Understanding Psychology PDF - Robert S. Feldman (Fifteenth Edition)

Because learning changes everything. ® Robert S. Feldman | Fifteenth Edition Understanding Psychology © 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reprodu...

Because learning changes everything. ® Robert S. Feldman | Fifteenth Edition Understanding Psychology © 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.  Because learning changes everything. ® Chapter 3 Neuroscience and Behavior © 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.  MODULE 7 – Neurons: The Basic Elements of Behavior Why do psychologists study the brain and the nervous system? What are the basic elements of the nervous system? How does the nervous system communicate electrical and chemical messages from one part to another? Behavioral neuroscientists, or biopsychologists: psychologists who specialize in considering the ways in which the biological structures and functions of the body affect behavior. © McGraw Hill 3  The Structure of the Neuron 1 Neurons: nerve cells, the basic components of the nervous system. Neurons have a cell body that contains a nucleus, incorporating the hereditary material that determines how a cell will function. They are physically held in place by glial cells, which: Provide nourishment to neurons; Insulate them; Help repair damage; and Support neural functioning. © McGraw Hill 4  The Structure of the Neuron 2 In contrast with most other cells, neurons can: Communicate with other cells. Transmit information across relatively long distances. The messages, or impulses, generally move in one direction. Dendrite: a cluster of fibers at one end of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons. Axon: carries messages received by the dendrites to other neurons. Terminal buttons: the part of the axon, like a small bulge at the end, that sends messages to other neurons. © McGraw Hill 5  The Structure of the Neuron 3 Myelin sheath: a protective coating of fat and protein that wraps around the axon. The myelin sheath also serves to increase the velocity with which electrical impulses travel through axons. Those axons that carry the most important and urgent information have the greatest concentration of myelin. © McGraw Hill 6  MODULE 7 FIGURE 1 The primary components of the neuron, the basic element of the nervous system. A neuron has a cell body and structures that conduct messages: the dendrites, which receive messages from other neurons, and the axon, which carries messages to other neurons or body cells. As with most neurons, this axon is protected by the sausagelike myelin sheath. © McGraw Hill Photo: Whitehoune/Shutterstock 7  How Neurons Fire Neurons follow an all-or-none law: they are either on or off. Resting state: state before a neuron is triggered, in which there is a negative electrical charge of about −70 millivolts within the neuron. Action potential: an electric nerve impulse that travels through a neuron’s axon when it is set off by a “trigger,” changing the neuron’s charge from negative to positive. © McGraw Hill 8  MODULE 7 FIGURE 2 Movement of an action potential along an axon. Just before Time 1, positively charged ions enter the cell membrane, changing the charge in the nearby part of the axon from negative to positive and triggering an action potential. The action potential travels along the axon, as illustrated in the changes occurring from Time 1 to Time 3 (from top to bottom in this drawing). Immediately after the action potential has passed through a section of the axon, positive ions are pumped out, restoring the charge in that section to negative. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill 9  MODULE 7 FIGURE 3 Changes in the voltage in a neuron during the passage of an action potential. In its normal resting state, a neuron has a negative charge of about −70 millivolts. When an action potential is triggered, however, the charge becomes positive, increasing from about −70 millivolts to about +40 millivolts. Immediately following the passage of the action potential, the charge becomes even more negative than it is in its typical resting state. After the charge returns to its normal resting state, the neuron will be fully ready to be triggered once again. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill 10  Speed of Transmission The speed at which an action potential travels along an axon is determined by the: Axon’s size. Thickness of the myelin sheath. Neurons differ in terms of: Quickness of an impulse moving along the axon. Potential rate of firing. The intensity of a stimulus determines how much of a neuron’s potential firing rate is reached. © McGraw Hill 11  Mirror Neurons 1 Mirror neurons: specialized neurons that fire not only when a person enacts a particular behavior but also when a person simply observes another individual carrying out the same behavior. © McGraw Hill 12  Mirror Neurons 2 The discovery of mirror neurons suggests that humans’ capacity to imitate others may be an inborn