Language Variation: Focus On Uses PDF

CHAPTER IV. LANGUAGE VARIATION: FOCUS ON USES Ms. Beanley Mangawan TOPICS TO BE DISCUSSED IV. Language Variation: Focus on Uses A. Language Planning and Language Policy B. Style, Context and Register C. Gender, Politeness and Stereotypes D. Language, Cognition and Culture E. Atti...

CHAPTER IV. LANGUAGE VARIATION: FOCUS ON USES Ms. Beanley Mangawan TOPICS TO BE DISCUSSED IV. Language Variation: Focus on Uses A. Language Planning and Language Policy B. Style, Context and Register C. Gender, Politeness and Stereotypes D. Language, Cognition and Culture E. Attitudes and Applications Language Planning and Language Policy Language planning and policy was revitalized mostly after the newly independent states, in the post-colonial era, needed to reconstruct their identity (including language) in a context of multi ethno- linguistic diverse populace. Language planning and policy come to solve many problems and conflicts in these states: 1. Such as the multilingual geographical spread that may cause miscommunication between people of the same nation. 2. Which language (s) is/are going to be selected and standardized as the official language (s) of these states. Language Planning and Language Policy Language planning-an all conscious (deliberate efforts) that aim at changing the linguistic behavior (function, structure, or acquisition) of a certain speech community. This planning is often associated with government planning, yet it can be done by NGO or individuals. Language policy is a set of rules and regulations that determine how languages are used in a country ir society. It can involve : Allocating resources Setting official languages Promoting bilingualism Spelling reforms Adding new words  Language Planning Principles 1. Assimilation This principle states that every person within society should be fluent in that society’s dominant language. For example: In the USA, the “Only- English Movement” maintains that everyone in the US should speak English well, regardless of their first language. Though, the United States never had a legislation that explicitly declares that English is the official language, yet it is the language used in education, official setting. 2. Linguistic Pluralism It is the opposite of assimilation. This principle teaches that it is better to have multiple languages within society. For example: Switzerland with French, German, Italian and Romans (all as official languages) Singapore has English, Malay, Tamil and Chinese as official languages.  Language Planning Principles 3. Vernacularization It is a principle that wants to restore a native language into a commonly spoken language. For example: Jews from around the world gathered in the so-called “Israel” and revived the Hebrew language with success. 4. Internationalization This principle promotes adopting a non-indigenous language in order to communicate easily with other nations. For example: English now is considered to be global language and is taught worldwide.  Stages of Language Planning 1. Selection It refers to the choice of a language variety to fulfill certain functions in a given society. 2. Codification It is the creation of a linguistic standard or norm for a selected linguistic code. It is divided up into three stages: a) Graphization – developing a writing system. b) Grammaticalization – deciding on rules/norms of grammar c) Lexicalization – identifying the vocabulary 3. Implementation It is promoting the previous stages (selection, codification) by making society more exposed to this language by the production of books, newspapers, education, administration, etc… 4. Elaboration It is the stylistic development of a codified language to meet the communicative demands of modern life and technology.  Levels of Language Planning 1. Status Planning It refers to the social and political position a language will be assigned. This level is done by the government officials. It includes the “selection” and the “implementation” stages. For example: In Quebec, Canada, politicians have raised the status of French by ordering that signs must give French more prominence. 2. Corpus Planning It refers to changes or standardization of certain elements of the language. (E.g. Lexicon, orthography). This level includes “codification” and “elaboration” And it is done by sociolinguist (linguists in general). 3. Acquisition Planning It is usually done by government officials or private organizations that control textbooks and dictionaries. For example: Irish officials ordered that Irish Gaelic must be taught/ used at least one hour of school every day.  Style, Context, and Register Language varies according to its uses as well as its users, according to where it is used and to whom, as well as according to who is using it. The influence of the addressee on the speaker’s language, exemplifying from less formal contexts where solidarity between participants is an important influence on speech style. Addressee as an influence on style The better you know someone, the more casual and relaxed the speech style you will use to them. People use considerably more standard forms to those they don’t know well, and more vernacular forms to their friends. The speaker’s relationship to the addressee is crucial in determining the appropriate style of speaking. Age of addressee People generally talk differently to children and to adults – though some adjusts their speech style or accommodate more than others. Many speakers also use a different style in addressing elderly people, often with features similar to those which characterize their speech to children – a simpler range of vocabulary and less complex grammar.  Accommodation Theory – Howard Giles Speech convergence In other words, each person’s speech converges towards the speech of the person they are talking to. This process is called speech accommodation. It tends to happen when the speakers like one another, or where one speaker has a vested interest in pleasing the other or putting them at ease. Converging towards the speech of another person is usually a polite speech strategy, it implies that the addressee’s speech is acceptable and worth imitating. How do speakers accommodate? When people simplify their vocabulary and grammar in talking to foreigners or children, they are converging downwards towards the lesser linguistic proficiency of their addressees. In multilingual countries with many varieties to choose from, people may accommodate to others by selecting the code that is most comfortable for their addressees.  