reviews, mga aklat madali nang alamin ang mga bagay na ito at madaling mapatunayan kung ang nakalagay na MGA IBA PANG MAAARING PAGMULAN NG petsa, lugar, at may-akda ay tunay MGA BATIS NG KASAYSAYAN -Kung ang dokumento halimbawa ay luma na at 1. INTERNET hindi nakalagay ang petsa, kailangang pasukin -madali nang makuha sa pamamagitan lamang mismo ang nilalaman nito at paghango ng ng paggamit ng computer, laptop, tablet o nasasaad sa dokumento na maaaring cellphone. makatulong sa pagtakda ng petsa. 2. MUSEO 1.3 Paguuri ng mga Batis - mayaman sa mga batis ng kasaysayang - Ito ang pagtatakda kung paano nalaman ng makakapagbigay ng sari-saring salaysay ng mga may-akda ang mga kaganapang isinulat niya. pangyayari sa ating nakalipas - Kung ang nag-uulat ay tuwirang saksi sa pangyayaring iniulat niya ay maaaring gamitin ang ulat niya. Isang bansa Isang tao (talambuhay) 2. Ang Kritikang Panloob o Kritika ng b. Ayon sa panloob na kalagayan: Kapaniwalaan Sining - ay ang pagsusuri ng nilalaman ng dokumento at Relihiyon ang pagsusuri ng mga kalagayan na nagpalitaw Panitikan ng ganitong uri ng dokumento. 2.1 UNANG HAKBANG c. Ayon sa isang grupong taglay ang iisang - ay ang pagsuri ng nilalaman ng dokumento at katangian: ang mapanuring pagbibigay ng kahulugan Alamin kung sino-sino ang kasapi rito (“interpretative criticism”) sa ibig sabihin ng may- Kung ano ang pinaniniwalaan nilang lahat akda. Kung saan sila nagkakaisa at kung saang - Dapat ditong itakda ang tiyak na kahulugan ng gawain nagkakaiba-iba kataga at ang tunay na kahulugan ng kataga. d. Ayon sa panahon: HERMENEUTIC Maitatakda ang simula o katapusan ng panahon - ay ang pagkilala at pagtiyak ng mga nakatagong kapag malaman kung ano kahulugan sa mga dokumento. ang naganap na nakapagbuo o nag-iba ng - Kapag natagpuan na ng historyador ang tunay kaugalian ng tao na kahulugan ng dokumento, ang unang bahagi ng pagsusuri ay tapos na. Alam na niya ang takbo 3. PAGGAMIT NG PANGANGATUWIRAN ng pag-iisip ng may-akda, na makatutulong sa - hindi naman mapapasakamay ng historyador pag-unawa ng mga ideya niya. ang lahat ng dokumento at hindi rin nakasulat ang lahat ng kaganapan, magkakaroon ng mga Pagtakda ng katiyakan ng pag-uulat ng may-akda puwang ang kaniyang nalalaman ukol sa - na kinakailangan ang pagsusuri ng paligid ng nakaraan. may-akda. Ang halaga ng kaniyang ulat ay nakasalalay sa mga kalagayan nang ito ay a. Ang Negatibong Pangangatuwiran isinulat niya. - Ito ay pangangatuwiran mula sa kawalan ng katibayan. Kapag ang isang pangyayari ay hindi nabanggit sa alin mang dokumento, maaaring Ang mga Itinatanong sa Kritikang Panloob. ipalagay na hindi ito naganap. Hinango mula sa google. - ay kinakailangan upang matuklasan kung ano at B. Ang Positibong Pangangatuwiran alin ang nasa dokumento ang maaaring gamitin - Ito ay nagsisimula sa isang kaganapang ng historyador. napatunayan ng dokumento at hahanguin - Subalit hindi sa lahat ng dokumento ay ngayon ang iba pang katotohanan na hindi matutuklasan ang may-akda. binabanggit ng dokumento. 1. PAGHAHAMBING SA KASALUKUYAN 4. Ang Paglalahad ng Pangkalahatang Pormula - Ihambing ang mga kaganapang - Ang huling hakbang sa prosesong ito ay ang pangkasaysayan sa mga kasalukuyang pagbuo ng isang pangkalahatang pormula at pangyayari. ikakabit dito ang mga kaganapan. Mga Kontrobersiya at iba't-ibang pananaw sa 2. PAG-UURI NG KAGANAPAN kasaysayan - Uriin ang mga kaganapan at isaayos ito ayon sa isang pangkalahatang simulain JANUARY 20 1872 - Naganap ang “Mutin De Cavite” - Dahilan ng Pagbitay ng GOMBURZA (Mga Paring Martir) na Iginimbal ng Bayan Mga apat na pag-uuri na maaaring gamitin: FRANCISO LA MADRID a. Ayon sa panlabas na kalagayan: - Isinalakay ang 4th San Felipe sa Cavite gamit Isang panahon ang Ilang Sundalo ng Espanyol dahil Ito ay ang pagtanggal ng Privilege ng nagtatrabaho sa pag - ay nagpapahayag ng sinaunang paniniwala ng alsa ng cavite sa hindi pagbabayad ng buwis mga Pilipino sa kabilang buhay. Inilalarawan nito ang paniniwala ng paglakbay ng mga kaluluwa sa Bangang Manunggul at Ang Kosmolohiya ng tubig sakay sa isang bangka tungo sa kabilang mga Sinaunang Pilipino buhay. Bangang Manunggul DISKURSO SA FILIPINO Midterms Reviewer – Based on Isaiah’s DISKURSO loob ng pangungusap kasama ang iba - Speech pang tuntunin gaya ng paggamit ng -To “Discourse” o “Diskors” (Latin) na wastong gramatika upang higit na nagpapadala ng mensahe maging epektibo ang pangungusap. - Pasalita at pasulat na anyo ng pagpapahayag PRAGMATIK - Nakatuon sa kung paanong ang wika ay WIKA aktuwal na ginagamit sa lipunan. - Instrumento ng pagpapalitang impormasyon Binibigyang tuon nito kung paano -Isang Sistema ng mga simbolo na may nauunawaan ng isang tao ang sinasabi kapangyarihan lumikha at humubog ng mga ng kaniyang kapwa sa isang simbolikong realidad Ang Kaligiran at Daynamiko ng Kultura MORPOLOHIYA - Ito ay “palabuuan”. Tama, palabuuan ng mga KULTURA salita. Pagsasama-sama ng mga ponema upang - ay maaaring nakikita o di-nakikita. Sa loob ng makabuo ng morpema o salita. isang lipunan, may mga gawi o praktis ang mga miyembro nito at kolektibong nabuo at sinang- SEMANTIKA ayunan ng lahat gaya halimbawa ng mga - Ito ay pagbibigay kahulugan sa mga salita. Ang paniniwala, pananampalataya o pagpapahalaga. pormal na pagpapakahulugan naman ng semantika ay ang ng ugnayan sa pagitan ng mga PERSEPSYON SA KULTURA salita at kung ano ang kanilang kinakatawan. 1. Ang Kultura Bilang Unibersal - Ang lahat ng tao ay lumilikha ng kultura. KONOTASYON VS DENOTASYON Naiimpluwesyahan din ng kultura kung paano at ano ang nakikita, naririnig, nararamdaman, at Denotasyon kung paanong ang tao at mga pangyayari ay - Pagpapakahulugang sa salita na binibigyang ebalwasyon at pagsusuri. maaaring mabasa sa diksyonaryo o leksikon. Konotasyon. 2. Kultural na Relatibismo - Pagpapakahulugan sa mga salita na - Cultural Relativism batay sa mga personal na gamit ng isang - Bawat kultura ay nagtataglay ng sariling mga tao. tuntunin na maaaring may pagkakatulad o kaya naman ay sadyang naiiba sa lahat. SINTATIK VS PRAGMATIK 3. Heograpikal na lokasyon at ang mga epekto nito sa kultura at pagkatuto SINTATIK - Causes and Effects - Ito ay nangangahulugang pag-aaral ng - Ang lokasyon o lugar ay nakaaapekto sa mga ugnayan ng mga salita sa isa’t isa. Ang gawi, kaasalan, tradisyon at maging sa pagkatuto pangkat ng mga tuntunin o gramatika. ng mga kasapi ng kultura. Lohikal na pagkakaayos ng mga salita sa 4. Pagkakaiba-iba sa loob ng pangkat kasinghalaga ng pormal na panuntunan - Bagaman pare-pareho tayong mga Pilipino may subalit nakakaimpluwensya pa rin kung mga hindi tayo pinagkakasunduan sa loob ng paano kumilos ng isang tao sa isang tiyak ating pangkat. na lipunan. 5.Ang pamumuhay ay pinagagaang ng kultura MGA RITWAL O SEREMONYA - Ang mga napagkasunduang kilos, gawi, at mga - Maraming ritwal o seremonya sa lipunang tuntunin ay inaasahang makatulong upang Pilipino. Ilan sa mga seremonyang ito ay hindi maiwasan ang mga hindi pagkakaunawaan. talaga alam ang aktwal na kahulugan o pinagmulan 6. Ang mga padrong kultural ay pamilyar sa bawat kasapi nito - Dahil sa kulturang kinagisnan nahihirapan kumilala sa kultura ng iba, laging ipinalalagay na MGA ARTIPAK ang nakagisnang kultura ang tama. Yawning Jarlet ng Leta Leta Cave - Isa sa mga kauna-unahang artipak na 7.Nagbabago ang kultura kasabay ng pagbabago nahukay sa bansa. Maliit na banga na ng panahon hawig ng isang humihikab na bibig. - bunga nito ang patuloy na paghahanap sa kung ano nga ba ang kahulugan ng kultura dahil naiiba Callao Man nga ang mga gawi, kilos, asal, tradisyon, at iba pa. - Buto ng paa ng tao na natagpusaan sa kweba sa Cagayan na 67,000 taon na. Ang mga Elemento na Bumubuo sa Kultura Laguna Copper Plate Inscription 1. SIMBOLO - Nadiskubre noong 1986 sa ilog ng - Maaaring tumukoy sa di-berbal at materyal na Lumban. Nakasulat sa Kavi, isang bagay. matandang sistema sa pagsulat ng Javanese. - Halimbawa ng di-berbal ay ang paghinto habang inaawit ang Lupang Hinirang. Ito ay Flying Elephant of Lena Shoal nangangahulugan ng paggalang. - Isa ito sa dalawang piraso narekober sa - Sa materyal na bagay naman, ang Krus ng mga buong mundo. Nakuha noong 1987 sa Kristiyano ay isang simbolo at marami pang iba. underwater exploration ng Lena Shoal - Sa Pilipinas pa lamang ito. Maaaring iba naman wreck sa Palawan. ang simbolo mula sa ibang mga bansa. Manunggul Jar 2. WIKA - Ang mga panitikan at kasaysayan ay - Nadisukbre sa kweba ng Manunggul sa nasusulat dahil sa wika. Mahalagang behikulo ito Lipuun point sa Palawan, 1962 – 1965. ng komunikasyon. Bagaman unibersal ang katangian ng wika, magkakaiba pa rin ang mga Oton Death Mask ito dahil nakaugat ang wika sa kultura. - Nadisukbre sa Iloilo. 