Understanding The Self PDF

UNDERSTANDING THE SELF Self Concept Three criteria that are characterize personality traits:  Self-concept is typically defined as our personal perceptions of our...

UNDERSTANDING THE SELF Self Concept Three criteria that are characterize personality traits:  Self-concept is typically defined as our personal perceptions of our  Consistency: For a personality trait to be recognized, individuals must behaviors, abilities, and distinctive traits—a mental image of who we are display a certain level of consistency in their behaviors related to that as individuals. trait across various situations.  Self-concept is typically more adaptable in youth, as individuals navigate  Stability: Those who possess a trait tend to show relative stability in self-discovery and identity formation. With age, self-perceptions become their behaviors associated with it over time. more nuanced and organized, resulting in a clearer understanding of  Individual Differences: People exhibit variability in behaviors related to one's identity and values. the trait. For example, speaking and walking on two feet are not Essential Social Psychology (Richard Crisp and Rhiannon Turner) considered personality traits since almost everyone engages in these  The individual self encompasses the characteristics and personality traits activities with little individual variation. However, individuals do differ in that set us apart from others, such as being introverted or extroverted. how often they talk and their activity levels, which gives rise to  The relational self is shaped by our connections with important people in personality traits like Talkativeness and Activity Level. our lives, including siblings, friends, and partners.  The collective self represents our affiliations with social groups, such as Determinants of Personality being British, Republican, African-American, or belonging to other  Environmental Factors of Personality: The environment in which an communities. individual exists comprises the environmental factors that shape Personality personality.  The term "personality" is etymologically derived from the word  Biological Factors of Personality: "persona," referring to the theatrical masks used by Romans in Greek  Hereditary and Latin plays. It also comes from the Latin words "per" and "sonare,"  : These refer to the genetic makeup inherited from one’s parents. which means "to sound through."  Physical Features: This includes the overall physical characteristics of a  There is no single definition of personality, as various personality person, such as height, weight, skin color, sex, attractiveness, and body theories offer different interpretations. However, a widely accepted language. definition describes personality as the relatively stable traits and unique  Brain: Preliminary findings from research involving electrical stimulation characteristics that provide consistency and individuality to a person’s of the brain (ESB) suggest that a deeper understanding of human behavior (Roberts & Mroczek, 2008). personality and behavior may emerge from studying the brain.  Personality plays a crucial role in how individuals navigate their lives. It  Situational Factors of Personality: Although these factors do not encompasses the complex interactions between people and their fundamentally shape an individual’s personality, they can affect a environments, influencing how they cope with challenges and respond to person's behavior and reactions in various situations. both physical and social demands.  Cultural Factors Culture is widely seen as a key influence on an  Personality is the comprehensive integration of various aspects of a individual’s personality. It plays a significant role in defining who a person person, including their behaviors, attitudes, aptitudes, interests, is and what they learn throughout their life. intellectual abilities, and other distinctive traits. It consists of several  Situational Factors of Personality: While these factors do not components, such as physical self, intelligence, character traits, attitudes, fundamentally create or shape a person’s personality, they can modify habits, interests, personal discipline, moral values, and life principles. how individuals behave and respond in different contexts.  Personality refers to the distinctive ways in which individuals differ from  Cultural Factors: Culture is traditionally viewed as a major determinant one another. Personality psychologists aim to describe and analyze of personality, significantly impacting a person's identity and the these differences. knowledge they acquire.  Gordon Allport and other "personologists" argued that the best way to understand individual differences is through personality traits. These The Five-Factor Model of Personality (Lewis Goldberg) traits represent fundamental dimensions along which people vary  Openness: The inclination to appreciate new forms of art, ideas, values, (Matthews, Deary, & Whiteman, 2003). emotions, and behaviors. EXAMPLES OF POSITIVE PERSONALITY  Conscientiousness: The tendency to be diligent, punctual for  Honesty and accountability are commendable qualities appointments, rule-abiding, and hardworking.  Adaptability and compatibility are valuable traits that foster good  Extraversion: The tendency to be outgoing, sociable, and enjoy relationships with others. interacting with others; often exhibiting a dominant personality style.  Drive and determination enable you to persevere in any situation.  Agreeableness: The inclination to agree and cooperate with others  Compassion and understanding help you connect effectively with others. rather than assert one’s own opinions and choices.  Patience is both a virtue and a positive personality trait.  Neuroticism: The tendency to frequently experience negative emotions  Courage empowers you to do what is right in challenging circumstances. such as anger, anxiety, and sadness, along with heightened sensitivity in  Loyalty is an admirable quality that builds trust with others. interpersonal situations. EXAMPLES OF NEGATIVE TRAITS Understanding oneself is crucial for comprehending the behaviors and beliefs  A tendency to lie to evade responsibility is an undesirable quality. that influence both ourselves and others, particularly in becoming effective and  Rigidity and selfishness, along with a refusal to consider others' needs, successful in life, work, and relationships. Additionally, self-understanding: are unappealing traits. 1. Provides a sense of purpose  Laziness and making excuses are likely to push people away. 2. Fosters healthier relationships  A lack of empathy can create distance between you and others. 3. Helps you tap into your natural strengths  Being easily angered can drive people away. 4. Boosts confidence  Disloyalty, gossiping about others, or betraying them for personal gain THE SELF ACCORDING TO PHILOSOPHY are also significant negative personality traits.  