Accommodation Theory Speech convergence In other words, each person’s speech converges towards the speech of the person they are talking to. This process is called speech accommodation. It tends to happen when the speakers like one another, or where one speaker has a vested interest in pleasing the other or putting them at ease. Converging towards the speech of another person is usually a polite speech strategy, it implies that the addressee’s speech is acceptable and worth imitating. EXAMPLES: Moving to another Writing a letter A native speaker part of the counry applying for a job making their language easier to A parent speaking A student talking a non-native to a young child to a teacher speaker Accommodation Theory Convergence  Accommodation Theory Speech divergence For obvious reasons, the respondents deliberately diverged from the speech style, and even the language, of the person addressing them. Deliberately choosing a language not used by one’s addressee is the clearest example of speech divergence. Speech divergence does not always reflect a speaker’s negative attitudes towards the addressees. Where the divergent forms are admired, divergence can be used to benefit the diverger. Accommodation problems Reactions to speech convergence and divergence depend on the reason people think the convergence or divergence is going on. If divergence is perceived as unavoidable, for instance, then the reaction will be more tolerant then when it is considered deliberate. When people come from different backgrounds or have different experiences this may cause occasional problems. An accurate interpretation of a person’s speech behavior in such cases obviously involves considering more than just the influence of the addressee. The best way of solving an accommodation problem will depend on the context.  Accommodation Theory Speech divergence For obvious reasons, the respondents deliberately diverged from the speech style, and even the language, of the person addressing them. Deliberately choosing a language not used by one’s addressee is the clearest example of speech divergence. Speech divergence does not always reflect a speaker’s negative attitudes towards the addressees. Where the divergent forms are admired, divergence can be used to benefit the diverger. EXAMPLES: Someone trying to Writing an article Writing a letter to People from show off their to create a show frustration different places extensive particular voice who wants to knowledge on a A child in conflict show off their subject with their parent identity  Register Styles are often analyzed along a scale of formality. Register, on the other hand, when they are distinguished from styles, tend to be associated with particular groups of people or sometimes specific situations of use. The term register here describes the language of groups of people with common interests, or jobs, or language used in situations associated with such groups  Register Styles are often analyzed along a scale of formality. Register, on the other hand, when they are distinguished from styles, tend to be associated with particular groups of people or sometimes specific situations of use. The term register here describes the language of groups of people with common interests, or jobs, or language used in situations associated with such groups  Types of Language Registers Frozen A printed, unchanging language, formal, almost scripted phrases that do not vary. For examples, The Bible, The Lord’s Prayer, The Pledge of Allegiance, Laws, Preamble to the PHConstitution, etc. Formal It is a one way communication, no interruptions. It is used in impersonal, formal settings. It follows a commonly accepted format - complete sentences, more complex syntax and specific word usages. Often used to show respect For example, introductions between strangers, rhetorical statements and questions, speeches, pronouncements made by judges, announcements, standard for work, school, public offices and business settings. Consultative It is a two-way participation, professional setting. The background information is provided (prior knowledge is not assumed). Interruptions and feedback fillers allowed (“uh-huh”, “I see”). It is more complex syntax and longer phrases. For example, Doctor:patient, lawyer:client, lawyer:judge, teacher:student, Superior:subordinate, colleagues, peers  Types of Language Registers Casual It is very informal language, ellipsis and slang are common. It has no background information provided. The “group” language – must be a member to use. Interruptions are common. The Context and non-verbal communication are important. Examples: friends and acquaintances, family, teammates, chats and blogs. Intimate It is non-public. The intonation is important as wording and grammar. It is often a private vocabulary. Examples: husband/wife, boyfriend/girlfriend, twins (siblings), pets, etc.  Gender, Politeness and Stereotypes Characteristics of Women’s Speech: Lexical hedges or fillers, e.g. you know, sort of, well, you see. Tag questions, e.g. she’s very nice, isn’t she? Rising intonation on declaratives, e.g. it’s really good. ‘Empty’ adjectives, e.g. divine, charming, cute. Intensifiers such as just and so, e.g. I like him so much. ‘Hypercorrect’ grammar, e.g. consistent use of standard verb forms. ‘Super polite’ forms, e.g. indirect requests, euphemisms. Avoidance of strong swears words, e.g. fudge, my goodness. Emphatic stress, e.g. it was a BRILLIANT performance.  