3. Pamantayang Kultural Ito ang istandard ng mga inaasahan sa paguugali ng bawat isa sa Bolinao Skull lipunan. Mayroon itong dalawang uri: - Isa sa 67 na bungong nahanap sa 3.1 Pormal - na panuntunan ay tinatawag Balingasay, Bolinao, Pangasinan. ding mores at batas. - Tumutukoy ito sa Kasama sa ceramic ng Ming Dynasty mga pamantayan ng pag-uugali na (1368 – 1644) pinakamahalaga sa bawat lipunan. Maitum Anthropomorphic Burial Jar 3.2 Impormal - na panuntunan ay mga - Nagtagpuan sa Ayub Cave (ivan note: tradisyonal na gawi at pamamaraan. - lmao pangalan ko) Pinol, Maitum, sa Tumutukoy ito sa pamantayan ng probinsya ng Saranggani. paguugali na maaring ipalagay na Butuan “Mother Boat” Plurarismo - 800 na taon at nauna pa kaysa sa kondisyon na nagmumula ang mga tao sa iba’t pagdating ni Magellan sa Pilipinas. ibang kultura at nakakatamasa ng patas na Natagpuan sa Lungsod ng Butuan. oportunidad, pagkilala, at pagpapahalaga sa DIBERSIDAD AT UGNAYANG KULTURAL pagkakaiba-iba POST-MODERNONG PANAHON Bikulturalismo kalagayan na matagumpay na nagagampanan - Ito ay tungkol sa pagbabago sa pagtingin sa ang dalawang kulturang kinabibilangan kaalaman sa mga maunlad na lipunan simula ng kalagitnaan ng ika-20 siglo. ANYONG PANGNILALAMAN NG KULTURA - Ang kaalaman ay hindi na inaangkin para sa - Pagtuturo gamit ang panlabas na katangiang kapakanan ng kaalaman, kundi ito ay itinuturing kultural na komoditi na maaaring ipagpalit. - Aktuwal na kontak ng kultura KULTURANG POPULAR YUGTO NG INDIBIDWAL NA UGNAYANG - kulturang nakabatay sa pagkagusto o KULTURAL pagtangkilik ng mga tao 1. Euphoria → (kasiyahan, galak) - Paglawak ng impluwensya ng teknolohiya, 2. Culture Shock (pagkabahala, pagkabagot, komersyalisasyon, madaliang reproduksyon disoryentasyon, Pagkukumpara) - May kakayahan itong lumikha ng kita 3. Adaptasyon (pagkilala, pagpapahalaga) ELITE/HIGH CULTURE ANYO NG PAUNANG-HUSGA - nauugnay sa elitismo at pagkakaroon ng mataas na istatus 1. Kapootang Panlahi → Racism - Ito ay isang pananaw o pagtingin sa isang isang - Fine Arts kultura bilang nakabababa kaysa ibang kultura. - Literature - Classical music 2. Istiyotipo → Stereotype - Performing arts - Ito ay produkto ng kapootang panlahi. Ito ay - Architecture tinatanaw bilang panlahat na pagtingin sa isang - Traditional fashion partikular na etnikong grupo, relihiyon, lahi, at kasarian. LOW CULTURE - Nauugnay sa kulturang popular 3. Institusyonal na Kapootang Panlahi - Kinapapalooban ito ng mga batas, tradisyon, at - Kulturang Pambayan gawi nagpapakita ng hindi patas na pagtingin sa - Carnival isang lipunan o grupo ng mga tao. - Tagalog Pocketbooks 4. KLASISMO → Classism - Komiks - Ang klasismo bilang isang anyo ng kapootang - Graffiti panlahi ay tumitingin sa antas ng pamumuhay ng isang tao PRINSIPYO NG UGNAYANG KULTURAL Asimilasyon 5. DISKRIMINASYON sinakop o tinanggap ng isang namamayaning - Ito ay tumutukoy sa kilos na nagtatakda sa kultura na nagresulta sa paglaho ng kinagisnang limitasyong panlipunan at politikal ng isang tao, kultura grupo ng mga tao, o organisasyon. - nagpapakita ng hindi patas na distribusyon ng Akulturasyon kapangyarihan at oportunidad sa pagitan ng iba’t Mabisang pag-aangkop sa isang namamayaning ibang grupo ng mga tao kultura nang hindi iwinawaksi ang kinagisnang kultura PRINSIPYO NG UGNAYANG KULTURAL 1. Panlabas na Katangiang Kultural Akomodasyon 2. Aktwal na kontak sa Kultural pagtanggap at pagyakap sa isang bagong kultura DAYNAMISMO NG PAUNANG-HUSGA 3. Teknolohiya Ang mabilis na pagbabago ng ETNOSENTRISMO → Ethnocentrism teknolohiya ay nagdudulot din ng pagbabago sa - aktong higit na mataas o pagpap paraan ng pamumuhay ng isang indibidwal. May mahalagang gampanin ang midya sa pagbabagong ito. ALLPORT (1954) 4. Biyolohiya Nagkakaiba-iba ang bawat - isang sikolohistang Amerikano ay naglahad ng indibidwal dahil sa mga minanang katangian sa ilang paliwanag kung bakit nangyayari ang kanilang mga ninuno. Makikita rin ito sa paunang-husga (prejudice). Ito ay ang mga kinabibilangang lahi. sumusunod na dahilan: 5. Institusyonal na Network Nagiging sanhi at napapanatili ang dibersidad ang mga pormal na 1. Historikal na pagdanas. Makikita ito sa mga organisasyon ng lipunan na may kanikaniyang bansang nanakop ng maliliit na bansa. Dahil dito, nakaestrukturang gawain para sa malalaking tinatanaw na mababang uri o mahinang lipunan grupo ng mga tao. ang mga bansang nasakop ng mga makapangyarihang nasyon sa daigdig. 6. Padron ng Interpersonal na Komunikasyon Kasama sa puwersang ito ang mga padron ng 2. Sosyo-kultural na pagdanas. Tinatanaw ng pakikipag-ugnayan sa ibang tao. Ang mga berbal mga taong nabubuhay sa kosmopolitan na mas at di-berbal na pakikipagkomunikasyon ay nauuna sila sa lahat ng aspekto ng buhay kaysa nagpapakita kung paano kinikilala ng iba. mga naninirahan sa rural na lugar. MGA PADRONG KULTURAL SA 3. Sikolohiya ng tao. Sinumang hindi nabibilang KOMUNIKASYONG FILIPINO PADRONG sa isang kultura o naiiba ay nakararanas ng KULTURAL diskriminasyon. - nasa isipan ng tao at nagtuturo kung paano 4. Epekto o maaaring impluwensya ng mga taong tinatanaw ang mundo at kumilos ang mga taong nakapaligid sa atin. nabibilang sa isang kultura 5. Produkto ng ating sayko-daynamikong -mga napagkasunduang paniniwala, kaligiran. Nagbibigay-husga ang tao mula sa pagpapahalaga, kaugalian, at panlipunang gawi kanyang mga pagkabigo sa buhay. na naging matatag sa paglipas ng panahon at 6. Nagmumula rin sa pagtingin at pananaw ng tao nagbubunsod ng kaisahan sa magkakaparehong sa daigdig. kaasalan sa lahat ng pagkakataon 7. Ang tao ay nagbibigay-husga sa ibang kultura GLOBAL NA PADRONG KULTURAL batay sa kanyang sariling pinaniniwalaang - kulturang kinasasangkutan ng mga kultura, kung kaya, nagiging negatibo ang mamamayan ng daigdig kanyang pagtingin sa ibang kultura. MGA ELEMENTO NG PADRONG KULTURAL 1. Paniniwala Mga Puwersang Nagpapanatili ng Dibersidad ng Kultura - Mga ideya na pinaniniwalaang totoo sa mundo - Kalipunan ng mga interpretasyong nilikha ng tao 1. Kasaysayan Napananatili ang pagkakaiba-iba ng kultura dahil sa mga naging karanasan, 1.1 Sentral na Paniniwala kasaysayan, at mga praktika noong mga nakalipas na panahon. - Pundamental na turo sa kung ano ang realidad at mga inaasahang pagiral sa 2. Ekolohiya Malaki ang epekto ng eksternal na mundo kapaligiran sa kung paano namumuhay ang - Maaaring nakabatay sa turo ng isang tao o pangkat ng mga tao. Nagkakaroon ng awtoridad (magulang, guro, at iba't ibang katangian dahil sa epekto ng kaniyang matatanda) paligid maging ng panahon o klima sa isang lugar. - Hal: pag-aalaga ng magulang sa anak, mga dapat ikilos ng indibidwal  1.2 Paniniwalang Periperal - Gumagabay kung paano makipaginteraksyon at nagbibigay tanda kung paano makisangkot sa - Personal Na Paniniwala kumbersasyon, kung ano ang dapat pag-usapan, - Hal: Paniniwala sa mga Espiritu at kung paano rin dapat na lumabas sa isang 2. Pagpapahalaga/Halagahin kumbersasyon -Konsepto ng tama-mali, mabuti-masama, 4. Panlipunang Gawi mabait-malupit at iba pa - Ang ninanais