St. Augustine Around 600 BCE in ancient Athens, philosophy—meaning "Love of Wisdom"—  He is regarded as the last of the great ancient philosophers whose ideas were emerged, profoundly influencing Western thought to this day. For instance, the Greek heavily influenced by Platonic thought. philosophers in Miletus chose to seek natural explanations for events and phenomena,  By integrating philosophy with religious beliefs, Augustine is often described as rather than relying on supernatural accounts from the gods, which had been the norm Christianity’s first theologian. for generations. They observed the changes in the world and aimed to understand  Similar to Plato, Augustine held that the physical body differs from the immortal these changes by exploring the laws of nature. This inquiry into change eventually soul. inspired the idea of permanence.  Early in his philosophical journey, he described the body as a “snare” or “cage” for the soul, asserting that the body acts as a “slave” to the soul and that “the While early philosophers worked to explain the workings of the world through elements, soul makes war with the body.” mathematics, celestial bodies, and even atoms, another group turned their attention to  Later, he began to see the body as the “spouse” of the soul, with both connected humanity. They aimed to understand human nature, moral dilemmas, and life by a “natural appetite.” philosophies. Shifting from inquiries about the universe, their questions began to focus  He concluded, “The body is united with the soul so that man may be whole and on the inner world of individuals, such as: Who am I? Why am I here? What do I complete; this is a fact we recognize based on our own nature.” want from life?  He asserted that true happiness can only be found in God, for God is love, and He created humans to love as well. As philosophical inquiry turned to the nature of human beings, Athens became the  Problems arise from the objects that humans choose to love. epicenter of Western thought. In the 5th century BCE, it thrived as a city-state and a  Disordered love occurs when individuals love the wrong things, believing these democracy (Moore and Bruder, 2002). Athenians resolved disputes through discussion will bring them happiness. and debate, with those skilled in these practices known as sophists, the first teachers of  Moreover, he stated that if a person loves God first and everything else in a the West. These debates prompted critical examination and reevaluation of the lesser capacity, then all things will fall into their rightful place. accepted standards of behavior within Athenian society. According to Plato Human nature consists of two realms: 1. God as the source of all reality and truth. Through mystical experiences, Socrates humans can access eternal truths, made possible by the existence of the one  A philosopher from Athens, Greece, who had a profound influence on European eternal truth, which is God. He emphasized that without God as the source of all thought. truth, humans would be unable to grasp eternal truths.  Known primarily through the writings of his student, Plato. 2. The sinfulness of humanity. The origin of sin or evil stems from the exercise of  Associated with the Socratic Method, also called the dialectic method. human free will. Moral goodness can only be attained through the grace of God.  The Delphic Oracle served as a foundational element of his philosophy. Rene Descartes  The self is dichotomous.  A French philosopher and mathematician, Descartes is regarded as the founder  A human is made up of both body and soul. The body is part of the physical of modern philosophy. realm, characterized by change, imperfection, and mortality, while the soul  His famous principle "cogito, ergo sum"—“I think, therefore I exist”—established belongs to the ideal realm, as it endures beyond death. Socrates used the term his philosophical views on “true knowledge” and the concept of self. "soul" to refer to the self.  He argued that to attain true knowledge, one must doubt everything, including  The self is considered an immortal and unified entity that remains consistent one’s own existence. over time.  The essence of human identity lies in the capacity for self-awareness; being  For example, a person retains their identity from childhood to adulthood, despite self-conscious is essential to having a personal identity. experiencing developmental changes throughout their life.  - The self is a dynamic entity involved in mental operations, including thinking, reasoning, and perceiving. Plato  Self-identity relies on the awareness of participating in these mental processes. There are three part of soul/self:  He asserted that the essential self, or the self as a thinking entity, is 1. Reason allows humans to think deeply, make wise choices, and attain a true fundamentally distinct from the physical body. The thinking self or soul is a non- understanding of eternal truths, which Plato referred to as the divine essence. material, immortal, conscious being, independent of the physical laws of the universe, whereas the physical body is a material, mortal, non-thinking entity, 2. Physical appetite encompasses the fundamental biological needs of human entirely governed by the laws of nature. beings, including hunger, thirst, and sexual desire.  He argued that the soul and body are independent entities, each capable of existing and functioning without the other. For example, when people are 3. Spirit or passion represents the basic emotions of humans, such as love, anger, sleeping or in a coma, their bodies continue to operate even though their minds ambition, aggressiveness, and empathy. are not active, similar to the mechanisms of a clock.  He defined the physical self as part of nature, governed by the physical laws of 4. According to Plato, it is the responsibility of reason to organize, control, and the universe and subject to scientific analysis and experimentation. In contrast, restore harmony among these three elements. the conscious self (mind, soul) belongs to the spiritual realm, operating independently of physical laws and governed only by the laws of reason and  In “Phaedrus,” Plato illustrated his perspective on the soul/self using the God’s will. Because it exists outside the natural realm of cause and effect, the metaphor of a winged chariot pulled by two powerful horses: a white horse conscious self is able to exercise free will in its choices. symbolizing Spirit and a black horse representing appetite. John Locke  An English philosopher and physician, Locke is renowned for his concept of  The charioteer, representing reason, is responsible for guiding the chariot “Tabula Rasa,” or Blank Slate, which emphasizes the importance of nurture in toward the eternal realm by managing the two independent-minded horses. human development.  According to Locke, the self is identified with consciousness.  