Gender, Politeness and Stereotypes Women’s Language Features: Hedging Devices- reducing the force of an utterance Boosting Devices- intensify a proportion’s force Both of these modifiers were evidence of an unconfident speaker. Hedging devices explicitly signal lack of confidence, while boosting devices express the speaker’s anticipation that the addressee may remain unconvinced and therefore supply extra reassurance. Women use hedging devices to express uncertainty, and they use intensifying devices to persuade their addressee to take them seriously. Women boost the force of their utterances because they think that otherwise they will not be heard or paid attention to. Thus, hedges and boosters express women’s lack of confidence  Gender, Politeness and Stereotypes Politeness The tag question is a syntactic device which may express uncertainty and affective meaning. It may function as facilitative or positive politeness devices, providing an addressee with an easy entrée into a conversation.A tag may also soften a directive or a criticism. Tag Question by Function and Sex of Speaker Tag Function Men Women Express Uncertainty 35 61 Facilitative 59 26 Softening 6 13 TOTAL 100 100 *Women use more politeness devices than the man. Man to Man- fewer politenesses Women to Women- more politeness  Gender, Politeness and Stereotypes Interaction Interrupting Behavior Based on research, women got interrupted more than men. Conversational Feedback According to American studies, women do the more positive feedback to the conversational partner better than men do. Gossip Women Gossiping: Usually consist of experiences, problems, feeling Avoid criticizing people in order not to make the atmosphere becomes discomfort. Men Gossiping: Tend to argue about certain topics, criticized each other and sometimes make the conversational partner feels down.  Language, Cognition and Culture Cognition can be thought of as the act or process of obtaining knowledge, including perceiving, recognizing, reasoning, and judging (Gander & Gardiner, 1981). Cognition involves thinking, knowing, remembering, categorizing, and problem solving. Language refers to a system of symbols that is used to communicate information and knowledge. Language may also determine what people notice, what categories they establish, what choices they believe are available and, consequently, the way they behave. In other words, language may strongly influence perception and behavior. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 1. Structural differences between language systems will, in general, be paralleled by nonlinguistic cognitive differences, of an unspecified sort, in the native speakers of the two languages. 2. The structure of anyone's native language strongly influences or fully determines the world-view he or she will acquire while learning the language.  Language, Cognition and Culture Etic categories This is the approach of biology in using the Linnaean classification system to define new species. It assumes that ultimately, there is an objective reality and that is more important than cultural perceptions of it. Emic categories Involve a classification according to the way in which members of a society classify their own world. It may tell us little about the objective reality but it is very insightful in understanding how other people perceive that reality through the filter of their language and culture. The emic approach investigates how local people think" (Kottak, 2006): How they perceive and categorize the world, their rules for behavior, what has meaning for them, and how they imagine and explain things. The etic (scientist-oriented) approach shifts the focus from local observations, categories, explanations, and interpretations to those of the anthropologist. This approach realizes that members of a culture often are too involved in what they are doing to interpret their cultures impartially. When using the etic approach, the ethnographer emphasizes what he or she considers important.  Attitudes and Applications Language attitude is feelings that people have about their own language variety or the language variety of others. Obiols defines attitude as a “mental disposition towards something”, it acts as a bridge between opinion and behavior (Obiols 2002). Also, Ryan defines language attitudes as “any affective, cognitive or behavioral index of evaluative reactions toward different language varieties or speakers” (Ryan et al. 1982:7) The study of language attitudes is important for sociolinguistics because it can predict a given linguistic behavior: the choice of a particular language in multilingual communities, language loyalty, and language prestige. According to Lambert (1967), attitudes consist of three components: the cognitive, affective and conative components (Dittmar 1976: 181). The cognitive component refers to an individual's belief structure, the affective to emotional reactions and the conative component comprehends the tendency to behave in a certain way towards the attitude (Gardner 1985).  Mentalist and Behaviorist Viewpoint to Language Attitudes 1. The mentalist view, attitudes are a "mental and neutral state of readiness which cannot be observed directly, but must be inferred from the subject's introspection". 2. Behaviorism, attitudes are a dependent variable that can be statistically determined by observing actual behavior in social situations. Someone can show different attitude in communication. Besides, people can show positive or negative attitude. Factors that can influence the language attitude: 1. The prestige and power of the language In many countries around the world an enthusiasm to learning English is not uncommon. Some people assume that learning a foreign language (English for example) will correlate with declining the national loyalty of the learners. However, scholars have learned that the enthusiasm on learning a foreign language is not always correlated with a negative attitude toward the national and cultural feeling of the learners. A research on Japanese children studying English for example, proved that although the learners showed great attraction towards the Western culture as well as the language being studied, they kept holding strong Japanese identify and a language loyalty. 2. Historical background of nations Some Middle East people may not want to study English because they learn from their history that Western people were Colonialist. The view is possibly strengthened with some complicated contemporary disputes between the Western and Arabic (Muslim) cultures. Factors that can influence the language attitude: 3. The Social and Traditional Factor In the society where a diglossic situation is found the higher variety of the language is normally considered as a better form than the lower one. 4. The Language internal system People often show positive attitude towards learning a language because the grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary are relatively easy. As the gender-based nominal system of the languages is difficult to learn when compared to English, students may choose to learn English, instead of French and German. A negative attitude might be also found towards learning Chinese with its complex tonal pronunciation and orthographic system.