na katangian na katangian o - Mga padron ng kaasalan na kalimitang layunin ng isang kultura sinusunod ng mga miyembro ng isang lipunan - Ang nagpapaliwanag kung paano nakikipag - Ilan sa halimbawa nito ay paraan ng pananamit komunikasyon ang tao kung magsisimba o papasok sa paaralan, pagbubukas ng regalo sa harap ng nagbigay, 3. Kaugalian/Kaasalan oras ng pagkain, ritwal, pagsaludo sa bandila, pagpapakasal, at iba pa - Napagkasunduang panlipunang ekspektasyon sa mga gawi o asal ayon sa pamantayan ng isang lipunan ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Semestral Reviewer – Based on Anadey’s Environmental Biology, Ethics and Principles ABIOTIC - non-living chemical and physical parts of the environment that affect living organisms Environmental science is the study of the and the functioning of ecosystems interactions between humans, other organisms, and their surroundings and how these Environment - surroundings and conditions interactions affect their surroundings. Science - systematized body of knowledge Ecology is a branch of biological science that GEOGRAPHICAL OR NATURAL deals with the relationships between living things – the terrestrial environment that is a creation of and the non-living components of the complex natural and environmental conditions. environment and plays an important role in Although it arose independently of humankind, it environmental science. Its focus of study is the is the complement of direct interaction between ecosystem. nature and human society. (land, water, volcanoes, deserts, etc.) An ecosystem occupies an important hierarchy in the level of organization in nature, more MAN-MADE complex than a community, consisting of – a human creation. Man cannot live in the organisms interacting with one another and with geographical environment, so he creates some of the nonliving matter and energy within a defined his environmental conditions to adjust to it. area. (infrastructures) What is Environment? - Inner: social environment, heritage - The surroundings or conditions in which - Outer: physical environment created a person, animal, or plant lives or with the help of Science and Technology operates. Components of Environment - The word environmental usually refers to the conditions around which affects Biotic people and other organisms - Producers/Autotrophs - Consumers COMPONENTS: - Decomposers BIOTIC - any living component that affects Abiotic another organism or shapes the ecosystem - Physical Factors - Chemical Factors - Resourcers  o Directly consumed INSTRUMENTAL VALUE : The worth objects - Environmental Conditions have in fulfilling other ends. (worth or value o Not directly consumed because they those who matter; values because they are Trophic Structure - defined as the partitioning of biomass Ethical Positions between trophic levels (subsets of an Anthropocentrism: Human centered morality ecological community that gather energy - Only humans have intrinsic value and and nutrients in similar ways, that is, moral standing. producers, carnivores). - The rest of the natural world has Ecology instrumental value – science dealing with the interrelationships of - We can best protect nature by looking out living organisms to their environment. for human needs. Comes from Greek word Biocentrism: Life-centered morality -“oikos” meaning home, coined by Ernst Haeckel - All and only living beings, specifically -”logos” means study individual organisms (not species or ecosystems) have intrinsic value and Types of Interaction moral standing. - Humans are not superior to other life 1. Biotic affecting biotic (e.g. pollination) forms nor privileged, and must respect the inherent worth of every organism 2. Biotic affecting abiotic (e.g. decomposition) - Humans should minimize harm and 3. Abiotic affecting biotic (e.g. hibernation) interference with nature: eat vegetarian since less land needs to be cultivated. 4. Abiotic affecting abiotic (e.g. soil erosion) Ecocentrism: ecosystem centered morality - Non-living things, species, and natural processes have moral standing or Ethics intrinsic value and are deserving of - is a relatively complete and systematically respect. - Individuals must be concerned about the arranged body of data which relate to the to the whole community of life/nature,. morality of human conduct. - Humans should strive to preserve ecological balance and stability. Ethos Principles of Ecology -custom, habit, character or disposition - a fundamental truth or proposition that - a characteristic way of life - “should or ought to” serves as the foundation for a system of - Ethics is the scientificinquiry into the principlesof belief or behavior or for a chain of morality. reasoning. - Ethics is the scienceof human acts with o Everything is connected to reference to right and wrong. everything else - Ethics is the studyof the rectitudeof human o Everything in Nature Changes conduct. o Everything in Nature has to go - Ethics is the sciencethat lays downthe principles Somewhere of right living. o Ours is a finite Earth - According to Socrates,ethics is the Environtmental Justice and Governance investigationof life. 1. Polluter-Pays Principle - the polluter pays principle is enacted to make Value the party responsible for producing pollution INTRINSIC VALUE: The worth objects have in responsible for paying for the damage done to the their own right, independent of their value to any natural environment other value simply because of existence) 2. Intergenerational Equity Hierarchy of Ecological Structures - Proper distribution of renewable and non- Units Components renewable resources is the key of the concept of Biosphere Also known as the ecosphere, it sustainable development. is the summation of all - based on sustainable development ecosystems worldwide. On a planetary scale, it only occupies 3. Writ of Mandamus and Writ of Kalikasan the planet’s surface, confined in - Mandamus is a judicial remedy in the form of an a closed system that is self- order from a court to any government, regulating. subordinate court, corporation, or public authority, Biome A distinct biological community to do some specific act which that body is obliged of organisms with common under law to do, and which is in the nature of characteristics in an public duty, and in certain cases one of a statutory environment with a shared duty climatic condition covering a wide geographical area. Ecology is the science that deals with the way Ecosystem The community of organisms organisms interact with one another and with the and populations interacting with nonliving surroundings. It studies how organisms one another and with the adapt to their environment and how their chemical and physical factors surroundings are utilized and altered by the making up their environment presence and activities of these organisms. Community Populations of different plants and animals living and The phrase 'no man is an island' by the interacting in an area at a metaphysical poet John Donne means that no particular time one person can survive on their own without help Population Group of organisms of the same from others. species living within a particular area Everything that affects an organism during its Organism Any form of life which includes lifetime is collectively known as its environment. plants and animals Environment is a multifaceted concept. The sun is the primary source of energy where all The biotic factors of an organism’s environment organisms can derive directly or indirectly. include all forms of life with which it interacts. There are many ways to categorize biotic factors. Habitat which represents the physical structure as well as the geographic and topographic a) Producers - plants that carry out location of the space that an organism inhabit is photosynthesis; also an important abiotic aspect of their