While Locke and Descartes both viewed a person or the self as a thinking, intelligent being capable of reflection and reasoning, Locke did not share the belief of Plato, St. Augustine, and Descartes that the individual self is necessarily rooted in a single soul or substance.  For Locke, personal identity and the soul or substance housing that identity are  According to Freud, individual behavior is driven by two kinds of instinct: Eros, or fundamentally distinct concepts. the life instinct, and Thanatos, or the death instinct.  Ultimately, Locke's theory posits that the self is not connected to any specific  The energy associated with Eros is called libido, which encompasses urges body or substance; instead, it exists across different times and places due to the essential for individual and species survival, such as thirst, hunger, and sex. continuity of memory associated with those experiences.  In contrast, when human behavior is directed toward destruction through Reflective analysis of how an individual may experience the self in everyday aggression and violence, it reflects the manifestations of Thanatos. living according to John Locke:  Thanatos can lead individuals to experience aggression, engage in risky 1. To explore the nature of personal identity, it is essential to understand what it behaviors, and revisit past traumas, while Eros promotes survival, reproduction, means to be a person. and social cooperation. 2. A person is a thinking, intelligent being capable of reasoning and reflection. Gilbert Ryle 3. A person also perceives themselves as the same individual across different  A British analytical philosopher. times and places.  He was a key figure in the field of Linguistic Analysis, which aimed to solve 4. Consciousness, the awareness of our own thoughts, accompanies the thinking philosophical puzzles through language analysis. process and is a crucial aspect of it.  According to Ryle, the self is best understood as a pattern of behavior, 5. Consciousness enables us to believe that we maintain the same identity in representing a tendency or disposition for a person to act in specific ways under various times and locations. certain circumstances. David Hume  He challenged the ideas of previous philosophers, asserting that they stemmed  He was a Scottish philosopher and an empiricist. from a confused type of conceptual thinking he called "category mistake."  He argued that there is no self.  A category mistake occurs when we discuss the self as if it exists independently  In his essay titled “On Personal Identity” (1739), he stated that upon careful of the physical body, portraying it as a purely mental entity that exists in time but examination of our experiences, we find only two distinct entities: "impressions" not in space. and "ideas." Immanuel Khant  Impressions are the fundamental sensations of our experience and serve as  A German philosopher, he made significant contributions to the fields of the elemental data of our minds, including feelings like pain, pleasure, heat, cold, metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Kant is widely regarded as the greatest happiness, grief, fear, and exhilaration. philosopher of the modern period.  Ideas, on the other hand, are replicas of impressions, encompassing thoughts  Kant argued that the individual self is crucial for making the experience of the and images formed from our primary impressions through various relationships. world comprehensible, as it is responsible for synthesizing discrete data from However, because they are derivative copies of impressions, they are one step sense experiences into a coherent and meaningful whole. removed from reality.  The self is what enables consciousness, allowing individuals to make sense of  Hume argued that the self does not exist, as all experiences are merely their experiences. It helps each person gain insight and knowledge. Without the perceptions, including the perception of the self. self's synthesizing function, experiences would be a chaotic and insignificant  He noted that there are times when an individual’s perception is limited, such as collection of sensations. during sleep. Similarly, when a person dies, all empirical senses cease, leading  The self is a product of reason and acts as a regulative principle, as it organizes him to conclude that it is illogical to believe the self continues to exist in any form. experiences into a unified whole. Unlike Hume's view, Kant's self is not merely  Hume further explained that the self experienced by an individual is essentially a an object of consciousness; rather, it makes consciousness understandable and fictional construct. Humans create this imaginary entity to unify mental events distinctive. and bring order to their lives, but this "fictional self" lacks real existence.  Transcendental apperception occurs when individuals do not experience the self Sigmund Freud directly; instead, it is perceived as a unity of all impressions organized by the  A well-known Australian psychologist, he is recognized as the Father and mind. Founder of Psychoanalysis. His influence on psychology and therapy has been  Kant concluded that all objects of knowledge, including the self, are phenomenal, significant and continues to be prominent from the 20th to the 21st century. asserting that the true nature of things remains unknown and unknowable.  He proposed a dualistic view of the self that encompasses both the conscious  For Kant, the kingdom of God exists within humanity, as God is manifested in self and the unconscious self. people's lives. Therefore, individuals should strive for perfection, with an emphasis on viewing duty as a divine command.  American philosophers focused on the philosophy of mind, philosophy of science, cognitive neurobiology, epistemology, and perception. Paula and Patricia Churchland  The Churchlands argue that the concepts and theoretical vocabulary people use to discuss the self—terms like belief, desire, fear, sensation, pain, and joy— misrepresent the true nature of minds and selves.  He illustrated his concept using the metaphor of an iceberg, where the tip  Paul contends that the self is a product of brain activity. represents conscious awareness that characterizes a person’s interactions with  The behavior of the self is linked to neuropharmacological states and neural the external world. activity in specific areas of the brain.  However, observable behavior is influenced by the workings of the  Patricia Churchland coined the term "neurophilosophy," which represents a subconscious or unconscious mind. modern scientific inquiry into how neurology addresses longstanding  The subconscious acts as a repository for past experiences, repressed philosophical issues. memories, fantasies, and urges.  The philosophy of neuroscience studies the intersections of philosophy of  Id: This aspect operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate science, neuroscience, and psychology, focusing on the relevance of gratification without regard for societal expectations. neurolinguistic experiments and studies to the philosophy of the mind.  