behavior. It also helps explain how and why humans have the capacity to understand others’ intentions. Possible basis for: Feelings of empathy. Development of language in humans. Stimulating the mirror neuron system may help: Stroke victims. Those with emotional problems. © McGraw Hill 13  Where Neurons Meet: Bridging the Gap 1 Synapse: the space between two neurons where the axon of a sending neuron communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by using chemical messages. Neurotransmitters: chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to the dendrite (and sometimes the cell body) of a receiving neuron. © McGraw Hill 14  MODULE 7 FIGURE 4a A synapse is the junction between an axon and a dendrite. Chemical neurotransmitters bridge the synaptic gap between the axon and the dendrite (Mader, 2000). (a) Read Step 1 through Step 4 to follow this chemical process. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill 15  MODULE 7 FIGURE 4b (b) Just as the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle can fit in only one specific location in a puzzle, each kind of neurotransmitter has a distinctive configuration that allows it to fit into a specific type of receptor cell (Johnson, 2000). © McGraw Hill 16  Where Neurons Meet: Bridging the Gap 2 Not every neuron is capable of receiving the chemical message carried by a particular neurotransmitter. Successful chemical communication is possible only when a neurotransmitter fits precisely into a receptor site. © McGraw Hill 17  Where Neurons Meet: Bridging the Gap 3 Types of chemical message delivered by neurotransmitters: Excitatory message: a chemical message that makes it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an action potential will travel down its axon. Inhibitory message: a chemical message that prevents or decreases the likelihood that a receiving neuron will fire. © McGraw Hill 18  Where Neurons Meet: Bridging the Gap 4 If neurotransmitters remained at the site of the synapse, it would produce constant stimulation or constant inhibition of the receiving neurons. Effective communication would no longer be possible. To avoid this problem, enzymes deactivate the neurotransmitters, or—more commonly—the terminal button sucks them back up. Reuptake: reabsorption of neurotransmitters by a terminal button. © McGraw Hill 19  Where Neurons Meet: Bridging the Gap 5 Our understanding of the reuptake process has led to the development of certain drugs that treat psychological disorders. SSRIs, or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: permit certain neurotransmitters to remain active for a longer period at certain synapses, reducing the symptoms of depression. © McGraw Hill 20  Neurotransmitters: Multitalented Chemical Couriers Neurotransmitters are a particularly important link between the nervous system and behavior. Important for maintaining vital brain and body functions. Deficiency or excess can produce severe behavior disorders. More than a hundred chemicals have been found to act as neurotransmitters. Neuroscientists believe that more may ultimately be identified. © McGraw Hill 21  MODULE 7 FIGURE 5: MAJOR NEUROTRANSMITTERS Neurotransmitter Name Location Effect Function Acetylcholine (ACh) Brain, spinal cord, Excitatory in brain Muscle movement, cognitive peripheral nervous and autonomic functioning. system, especially nervous system; some organs of the inhibitory elsewhere. parasympathetic nervous system. Glutamate Brain, spinal cord. Excitatory. Memory. Gamma-amino butyric Brain, spinal cord. Main inhibitory Eating, aggression, sleeping. acid (GABA) neurotransmitter. Dopamine (DA) Brain. Inhibitory or Movement control, pleasure excitatory. and reward, attention. Serotonin Brain, spinal cord. Inhibitory. Sleeping, eating, mood, pain, depression. Endorphins Brain, spinal cord. Primarily inhibitory, Pain suppression, pleasurable except in feelings, appetites, placebos. hippocampus. © McGraw Hill 22  MODULE 8 – The Nervous System and the Endocrine System: Communicating Within the Body How are the structures of the nervous system linked? How does the endocrine system affect behavior? © McGraw Hill 23  The Nervous System: Linking Neurons Because each neuron can be connected to 80,000 other neurons, the total number of possible connections is enormous. The human nervous system uses two basic structures: Central nervous system. Peripheral nervous system. © McGraw Hill 24  Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems 1 Central nervous system (CNS): the part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord. Spinal cord: the bundle of neurons that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back. Main means for transmitting messages between the brain and the body. Controls simple behaviors on its own, without any help from the brain. © McGraw Hill 25  Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems 2 Reflex: an automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus. Kinds of neurons involved in reflexes: Sensory (afferent) neurons: transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the nervous system and brain. Motor (efferent) neurons: communicate information from the brain and nervous system to the muscles and glands. © McGraw Hill 26  MODULE 8 FIGURE 1 A schematic diagram of the relationship of the parts of the nervous system. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill 27  MODULE 8 FIGURE 2 The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system encompasses the network of nerves connecting the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill Photo: lanych/Shutterstock 28  Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems 3 Peripheral nervous system: the part of the nervous system that includes the autonomic and somatic subdivisions. Made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, it branches out from the spinal cord and brain and reaches the extremities of the body. Somatic division: specializes in the control of voluntary movements and the communication of information to and from the sense organs. Autonomic division: controls the involuntary movement of the heart, glands, lungs, and other organs. © McGraw Hill 29  Activating the Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System The autonomic division is further subdivided: Sympathetic division: prepares the body for action in stressful situations, engaging all the organism’s resources to respond to a threat. Often called the “flight-or-fight” response. Parasympathetic division: acts to calm the body after an emergency has ended. The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions work together to regulate many functions of the body. © McGraw Hill 30  MODULE 8 FIGURE 3 The major functions of the autonomic nervous system. The sympathetic division acts to prepare certain organs of the body for stressful situations, and the parasympathetic division acts to calm the body after the emergency has passed. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill 31  The Evolutionary Foundations of the Nervous System Evolutionary psychology: the branch of psychology that seeks to identify behavior patterns that are a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. Behavioral genetics: the study of the effects of heredity on behavior. © McGraw Hill 32  The Endocrine System: Of Chemicals and Glands Endocrine system: a chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body via the bloodstream. Hormones: chemicals that circulate through the blood and regulate the functioning or growth of the body. Pituitary gland: the major component of the endocrine system. The “master gland” that secretes hormones that control growth and other parts of the endocrine system. © McGraw Hill 33  MODULE 8 FIGURE 4 Location and function of the major endocrine glands. The pituitary gland controls the functioning of the other endocrine glands and, in turn, is regulated by the hypothalamus. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill Photo: Laurence Mouton/PhotoAlto/Getty Images 34  MODULE 9 - The Brain How do researchers identify the major parts and functions of the brain? What are the major parts of the brain, and for what behaviors is each part responsible? How do the two halves of the brain operate interdependently? How can an understanding of the nervous system help us find ways to alleviate disease and pain? © McGraw Hill 35  Studying the Brain’s Structure and Functions: Spying on the Brain 1 Electroencephalogram (EEG): records electrical activity in the brain through electrodes placed on the outside of the skull. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): provides a detailed, three-dimensional computer-generated image of brain structures and activity by aiming a powerful magnetic field at the brain or other parts of the body. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans: show biochemical activity within the brain at a given moment. Begins with injection of a radioactive liquid. © McGraw Hill 36  Studying the Brain’s Structure and Functions: Spying on the Brain 2 Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS): electrical activity in a tiny region of the brain is interrupted by bombarding it with a strong magnetic field, and researchers note the effects on brain functioning. May be able to treat certain kinds of psychological disorders. Optogenetics: views individual circuits of neurons. Hydrogel-embedding methods: allow observation of individual brain cells and the wiring of brain circuitry. Neuropixels: implanted probes that allow neuroscientists to read activity in hundreds of neurons in multiple parts of the brain simultaneously. © McGraw Hill 37  MODULE 9 FIGURE 1 (a) A computer-produced E EG image. (b) The f MRI scan uses a magnetic field to provide a detailed view of brain activity on a moment-by-moment basis. (c) The PET scan displays the functioning of the brain at a given moment. (d) Transcranial magnetic stimulation (T MS), the newest type of scan, produces a momentary disruption in