environment. b) Consumers - animals that eat other organisms The climate which reflects the prevailing weather c) Decomposers - bacteria and fungi that cause patterns in an area covering a certain duration of decay time is an ecological process involving solar d) Parasites - bacteria, viruses and other parasitic energy interacting with matter that makes up the organisms that cause disease. Earth. Predation: Among the common kinds of Daily and seasonal changes are the products of interactions is called predation. This occurs when temperature changes influenced by the intensity one organism known as a predator, kills and eats and duration of sunlight in an area. another organism known as the prey Wind is an effect of temperature differences in an Competition: Another type of interaction area. between species is competition, in which two Solar radiation is major contributing factor in organisms every possible means to obtain the generating ocean currents, as well as the same limited resource. Both organisms were evaporation of water into the atmosphere. assumed harmed to some extent and have suffered to a certain degree. Interspecific competition: occurs between of them derives some sort of benefit from the organisms of different species. When several interaction. species of predator prey on the same species as a food source Parasitism: Parasitism is a relationship, where one organism, known as the parasite, lives in or Intraspecific competition: competition occurred on another organism, known as the host, from among members of the same species which it derives sustenance. Generally, the parasite is much smaller than the host, otherwise The offshoot of competition whether intraspecific it would have been a case of predation. and interspecific is that the survivor with the larger number of successful individuals evolves form the Commensalism: If the relationship between interaction better adapted to its environment than organisms where one organism benefits while the its less successful rival. This concept is often other is unaffected, it is called commensalism. formally called competitive exclusion principle, which states that “no two species can occupy the Mutualism: This kind of symbiotic relationship same ecological niche in the same place at the involve both species benefiting from the same time.” interaction. Generally, mutualistic relationship is obligatory, where, the species cannot live without Symbiotic Relationships: Symbiosis is a close, each other. harmonious, physical relationship between two different species having stabilized itself through a Ambiguous Relationships: There are long period of interaction. This occurs when two relationships that are not as easy to categorize species, usually in physical contact, at least one without creating a shade of doubt about relationships that some organisms have with each other Type of Interaction Species 1 Species 2 Nature of Interaciton Neutralism 0 0 Neither population is affected Competition thorugh - - Both species are Mutual Inhibition directly inhibited by each other Competition for - - There is indirect Resource Use inhibition due to scarce resources Amensalism - 0 One species is affected while the other is not Parasitism + - The smaller species (parasite) gains at the expense of the bigger species (host) Predation + - The bigger species (predator) gains at the expense of the smaller species (prey) Commensalism + 0 Species 1 (commensal) benefits while species 2 (host) is not affected Protocooperation + + Interaction is favorable to both but not obligatory Mutualism + + Interaction is obligatory for both species to benefit Table of Classification and Description of Interspecific Interactions Ecosystem Roles Producers are organisms that use sources of Energy Flow energy enabling them to make complex, organic An ecosystem is a stable, self-regulating unit. molecules from the simple inorganic substances Such stability is not static but dynamic in nature in their environment. through a process called homeostasis. The organisms within an ecosystem are growing and The other organisms are called consumers reproducing in harmony while ultimately dying because they utilize organic matter which they and decaying at the end of its lifespan. have consumed in order to provide themselves with energy and the organic molecules necessary Each step in the flow of energy through an to build their own bodies. An important part of ecosystem is known as a trophic level. their role is the process of respiration in which Producers constitute the first trophic level and they break down organic matter to inorganic herbivores that eat the producers constitute the matter. second trophic level. Carnivores that eat herbivores are the third trophic level and Category Ecosystem Examples carnivores that eat other carnivores are the fourth Role trophic level. Omnivores, parasites and Producers Converts Grasses, scavengers occupy different trophic levels, simple organic plants, trees, depending on what they happen to be eating at molecules by mosses, the time. through algae photosynthesi The second law of thermodynamics states that s whenever energy is transformed from one form to Consumers Uses organic another, some of the energy is converted to a matter as a non-useful form which typically is lowquality heat. source of food Herbivore Directly eat Grasshopper Approximately 90 percent of the useful energy is plants , ruminants, lost with each transfer to the next higher trophic vegetarian level. The biomass is the weight of living material human in a trophic level. Carnivore Kills and eats Dragonfly, animals sharks, Food Chains and Food Webs humans The passage of energy from one trophic level to Omnivore Eats both Rats, most the next resulting from one organism consuming plants and humans another is a food chain. animals There are food chains that rely on a constant Scavenger Eats meat but Blowflies, supply of dead organic material called detritus often gets it vultures, coming from situations where photosynthesis is from animals hyena taking place that died by accident or Change and Material Cycles were killed by The statement that "Everything must go other animals somewhere" means that all materials in the Parasite Lives in or on Ascaris, ecosystem are continually recycled and used another many over and over. organism and bacteria, gets food from some insects The water cycle on Earth Water is essential to life it on Earth. In its three phases (solid, liquid, and Decompose Returns Bacteria, gas), water ties together the major parts of the r organic fungi, some Earth’s climate system — air, clouds, the ocean, material to insects and lakes, vegetation, snowpack, and glaciers. inorganic worms material Ecosystem Roles and Examples  - Water in different phases moves through radiations from the sun. Therefore, it acts like a the atmosphere (transportation) blanket over the planet. If the carbon cycle is - Liquid water flows across land (runoff) disturbed it will result in serious consequences o into the ground (infiltration and such as climatic changes and global warming. percolation) o through the ground Nitrogen Cycle (groundwater) Nitrogen is one of the basic elements that - Groundwater moves into plants (plant compose proteins and nucleic acids such as DNA. uptake) and evaporates from plants into Proteins are the major structural components of the atmosphere (transpiration) all living things. The growth of plants will be - Solid ice and snow can turn directly into limited if there is not enough nitrogen in the soil. gas (sublimation) About 78% of the atmosphere is nitrogen gas - The opposite can also take place when (N2). water vapor becomes solid (deposition) Nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (N3) of ammonium Water, society, and ecology (NH4+) by a process called nitrogen fixation. In a Water