Ego: This structure is based on the reality principle, mediating between the  Patricia Churchland argued that the brain is responsible for the identity known impulses of the id and the constraints imposed by the superego. as the self, asserting that the brain's biochemical properties underlie our  Super ego: This component is rooted in the moral principle, learned through thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. understanding right and wrong. Its moral judgments are heavily influenced by  Paul Churchland, among other philosophers and psychologists, approached the childhood upbringing, particularly through experiences of rewards and self from a materialistic perspective, positing that mental states are ultimately punishments. identical to, reducible to, or explainable in terms of physical brain states.  This viewpoint stems from the understanding that physiological processes in the Stages of Self Formation body directly influence an individual's mental state. - Preparatory Stage  This assumption arises from the understanding that physiological processes in  Mead argued that the self is not present at birth but develops gradually over time, the body directly influence an individual's mental state. influenced by social interactions and experiences.  The advancement of sophisticated technology and scientific research offers  During this stage, children's behaviors largely consist of imitation; they tend to promising insights into the relationship between the physical body and the mimic the actions of those around them. mind/brain connection integral to the self.  Understanding and recognizing symbols is crucial at this stage, as it forms the  As an eliminative materialist, he argues for the development of a new foundation for how they will communicate with others throughout their lives. vocabulary and conceptual framework rooted in neuroscience. Play Stage  This new framework aims to provide a more accurate representation of the  Proficiency in recognizing and understanding communication symbols is vital, as human mind and self. this forms the foundation of socialization.  Through communication, children begin to establish social relationships, Maurice Merleau-Ponty engaging in role play and pretending to be others.  A French philosopher and phenomenologist.  Role-taking during the play stage involves mentally adopting the perspective of  He approached the self and the mind/body problem from a unique perspective, another person to understand how they might act or respond in specific arguing that the separation between the "mind" and the "body" results from situations (Schefer, 2012). confused thinking.  The play stage is crucial for self-development, as it allows children to broaden  He proposed that both the world and the sense of self are emergent phenomena their perspectives and acknowledge that they are not alone; they must consider in the continuous process of human becoming. the presence and feelings of others around them.  Phenomenology offers a direct description of human experience that guides Game Stage conscious actions.  At this stage, typically around eight or nine years old, children progress beyond  He emphasized that the world acts as a field of perception, where human simple role-taking. They start to consider multiple tasks and different types of consciousness assigns meaning to it. relationships at once.  Therefore, individuals cannot separate themselves from their perceptions of the  Building on the lessons learned in the previous stage, children begin to world. Perception is not solely the outcome of sensations or purely recognize their own perspective as well as those of others. interpretations; rather, consciousness encompasses both sensing and  In this final phase of self-development, children can respond to not just one, but interpreting/reasoning. several members of their social environment. Generalized Other TheSelf According Sociology  This concept refers to the ability to recognize and consider the attitudes and  Sociology and Anthropology are interconnected fields that help us understand perspectives of others in society, as well as our expected roles within that ourselves. society.  Sociology views the self as shaped by modern society, focusing on human  Through the generalized other, individuals come to understand that people in development, social structures, interactions, and collective behaviors. society adhere to cultural norms, beliefs, and values, which become integrated  Anthropology examines humanity as a whole, employing an interdisciplinary into their own sense of self. This understanding informs how they evaluate approach to explore human culture throughout history and in contemporary themselves and their actions. contexts.  For example, a child learns to observe societal norms, such as waiting their turn,  The term "Sociology" originates from the French word "sociologie," a hybrid using polite expressions like "please" and "thank you," and showing respect for created in 1830 by the French philosopher Isidore Auguste Comte (1798-1857). authority figures. It combines the Latin word "socius," meaning "companion," with the Greek Mead identifies two phases of self: suffix "-ology," which means "the study of" or "knowledge."  The first phase reflects the attitude of the generalized other, referred to as the  Sociology views the self as a product of modern society. It is a scientific "me." discipline that examines the development, structure, interaction, and collective  The second phase responds to the attitude of the generalized other, known as behavior of humans. As a branch of social sciences, sociology seeks to the "I." understand how social environments influence people's thoughts, feelings, and  In Mead's terms, the "me" represents the social self, while the "I" is the behaviors. While its primary focus is on human societies, awareness of social individual's response to the "me." processes can help individuals better understand themselves by recognizing the  The "me" is characterized as a conventional, habitual individual, whereas the "I" impact of the social world on their lives. represents the unique and spontaneous reaction of the individual to the George Herbert Mead and the Social Self generalized other.  George Herbert Mead was an American philosopher, sociologist, and  Mead's theory views the self as a perspective that develops through interactions. psychologist, recognized as a key figure in the development of social He believes that the meanings of symbols, social objects, and the self emerge psychology and the American sociological tradition. from negotiated interactions among individuals.  He proposed that the self encompasses an individual’s entire conscious The self as a construct influenced by modern society and other factors. awareness of their identity as separate from others. Georg Simmel  Mead contended that the self, much like the mind, emerges through social  was a German sociologist, philosopher, and critic who focused on the effects of interactions, indicating that individual identities are shaped by social contexts modern, objective culture on individuals' subjective experiences. rather than being purely logical or biological.  