influences the intensity of climate process called nitrification, ammonia or variability and change. In many areas, water ammonium is converted to nitrites (NO2-) by supplies are being depleted because of nitrifying bacteria in the soil. Some of these population growth, pollution, and development. bacteria convert nitrites into nitrates (NO3-). These stresses have been made worse by climate variations and changes that affect the Phosphorus Cycle hydrologic cycle. Compounds of phosphorus (P) circulate through water, the Earth’s crust, and living organisms in Water and climate change the phosphorus cycle. Most of these compounds Climate change is affecting where, when, and contain phosphate ions (PO43-), which serve as how much water is available. Extreme weather an important nutrient events such as droughts and heavy precipitation, which are expected to increase as climate Sulfur Cycle changes, can impact water resources. In this cycle, sulfur circulates through the biosphere beginning underneath the earth locked Carbon Cycle in rocks and minerals and in the form of sulfate Carbon cycle is the process where carbon (SO42-) salts or buried deep under ocean compounds are interchanged among the sediments. Sulfur also enters the atmosphere biosphere, geosphere, pedosphere, hydrosphere, from several natural sources. Hydrogen sulfide and atmosphere of the earth. (H2S) – a colorless, highly poisonous gas with a rotten egg smell – is released from active volcanoes and from organic matter broken down Carbon Cycle on Land by anaerobic decomposers in flooded swamps, Carbon in the atmosphere is present in the form bogs and tidal flats. Sulfur dioxide (SO2), a of carbon dioxide. Carbon enters the atmosphere colorless and suffocating gas also comes from through natural processes such as respiration volcanoes. and industrial applications such as burning fossil fuels. Ecosystem Changes Associated with the Nutrient Cycles CO2 + H2O + energy → (CH2O)n +O2 - Anthropogenic impacts of modern technology are now transferring some Oceanic Carbon Cycle chemical elements such as nitrogen, This is essentially a carbon cycle but in the sea. phosphorus, sulfur, and carbon through Ecologically, oceans take in more carbon than it the air, water, soil, and biosphere at rates gives out. Hence, it is called a “carbon sink.” that faster than natural processes. - Eutrophication and Fishkills. Importance of Carbon Cycle Eutrophication is generally defined as an Even though carbon dioxide is found in small increase in suspended nutrients in water traces in the atmosphere, it plays a vital role in bodies such as nitrogen and phosphorus balancing the energy and traps the long-wave  that promoted an increase in algal growth, would dictate that changes in population size which adversely degrade water quality. (dynamics). - Red Tides. “Red tide” is the common Population dynamics refers to changes that are name for what is scientifically described predicted to occur in the members of the as “harmful algae blooms.” Harmful algae population, which is significant for the blooms (HAB) are the sudden interpretation of survey data (census) for proliferation of one or more species of population regulation. microscopic plants either algae or phytoplankton, which live in the ocean A population is a group of individuals of the same and produce neurotoxins that can cause species that live together in a region. Members of negative and sometimes fatal effects in the same population rely on the same resources, fish, birds, marine mammals, and even are influenced by similar environmental factors, humans. and are bred with one another. - Acid rain, also called acid deposition or acid precipitation with a pH of about 5.2 or below caused by the emission of sulfur 1. Natality and Mortality / Immigration and dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx; Emigration. These are the factors affecting the combination of NO and NO2) from population size. human activities. Natality – refers to the number of - Biogeochemical Cycle Sustainability individuals who are born alive. Usually, it is Goal. It is clear that if we are to maintain measured as the crude birth rate which is equal a quality environment on Earth, the to the number of live births per 1,000 mid-year biogeochemical cycles need to operate total population within ranges of transfer and storage necessary to sustain healthy ecosystems. Mortality - refers to the number of This is one reason why understanding individuals who die. Usually, it is measured as biogeochemical cycles are very crude death rate which is equal to the number of important. deaths per 1,000 mid-year total population Limits, Tolerance, and Population Immigration – number of individuals that enters a population LIMITING FACTOR VS LAW OF TOLERANCE Emigration – number of individuals that A limiting factor is anything that drives a move out of a population population's size and slows or stops it from growing. Some examples of limiting factors are 2. Age Structure refers to the number of biotic (e.g. food, mates, and competition with percentage of males and females in young, other organisms for resources) and abiotic (e.g. middle, and older groups. This is an important space, temperature, altitude, and amount of factor in determining whether the population of a sunlight available in an environment). country increases or decreases. The Law of Tolerance (Shelford’s Law) is defined as a law stating that the abundance or distribution This is constructed by population experts into of an organism can be controlled by certain three (3) age categories: factors such as climatic, topographic, and Pre-reproductive (ages 0-14) – consisting of biological requirements where levels of these individuals normally too young to have children exceed maximum or minimum limits of tolerance of that organism. Reproductive (ages 15-44) – consisting of those normally able to have children POPULATION STRUCTURE AND SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION Post-reproductive (ages 45 and older) – with At this point, the population of our humankind individuals normally too old to have children which may continue to shoot up statistically, but limited access to the basic resources such as food, water, and shelter, not to mention also the 3. Dispersion describes the distribution of competition that exists among the people for individuals within the population and may be whatever and whenever resources are available, random, uniform, or clumped. Clumped Distribution: K-selected – relatively low reproductive rate; - organisms are clustered for reproduction, stays below its carrying capacity and density- food and production. (e.g. Human dependence is likely to be important in its population) population process. Uniform Distribution: Climax Population and Ecological Succession - organisms are more or less equally apart (e.g. penguins) The structure and species composition of communities and ecosystems change in Random Distribution: response to changing environmental conditions - organisms do not interact socially or no through a process called ecological succession. predictable pattern (e.g. dandelions) Overpopulation – because of the sharp increase POPULATION GROWTH PATTERNS in the number of people in developing countries; Exponential Model Graph Overconsumption – because of high rates of - J-shaped curve resource use per person in developed countries; - Unlmited resources if this is wasteful and excessive, can intensify the - Population growth increases environmental impact or ecological footprint. - Population stays the same regardless of size Technological Advances – have allowed humankind to overcome the environmental Logistic Population Graph resistance that all populations face and to - S-shaped curve increase the earth’s carrying capacity to our - Limited resources advantage. - Population growth decreases due to carrying capacity POPULATION DYNAMICS AND SUSTAINABLE - Population becomes stable when GOALS carrying capacity is reached Accordingly, the population, consisting of people Population density is the measure of how all over the world, is at the center of sustainable crowded the population is or the number of development. The four global demographic individuals in a given space ‘megatrends’ such as population growth, population aging, migration, and urbanization, REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES AND LIMITING were identified to have important implications for FACTORS economic, social development, and environmental sustainability. There are factors that limit the growth of a population and this may be classified into density- WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY dependent and density-independent factors. The term biodiversity or biological diversity notably has been defined; “The variability among Limiting factors such as competition, are density- living organisms from all sources including, inter dependent because the effect on each individual alia, terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic depends on the number of other individuals ecosystems and the ecological complexes of present in the same area. which they are part; this includes diversity within Bad weather and fires are density-independent species, between species and of ecosystems.” because the effect on each individual does not (CBD, 1992) or “The variety of life at every depend on the number of other individuals hierarchical level and spatial scale of biological present in the same area. organizations: genes within populations, population within species, species within communities, communities within landscapes, landscapes within biomes, and biomes within the Reproductive Strategies: biosphere”. (O Wilson, 1998) r-selected – an exploiter of shortduration habitats; staying below its carrying capacity and - The totality of life on earth the operation of density-dependent regulatory - Reflects the variety of living organisms as processes are of low importance in its strategy. well as how these changes from one location to another and over time  - Biodiversity encompasses a variety of - carry on multiple, interdependent biological life at more than one scale processes - dynamic Father of Biodiversity – E.O Wilson Link Between Biodiversity and Ecosystem THE DIFFERENT LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY Stability ARE THE FOLLOWING: 1. Genetic Diversity – the variety of genetic Ecological Integrity material within a species or a population - An ecosystem with ecological integrity is one that has persistence and adaptability 2. Ecosystem Diversity – the variety of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems found in an area or on Healthy and Degraded Ecosystems the earth - An ecosystem is healthy if it can maintain its structure and functions over a period of time even 3. Species Diversity – the number and in the presence of environmental stress abundance of species present in different communities - An unhealthy ecosystem is one that is incapable of maintaining its integrity over time 4. Functional Diversity – the biological and chemical processes such as energy flow and Environmental indicators are used in assessing matter recycling needed for the survival of the quality and sustainability of a given species, communities, and ecosystems ecosystem. WHAT IS HEALTH Benchmark sites are yardsticks against which comparisons can be made. Health, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), is a state of complete ECOSYSTEM SERVICES physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. It is - Provisioning services - the products also: people obtain from ecosystems - Regulating services - benefits obtained 1. one of the most basic human rights, from the regulation of ecosystem processes 2. one of the most important indicators of - Supporting services - that are necessary sustainable development and, for the maintenance of all other 3. the conservation and sustainable use of ecosystem services biodiversity vital for the continued functioning of - Cultural services - the non-material ecosystems at all scales as well as for the benefits people obtain from ecosystems delivery of ecosystem services that are essential FOREST ECOSYSTEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES for human health. - The Philippine forest ecosystem currently consists of patches of old-growth (primary) and second-growth forests, ranging in size from small LINK BETWEEN BIODIVERSITY AND HEALTH to quite large. Planetary-scale Biomes - Biodiversity and - Lowland Forests ecosystems play a critical role in determining the o It is now the most degraded state of the Earth System forest type in the Philippines because of over-harvesting of Human Microbial Interactions - The symbiotic the highly prized timber microbial communities in our gut, skin, respiratory (Philippine Mahogany) and and urogenital tracts contribute to our nutrition, associated non-timber products help regulate our immune system, and prevent o - supporting more than 200-300 infections. woody species and numerous other species of plants and Characteristics of an Ecosystem animals, covering about 60-70% - have structures with biotic and abiotic of the land area of the country in components, spatiotemporal patterns, the early 1900s. and some degree of predictability - Montane Forests  o Located at about 1000-3,000 - Ecological enrichment is a method used to meters in elevation repair/rehabilitate degraded areas through o Dominated by tree species in the certain approaches, such as agroforestry. oak and laurel families - Pine Forests 4. Rehabilitation of Forest Reserves and o These species are fire tolerant. Protected Areas - Coastal Forests - Planting native wild food plants in the o The mangrove forest is rehabilitation of protected areas in the Philippines dominated by evergreen, woody can attract seed-dispersing birds and mammals trees (e.g. Rhizopora, Avicennia), SPECIES APPROACH which adapt to varying levels of salinity. A single species/taxon or a species assemblage - Beach Forests (functional group/guild) has often been used as o It forms a narrow strip of an indicator of the conditions of the natural vegetation dominated by widely ecosystem. distributed species such as Terminalia cattapa, Casuarina 1. KEYSTONE SPECIES equisetifolia, Acasia farnesina. - One upon which many other species depend for - Karst Forests biological necessities (food, shelter, etc.) Such o Karst is a limestone landscape organisms have a vital role in ecosystem formed by minerals in solution in processes because their loss or decline could natural waters result in the collapse of biological integrity 2. SENSITIVE SPECIES BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM STABILITY - The disappearance of certain organisms from a site could be an indication of their sensitivity to 1. Ecological Integrity habitat degradation - An ecosystem with ecological integrity is one that has persistence (i.e capable of sustaining the 3. TOLERANT SPECIES functioning of the communities) and adaptability - Species that can be used to assess the extent (i.e capable of enduring stress through recovery, of pollution regeneration, or modification -Ecosystems that 4. ENDEMIC SPECIES have lost their ecological integrity are considered - Indicators of the status of habitats and “biologically dead” ecosystems 2. Healthy Ecosystems Native species - one that is found in a certain - A healthy ecosystem has the ability to maintain ecosystem due to natural processes itself with minimum human intervention and repair Indigenous species - native species which can itself when some natural or anthropogenic be found in another area disturbances occur. Endemic