Unlike Mead, Simmel argued that there is an innate aspect of human nature  Mead asserted that the self is a developmental process that is not present at present within individuals. birth.  This human nature includes inherent traits, such as the natural inclination toward  The self emerges through social experiences and activities, shaped by religious impulses or gender differences. relationships within the broader social context and with other individuals. In  He also emphasized that many of our social interactions stem from individual essence, one cannot fully understand their self in isolation; interaction with motivations. others is essential.  As a social thinker, Georg Simmel distinguished between subjective and  The social emergence of the self develops through three key forms of objective culture. intersubjective activity: language, play, and games.  Subjective culture pertains to an individual's capacity to engage with, utilize, and experience culture.  Objective culture consists of elements that are detached from individual or group Ervin Goffman control, recognized as separate entities.  Erving Goffman is well-known for his influential work, "The Presentation of Self  According to Simmel, several interconnected forces in modern society contribute in Everyday Life." In this book, he observed that individuals learn to tailor their to the growth of objective culture. These include urbanization, the influence of self-presentation during social interactions to create preferred appearances and money, and the structure of social networks. meet the expectations of others. He described this process of adjusting how one Urbanization presents themselves to others as "impression management."  Urbanization is the process that shifts populations from rural areas to urban  In Goffman's analysis of everyday interactions, he draws parallels between centers. social behavior and theatrical performances. This led to the term "dramaturgical  This transition leads to the concentration of people in specific locations, driven approach" to describe his perspective, emphasizing that individuals present by industrialization. themselves in ways similar to actors on a stage, adapting their behavior based  As a result, labor becomes more organized and specialized, fostering a more on the social context and audience. objective culture.  Goffman also introduced the term "face-work" to describe another aspect of the  Simmel emphasized that the consumption of products has both an individuating self. This concept typically applies to situations where individuals employ face- and trivializing effect, as it allows individuals to shape their identities through saving strategies to maintain a positive self-image during frustrating or material possessions. embarrassing circumstances.  Through consumption, individuals can buy items that are easily personalized, The Self according to Anthropology enabling them to express their identities.  The term "anthropology" is derived from two Greek words: "anthropos,"  People utilize commodities to form their self-concepts and self-images. meaning "human," and "logos," meaning "thought" or "reason." Anthropology  Simmel noted that the products used in modernity to express and shape the self is the study of what defines us as humans. Anthropologists adopt a holistic are continually evolving, becoming increasingly detached from individual approach to understanding the various facets of human experience. They subjectivity due to the division of labor and market economy. explore the past through archaeology to investigate how human groups lived  Many products are easily replaceable and influenced by trends and market hundreds or thousands of years ago and what held significance for them. diversification, leading to a misalignment in the meanings they convey.  Anthropology is a field of social sciences that centers on the study of humanity. Money It encompasses not just one aspect of human existence—such as the mind or  Money establishes a universal value system that allows for the understanding of environment—but rather the entirety of what it means to be human. This field every commodity. It also enhances individual freedom by enabling a wider range examines physical and biological characteristics, social relationships, and the of activities and options for self-expression. cultural influences that have shaped humanity from the dawn of civilization to the  As a result, people become less emotionally attached to commodities, present. perceiving them more in terms of their objective and abstract value rather than  Anthropologists recognize that understanding contemporary humans requires their intrinsic qualities. insight into their past, as present-day individuals are products of historical  Furthermore, money can diminish intimate relationships, as it often takes developments. Everything within anthropology is interconnected, and a precedence over personal connections. It fosters a culture of calculation, which comprehensive understanding is essential for achieving the goal of helping discourages deeper emotional ties. humanity understand itself better. Group affiliations  For example, while people share the same fundamental needs for food, water,  Group affiliations in urban environments differ from those in rural areas, where and shelter, they differ in the methods they use to meet those needs. Through relationships are heavily influenced by family ties. these studies, individuals gain insights about themselves and those around them.  Individuals often seek membership in groups that reinforce familial bonds, Recently, there has been a growing recognition that the similarities and making the family a fundamental structure for socialization. differences among people contribute to the richness of life.  Simmel referred to this natural tendency to join groups as organic motivation,  As one discovers the aspects that make them similar to others, they also and these affiliations are termed primary groups. Such groups are characterized become aware of the unique traits that distinguish them. This understanding by enduring ties of affection and personal loyalty that encompass various emphasizes the beauty and individuality of each person, ultimately encouraging aspects of a person's life. a greater appreciation for one's life and existence.  