species - native species found only in 3. Degraded Ecosystems a particular area, large or small - A degraded ecosystem is often referred to as OTHER USEFUL INDICATORS the one that is “unhealthy” or “deteriorated”. An unhealthy ecosystem is one that is incapable of Umbrella Species - usually one with large habitat maintaining its integrity over time or range and which exerts a major ecological influence on the community FOREST MANAGEMENT Flagship species - either plants or animals that 1. Rehabilitation through Reforestation have captured the support and sympathy of the - Has been used in the Philippines to revitalize general public; used as rallying calls for marginal and degraded public areas. conservation 2. Natural Regeneration Charismatic species - also nominated as flagship - The process of allowing an ecosystem to species because of their appeal to the general recover on its own through natural succession. public; many tend to be large, brightly colored, or 3. Ecological Enrichment through Agroforestry endowed with unique and interesting features SPECIES THREATS - The Philippines joined CITES on August 18, 1981, and the Convention enters into force for the 1. HABITAT DESTRUCTION Philippines on November 16, 1981 Loss of habitat has been identified as a primary threat to about 85-90% of the birds, mammals, FINITENESS OF RESOURCESS and amphibians listed as threatened with extinction. MINING Mining is a process of mineral extraction from the 2. INVASIVE SPECIES surface of the Earth either from land or from the An invasive species is an introduced foreign seas. Minerals are usually inorganic substances species that has successfully established itself in occurring in nature that has a definite chemical a new habitat and subsequently displaced native composition and distinct physical properties. populations due to competition or predation A confirmation of its presence is called mineral 3. POPULATION GROWTH deposit – there is a natural occurrence of a useful Population size increases through births and material. While ore deposits denote a mineral immigration and decreases through deaths and deposit of sufficient extent and concentration for emigration it to be extracted. 4. POPULATION FOSSIL FUEL DEPLETION Pollution comes in different forms (solid, liquid, Fossil fuel depletion is the decline of available gaseous) and composition (organic, inorganic) fossil fuel in a well, field or geographic area. In and causes a wide range of direct and indirect 1956, the geologist M. King Hubbert made a effects on ecosystems and living organisms prediction that the world will reach peak oil – the including humans (plastics, organochlorines) time when the production rate of oil has been attained and production enters an irreversible 5. CLIMATE CHANGE decline. Global warming has the potential of generating large-scale and longterm changes in the climate 6. OVEREXPLOITATION DEFORESTATION Over-exploitation of forests for timber and other The forest is home to a lot of biodiversity. In the non-timber products, either legally or illegally, has 1900s, the Philippine forest cover is about 85% decimated the native vegetation cover declining in 2019 to 18% with less than 3% of this remaining forest cover as original (virgin) forest. Monitoring Philippine Biodiversity: NIPAS Deforestation rate was at highest in the 1980s at - The National Integrated Protected Areas around 150,000 hectares per year. System Act of 1992 (Republic Act No. 7586, NIPAS Act) IMPORTANCE OF FOREST ECOSYSTEMS 1. Source of Food - The NIPAS Act provides the legal framework for 2. Source of raw materials (furniture, clothes, the establishment and management of protected shelter) areas (PAs) in the Philippines 3. Climate control and modification - RA 11038 : E-NIPAS Act of 2018 4. Disaster Risk Reduction 5. Source of medicine Monitoring Philippine Biodiversity: IUCN 6. Tourism value - International Union for the Conservation of 7. Air and water purification Nature 8. Social and Cultural value - The global authority on the status of the natural These importance of the forest ecosystems when world and the measures needed to safeguard given a monetary value or the cost of benefits is accounted it is called the value of ecosystem services of the forest. Monitoring Philippine Biodiversity: CITES OVERFISHING - Convention in the International Trade of Millions of people all over the world rely on natural Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna waters for their staple food and income. This means that thousands of fish and other aquatic resources are captured daily to meet the growing demand for them. As more depends on fish, Effect of oceans and seas continue to face the threat of rainfall and depleting supply of fish and other resources from weather waters. IMPACTS OF OVERFISHING AREA IMPACT IMPACTS OF MINING AREA BENEFITS COST Social Source of livelihood and nutritional needs of many Social Employment Loss of people. of Locals cultural value Economic Decline of fish population and in ancestral less fish stocks. lands Environmental Destroy marine ecology and Economic Additional Once disrupt the food chain, Revenue minerals are depleted, no more POVERTY, HUNGER, AND THREATS TO revenue FOOD SECURITY Environmental Minerals can’t be 1. Undernourishment: the share of the population replenished that is undernourished (i.e., whose caloric intake is insufficient); Loss of biodiversity 2. Child wasting: the share of children under the age of five who are wasted (i.e., who have low weight for their height, reflecting acute Soil erosion undernutrition); 3. Child stunting: the share of children under the age of five who are stunted (i.e., who have low IMPACTS OF FOSSIL FUEL DEPLETION height for their age, reflecting chronic AREA BENEFITS COST undernutrition); Social Employment Profit-driven 4. Child mortality: the mortality rate of children of Locals and under the age of five (in part, a reflection of the production is fatal limited access FOOD SECURITY AND ITS MAIN THREATS Economic Cheapest Expensive Food security is of fundamental importance for source of extraction human existence. Food security exists when all energy cost people, at all times, have physical, social and Environmental Pollution economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food Global preferences for an active and healthy life. Warming Physical food availability IMPACTS OF DEFORESTATION - The national food economy ensures meeting of AREA BENEFITS COST at least the minimum physiological demand, and imports provide foods in excess of this minimum Social Employment Loss of demand. of Locals safety net for diseases Economical food availability Economic Revenues Loss of - It means that the economically weakest from sale of ecosystem households have access to essential food (due to lumber services different types of food aid); a consumer has Environmental Soil erosion purchasing power to facilitate the purchase of the essential goods and services on the market. The Health Value Of A Single Food Product Water is one of the most important factors - This means that food products are free of any deciding the fate of a human being. The available substances harmful to health (e.g. residues of drinking water constitutes only 1% of global water pesticides, antibiotics, dioxins, and harmful resources. colorants, poisonous substances and pathogenic microorganisms) and consumer food rations The Food Losses And Food Waste (balanced food rations such as necessary energy Food losses occur primarily in the low-income level and the adequate proportions of nutritive countries as a result of the lack of adequate components dependent on age, sex and type of infrastructure. Food losses occur mainly at the work). production stage, and minimally at the stage of consumption. Main Threat To Food Security ATMOSPHERE AND CLIMATE CHANGE