In modern urban environments, group membership is often driven by rational Archaeology motivation, reflecting individual freedom of choice. This is characteristic of  Archaeology is the study of the human past through the examination of material secondary groups, which are utilitarian and goal-oriented, with a limited range of remains. These remains can include any objects that people created, modified, activities over shorter durations. or used, with portable items referred to as artifacts. Artifacts encompass tools,  As a result, individuals are more likely to develop distinct personalities. Simmel clothing, and decorations. Archaeologists analyze these objects to uncover noted that a complex network of group affiliations can lead to role conflicts and a insights into how past societies lived. blasé attitude.  The primary goal of archaeology is to understand how and why human behavior  Role conflict occurs when an individual is faced with competing demands from has changed over time. Archaeologists look for patterns in significant cultural two or more roles that clash. A blasé attitude refers to a state of boredom and developments, such as the rise of agriculture, the emergence of cities, or the indifference, marked by a limited capacity to invest emotionally in others. decline of major civilizations, to gain insights into these events. Charles Horton Cooley  To study past human activities, archaeologists excavate, date, and interpret  In his work "Human Nature and the Social Order" (1902), Charles Horton objects and sites of historical significance. They carry out excavation projects— Cooley explored the development of the self through social interaction. He commonly known as digs—preserve archaeological remains, and collect data to argued that individuals come to understand their identities through their enhance their understanding of history. interactions with others. While self-perception involves reflecting on one's Biological Anthropology personal qualities, it is heavily shaped by how one believes others perceive and  Biological anthropology, also known as physical anthropology, is a scientific field judge them. that examines the biological and behavioral aspects of humans, their extinct hominin ancestors, and related non-human primates, especially from an Cooley referred to this concept as the "looking-glass self," highlighting that the self is evolutionary standpoint. shaped by social interactions. He identified three phases in the development of the self:  Biological anthropologists primarily focus on how the human body adapts to 1. Individuals imagine how they present themselves to others. various environmental conditions. They investigate potential causes of diseases, 2. They contemplate how others evaluate them. physical mutations, and mortality. Additionally, they explore how humans may 3. They develop feelings about themselves based on those perceptions. have evolved from their early ancestors. This discipline also includes  comparative studies of both living and deceased humans, as well as other 3. Rituals: Rituals are activities, which can be religious or secular, performed by a primates, such as apes and monkeys. group to achieve desired outcomes. These activities are considered socially significant  These scientists aim to explain how the biological characteristics of humans and play a crucial role in cultural practices. influence their lifestyles. By studying populations in various locations around the world, they have found that, despite differences in biological makeup and 4. Values: Values form the core of every culture. They are often unconscious, not behavior, there are far more similarities among humans than differences. openly discussed, and cannot be directly observed; instead, they can be inferred from  Today, humans still share the same biological strengths and vulnerabilities. The people's actions and reactions in various situations. Values reflect human tendencies shared biological traits may grant humans a dominant position over other and preferences regarding what is considered good or bad, right or wrong. species, while simultaneously posing risks that could lead to their extinction. Linguistic Anthropology Anthropology helps individuals understand that their identity is shaped by various  Human survival is largely tied to the ability to communicate, a capacity that has factors, including their past and present circumstances, biological characteristics, developed due to the evolution of larger human brains. The brain contains modes of communication, the language they use, and the choices they make in their specialized areas dedicated to communication, with language being a crucial way of life. component.  Linguistic anthropology, a branch of anthropology, examines the role of The Self in Western and Eastern Thought language in the social lives of individuals and communities. This field explores Individualistic Self how language influences communication and shapes social interactions.  The individualistic self recognizes that he is not alone and coexists with others in  Language serves as a marker of group identity, with the words, sounds, symbols, society. He views himself as capable of living authentically, pursuing his writings, and signs reflecting a group's culture. Linguistic anthropologists focus passions, making mistakes, and learning from his experiences. This individual is on using language as a tool to uncover a group's patterns of social interaction aware of his rights and the boundaries of his freedom within society. He sets and worldview. They seek to understand how language is used to create and personal goals and works diligently to achieve them, understanding that he will share meanings, develop ideas and concepts, and drive social change. bear the consequences if he squanders the opportunity to create a life that he  Linguistic anthropologists also investigate how language and modes of and his family can be proud of. Ultimately, he strives to leave a legacy that communication evolve over time. The story of the Tower of Babel offers an defines him and inspires others, demonstrating that living in the world involves alternate perspective on the origins of language, highlighting humanity's long- improving it not just for himself but for others as well. standing quest for mutual understanding among speakers of different languages. Collective Self This pursuit has led to a consensus around a universal language, which is now  In many Eastern cultures, the development of a collective self is deeply predominantly English. ingrained in individuals. Family and society play significant roles in shaping how  Viewing language through an anthropological lens reveals how it reflects the group members think, act, and conduct themselves. This fosters strong bonds of beliefs and thought processes of the people who use it. Language adapts to the unity and solidarity within collectivist societies. In extreme cases, decisions are prevailing conditions of society; as societies change and technologies advance, made collectively, and all members are expected to adhere to the group's so too do the symbols and meanings people attach to objects and events. This choices. Individual thinking and decision-making are often discouraged, as evolution is expressed in the language they use and the ways they communicate. group interdependence is prioritized over personal autonomy. Cultural Anthropology Ecological Self  Linguistic anthropologists also investigate how language and modes of  The ecological self is viewed as a dynamic process that undergoes continuous communication evolve over time. The story of the Tower of Babel offers an development. Factors such as biological and environmental characteristics— alternate perspective on the origins of language, highlighting humanity's long- including race, gender, social status, education, and culture—play significant standing quest for mutual understanding among speakers of different languages. roles in shaping self-development. This perspective emphasizes that the self is This pursuit has led to a consensus around a universal language, which is now unique to each individual and is constantly influenced by an ever-changing world. predominantly English. The Self in Confucian Thought  Viewing language through an anthropological lens reveals how it reflects the Humanistic Social Philosophy beliefs and thought processes of the people who use it. Language adapts to the  Humanistic social philosophy centers on human beings and the societies they prevailing conditions of society; as societies change and technologies advance, inhabit. It views society and its communities as the primary sources of values for so too do the symbols and meanings people attach to objects and events. This individuals and the collective. Confucius articulated this perspective by stating evolution is expressed in the language they use and the ways they communicate. that while human existence is rooted in the principles of heaven and aligns with  Culture is defined as the way of life of a group of people, encompassing their the harmony of nature, it is the ideals of the human experience that should guide behaviors, beliefs, values, and symbols, which are transmitted socially through efforts to reform and renew society. communication and imitation from one generation to the next. ren and Ren  Cultural anthropologists examine how individuals who share a common cultural system organize and shape their physical and social environments while being  ren can be understood as human goodness, distinguishing humans from beasts. influenced by those same ideas and behaviors. Cultural anthropology is It encompasses feelings and thought, serving as the foundation of all human fundamentally centered on the concept of culture. Sociocultural anthropologists relationships. This concept reflects an individual's understanding of humanity investigate how people in different regions live and interpret their surroundings. and is inherent in each person, realized through personal life and relationships. They seek to understand what individuals consider important and the rules they It gives meaning and value to our existence. establish for interacting with one another. Ways in which culture may manifest itself in people include:  Ren signifies the emphasis in Chinese culture on the importance of feelings from the heart over rational thought in understanding human nature. It guides 1. Symbols: These are words, gestures, images, or objects that carry recognized human actions, and to act against this principle is to abandon what is truly meanings within a culture. Symbols can be shared or adapted by other cultures that find human. them relevant to their own contexts. Confucius further believed that ren can only be realized through: 2. Heroes: Heroes are individuals, either real or fictional, from the past or present who 1. Li (propriety): To guide human actions, it is essential to follow rules of propriety, embody qualities valued by a culture. They serve as models for behavior and inspiration which include adhering to the rituals of the community. These customs, ceremonies, for members of the culture. and traditions form the foundation of li and are reinforced by human practice across generations. In relation to li, Confucius stated, "To master oneself and return to propriety is humanity." 2. Xiao (filiality): This virtue emphasizes reverence and respect for family. Parents Spiritual Self should be honored for the life they have given, and children demonstrate this respect by  The spiritual self is considered more concrete and permanent than the material taking care of themselves. Showing reverence for parents and family also involves and social selves. It represents the most subjective and intimate aspects of an bringing honor to the family and striving to achieve something worthwhile to earn the individual, encompassing personality, values, and morals that tend to be stable respect of others. If a person struggles to bring honor to their family, they should at least over time. This self is engaged in introspection, a process of reflecting inward to do their best to avoid bringing disgrace upon them, as the family serves as a reflection understand the self’s motivations and actions. According to William James, this of the individual. introspection is crucial, often outweighing the needs of the material or social 3. Yi (rightness): This concept pertains to the proper way of behaving, defined as selves. When there is conflict within the spiritual self, achieving peace of mind unconditional and absolute. In this framework, right actions are clearly delineated, becomes challenging. leaving no room for ambiguity; individuals must act rightly simply because it is the Global Self correct thing to do. Confucius stressed that actions should be motivated by their  The global self encompasses the overall value a person assigns to themselves, inherent goodness rather than selfish interests. This principle resonates with the idea, influencing their self-perception and feelings. Since individuals are born and "Do not do to others what you do not want them to do to you." raised in the company of others, the global self emerges from all the experiences they've had within society. This accumulation of experiences The Self From the Perspective of Psychology shapes the kind of person they are today.  The word "psychology" is derived from two Greek terms. The first, *psyche*, Murray Bowen originally meant "breath" but later came to signify "soul," as breathing was seen  Differentiated self refers to the balance between the forces of togetherness and as an indication that the soul was still present in the body. By the seventeenth individuality. In this theory, it is crucial to maintain harmony between these two century, its meaning further expanded to include "mind." The Latin equivalent, aspects. Excessive togetherness can lead to friction and conflict, hindering the *anima*, which is the root of the English words "animal" and "animate," also development of a person's sense of self. Conversely, too much individuality can began as "breath" before evolving to mean "mind." The second Greek term, create feelings of distance and estrangement from family and others. *logos*, initially meant "word" but later expanded to encompass "discourse" Carl Rogers and eventually "science." Thus, psychology literally translates to the science Self Concept of the mind.  