The food system is intensely challenged by the The atmosphere helps protect living organisms world population growth, increased food demand, from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation, scarcity of water and land resources. solar wind and cosmic rays. The atmosphere Population growth helps protect living organisms from genetic The rapid growth of the world’s population damage by solar ultraviolet radiation, solar wind resulting mainly from the high birth rate in the and cosmic energy. The atmosphere of Earth is developing countries. In countries with high mostly composed of nitrogen (78%), oxygen population but scare in resources, feeding the (21%), argon (0.9%) with carbon dioxide and people is one big problem. other gases in trace amounts. Increase demand for food Due to unequal access to food, about a fourth of the world’s population is undernourished, and 10% is starving. Global economic growth results in increased wealth of the global population, higher demand of food, and changes in consumption patterns dominated by the consumption of animal products, especially meat and meat products. Food price Global food crisis that began with the sudden increase in food prices all over the world. The increase in prices is being felt the most by the millions of the poorest people. The Disappearance Of The Variety Of Agricultural Plant Species Biodiversity in agriculture includes, in addition to natural habitats and wild species of plants and animals, genetic resources for agriculture, which consists of local crop varieties and livestock breeds. Diversification of agriculture is the only and most important method of achieving food security in a changing climate. The greater number of species and varieties in one field or in a single ecosystem, the greater the likelihood that some of them can cope with changes in the environment. The Increase In The Area Of Scarcity Water And The Limitation Of The Availability Of Land SIGNIFICANT ATMOSPHERIC GASES SOURCES OF EMISSIONS Nitrogen A gas which is fixed by bacteria and MAN-MADE SOURCES: lightning to produce 1. Burning of fossil fuels: coming from ammonia. households, industry, electricity Oxygen A gas used by most generation and transport organisms for 2. Industrial processes and solvent use: respiration. exemplified by chemical and mining Argon A noble gas obtained industries from the air as a 3. Agriculture: Most farm-related byproduct of oxygen emissions come in the form of methane and nitrogen. (CH4) from cattle belching and nitrous Carbon Dioxide Trace gases used for oxide (N2O) from natural or synthetic photosynthesis. fertilizers and wastes to soils Water Vapor A gas found in the 4. Waste treatment: These treatment lower layer of the plants produce direct emissions of atmosphere. greenhouse gases such as carbon Carbon is the main component of biological dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and compounds and many mineral deposits like nitrous oxide (N2O) limestone. NATURAL SOURCES: The carbon cycle is the exchange of Carbon among four reservoirs: the atmosphere, the 1. Volcanic eruptions: These emit water oceans, land, and fossil fuels. vapor and toxic gases into the atmosphere such as carbon dioxide, Carbon may be transferred from one reservoir to sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, another in seconds or over decades or millennia hydrochloric acid and carbon monoxide. through deposition and diagenesis of organic 2. Windblown dust or Soil dust: This is matter. emitted through wind erosion and wildfires. IMPORTANCE OF CARBON CYCLE: - Carbon forms the structure of all life on OTHER: Earth as it makes up about 50% of the dry weight of all life forms. 1. Sea-salt spray: Also called sea salt - The carbon cycle approximates the flows aerosol, contributes significantly to the of energy around the Earth, and the global gas emission. metabolism of every system- be it natural, 2. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): human or industrial. These are chemical substances - The Earth's average temperature without produced and emitted by plants and the greenhouse gases would be −33°C. other organisms in gaseous form, specifically composed of carbon. HOW DOES CARBON CYCLE AFFECT GLOBAL WARMING? CHANGING THE GLOBAL CLIMATE The carbon cycle plays a key role in regulating Influential greenhouse gases in the form of air Earth's global temperature and climate by pollutants can cause depletion of ozone layer in controlling the amount of carbon dioxide in the the atmosphere. atmosphere. The greenhouse effect itself is a Ozone depleting substances damage the ozone naturally occurring phenomenon that makes layer, allowing the UV radiation to pass through. Earth warm enough for life to exist. REGULATORY BODIES GOVERNING AIR The increased use of fossil fuels has drawn POLLUTION concern in the carbon cycle because of the The Kyoto Protocol imbalance in the release and consumption of - an international treaty among carbon dioxide in nature industrialized nations that sets mandatory limits on greenhouse gas emissions.  - implemented the objective of the THREATS TO WATER SUPPLY AND UNFCCC to reduce the onset of global ACCESSIBILITY warming by reducing greenhouse gas Water supply and accessibility is becoming a concentrations in the atmosphere to "a major source of economic, social and political level that would prevent dangerous concerns across the globe. anthropogenic interference with the climate system 1. Climate Change -The water cycle is the process by which water is The Montreal Protocol recyled through the planet’s atmosphere and all - an international treaty designed to its waterways makes life possible on Earth. This protect the ozone layer by phasing out has been ongoing since the Earth was formed the production of numerous substances more than 3.5 billion years ago. that are responsible for ozone depletion. - is gradually eliminating the production 2. Biodiversity loss and consumption of ozone depleting -Water is required to support biodiversity. Without substances to limit their damage to the access to water, biodiversity losses will become earth's ozone layer. its consequence. At the same time, biodiversity is also critical to the maintenance of both the quality The Clean Air Act RA 8749 and quantity water. - Republic Act No. 8749, otherwise known as the Philippine Clean Air Act, is a 3. Water Pollution comprehensive air quality management - here are three types of freshwater sources: policy and program which aims to - Green (rainwater). Green water or achieve and maintain healthy air for all rainwater quality is affected by air pollution. The Filipinos. higher concentration of air pollutants present in the atmosphere, the lower is the water quality of ISSUES ON WATER rainwater and this may affect crops and They say that “water is the next oil”. This means infrastructure. that water is becoming a more valuable - Blue (surface water). Blue water or commodity than oil. surface water (e.g. lakes, rivers and streams) are polluted by gray water. INDIVIDUAL DIRECT WATER CONSUMPTION - Gray water (polluted water). Water Direct water consumption is the water utilized coming from domestic, agricultural and industrial firsthand by an individual or group. It is the water sources. used for bathing, gardening, washing, drinking and other activities where there is a direct 4. Urbanization interaction with water. -Urbanization is the process through which human settlements grow and become cities. This INDIRECT WATER CONSUMPTION (VIRTUAL is caused by higher and higher percentages of the WATER) population comes to live due to greater economic The amount of direct water usage of humans opportunities. In the Philippines, 63% of the constitutes only about 3% of the total usage of population live in urban areas. freshwater worldwide. Most of the remaining 97%