Self-concept refers to an individual's understanding of who they are,  Psychology is a branch of social sciences focused on the description, encompassing how a person thinks about and perceives themselves. There are explanation, prediction, and control of behavior. Emerging as a distinct science two types of self-concept: the real self-concept, which reflects an individual's in the late 19th century from philosophy, psychology presumes the existence of actual traits and experiences, and the ideal self-concept, representing what a conscious states in humans and asserts that the material world, including people, person aspires to be or their ideal qualities. exists independently of the perceiving mind. Central to the study of human Real Concept behavior is the concept of the self. Over the years, psychologists have offered  The real self-concept refers to all the information and perceptions a person has various explanations of the self to achieve a clearer and deeper understanding about themselves. It answers the question "Who am I?" by reflecting who the of individuals and human behavior as a whole. individual actually is, including their traits, experiences, and characteristics. William James Ideal Self Concept William James identified five key characteristics of human thoughts:  The ideal self-concept represents the model version of a person that they aspire to be. This idealized view is shaped by their experiences, societal standards, 1. All thoughts are possessed by a personal self. and the influence of heroes or role models they choose to emulate. Essentially, 2. Thoughts are always in flux and never static. the ideal self answers the question, "Who do I want to be?" 3. There is continuity in thoughts as they shift focus from one object to another. Edward Tony Higgins 4. Thoughts engage with objects that exist independently of consciousness.  Self-Discrepancy Theory posits that individuals use internalized standards, 5. Consciousness can selectively focus on certain objects while ignoring others. known as self-guides, to compare themselves. When a person's actual self The 'ME' and 'I' diverges from these guides, it leads to self-discrepancy, which can result in emotional discomfort. This discomfort may manifest as feelings of guilt or, in  I (Self): This represents the self that is aware and recognizes who they are and more extreme cases, indifference. what they have done. It is the pure ego or thinking self, encompassing the  Multiple Selves Theory posits that individuals possess various aspects of the totality of a person's identity, including their past, present, and future selves. self, which can emerge in different situations. This concept suggests that the self is a composite of distinct parts. A unified self, connected to consciousness,  Me (Self): This can be viewed as a separate object or individual that a person awareness, and agency, is crucial for well-being. A well-adjusted person is one refers to when discussing their personal experiences. It is the empirical self, who can acknowledge and understand both successes and failures, effectively which includes the material self, social self, and spiritual self. The material self navigating the complexities and perceived injustices of life. pertains to physical possessions, the social self involves relationships and social David Wood Winnicott identity, and the spiritual self relates to one's inner beliefs and values. True Self Material Self  True Self refers to an authentic expression of the individual, characterized by  The material self, as described by William James, refers to the objects, places, creativity and a spontaneous appreciation for life. This self is integrated and and people that a person identifies as "mine." It includes the belongings and aware, recognizing strengths while accepting limitations. A person embodying entities associated with an individual. Central to the material self is the body, their true self is open about weaknesses and imperfections, embraces both which serves as the core identity. The more a person is attached to their success and failure, and is willing to learn and try again. This awareness fosters material possessions, the more they will feel the impact if any of these elements a deep connection to oneself and the broader existence, allowing for a fulfilling change. and genuine life experience. Social Self  The social self refers to an individual's identity in specific social contexts. Changes in behavior often occur based on the social situations a person encounters. William James suggested that people possess multiple social selves, each corresponding to different social scenarios. Individuals tend to select the self that best adapts to the situation, allowing them to fit in effectively. Albert Bandura Social Cognitive Theory  posits that individuals are proactive agents in their own lives, exercising control over their behavior and experiences. This theory emphasizes self-regulation, self-reflection, and self-organization, suggesting that people can influence their own actions to achieve desired outcomes. A key aspect of this learning process is observational learning, where individuals model behaviors they see in others, believing that these actions will help them reach their goals. Albert Bandura describes human nature as plastic and flexible, highlighting the adaptability of individuals in shaping their own paths. Human Agency  Human agency embodies the fundamental essence of being human. It entails an active process of exploration and manipulation aimed at influencing the environment to achieve desired outcomes. In Social Cognitive Theory, Bandura outlines four key features of human agency. Intentionality  Intentionality refers to actions taken by a person with full awareness and purpose. This behavior involves careful planning and consideration of the potential consequences of those actions. Forethought  Forethought refers to a person's ability to anticipate the likely outcomes of their actions. This foresight enables them to choose from a range of behaviors and determine which one is most likely to result in a positive outcome. Self Reactiveness  Self-reactiveness refers to the process by which a person motivates and regulates their behavior as they monitor their progress toward achieving their goals. This involves being realistic and aware of their actions and outcomes. Self Reflectiveness  Self-reflectiveness involves a person looking inward to evaluate their motivations, values, life goals, and the influence of others on them. A key aspect of this is self-efficacy, which is the individual's belief in their ability to perform behaviors that will lead to desired positive outcomes. Self Regulation  Self-regulation enables a person to set more ambitious and higher goals, challenging their capabilities and fostering personal growth toward becoming a wiser and more self-actualized individual.