an area of the brain, allowing researchers to see what activities are controlled by that area. TMS also has the potential to treat some psychological disorders. © McGraw Hill (a) SPL/Science Source; (b) Stegerphoto/Getty Images; (c) National Institutes of Health; (d) Amelie Benoist/BSIP/Corbis Documentary/Getty Images 38  The Central Core: Our “Old Brain” 1 Humans share some basic functions with more primitive animals, and these are directed by a relatively primitive part of the brain. Central core: the “old brain,” which controls basic functions such as eating and sleeping and is common to all vertebrates. © McGraw Hill 39  MODULE 9 FIGURE 2 The major divisions of the brain: the cerebral cortex and the central core. © McGraw Hill 40  The Central Core: Our “Old Brain” 2 The hindbrain contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum. Medulla: controls a number of critical body functions, the most important of which are breathing and heartbeat. Pons: a bridge in the hindbrain that acts as a transmitter of motor information, coordinating muscles and integrating movement between the right and left halves of the body. Also involved in regulating sleep. Cerebellum: the part of the brain that controls bodily balance. © McGraw Hill 41  The Central Core: Our “Old Brain” 3 Reticular formation: the part of the brain extending from the medulla through the pons; it is related to changes in the level of arousal of the body. Passes through the middle of the brain, called the midbrain, and into the front-most part of the brain, called the forebrain. Thalamus: the part of the brain located in the middle of the central core that acts primarily to relay information about the senses. © McGraw Hill 42  The Central Core: Our “Old Brain” 4 Hypothalamus: a tiny part of the brain, located below the thalamus, that maintains homeostasis—a steady internal environment for the body—and produces and regulates behavior critical to the basic survival of the species. Eating, drinking, and sexual behavior. © McGraw Hill 43  MODULE 9 FIGURE 3 The major structures in the brain. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill Photo: Dana Neely/Taxi/Getty Images 44  The Limbic System: Beyond the Central Core Limbic system: the part of the brain that controls eating, aggression, and reproduction—functions related to emotions and self-preservation. Includes the amygdala and hippocampus. The limbic system and hippocampus, in particular, play an important role in learning and memory. Because its structures and functions are so similar to those of other mammals, the limbic system is sometimes referred to as the “animal brain.” © McGraw Hill 45  MODULE 9 FIGURE 4 The limbic system is involved in self-preservation, learning, memory, and the experience of pleasure. © McGraw Hill 46  The Cerebral Cortex: Our “New Brain” Cerebral cortex: the “new brain,” responsible for the most sophisticated information processing in the brain. Lobes: the four major sections of the cerebral cortex. Frontal lobes, at the front center of the cortex. Parietal lobes, behind the frontal lobes. Temporal lobes, in the lower-center part of the cortex. Occipital lobes, behind the temporal lobes. These four sets of lobes are physically separated by deep grooves called sulci. © McGraw Hill 47  MODULE 9 FIGURE 5 The cerebral cortex of the brain. The major physical structures of the cerebral cortex are called lobes. This figure also illustrates the functions associated with particular areas of the cerebral cortex. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill Photo: Ron Krisel/Photodisc/Getty Images 48  The Motor Area of the Cortex Motor area: the part of the cortex that is largely responsible for the body’s voluntary movement. Every portion corresponds to a specific local within the body. Researchers have identified the amount and relative location of cortical tissue used to produce movement in specific parts of the human body. © McGraw Hill 49  The Sensory Area of the Cortex Sensory area: the site in the brain of the tissue that corresponds to each of the senses, with the degree of sensitivity related to the amount of tissue. For example: The somatosensory area in the parietal lobe encompasses specific locations associated with the ability to perceive touch and pressure in a particular area of the body. The auditory area located in the temporal lobe is responsible for the sense of hearing. The visual area is located in the occipital lobe. © McGraw Hill 50  MODULE 9 FIGURE 6 The greater the amount of tissue in the somatosensory area of the brain that is related to a specific body part, the more sensitive is that body part. If the size of our body parts reflected the corresponding amount of brain tissue, we would look like this strange creature. © McGraw Hill Natural History Museum, London/Science Source 51  The Association Areas of the Cortex Association areas: one of the major regions of the cerebral cortex; the site of the higher mental processes, such as thought, language, memory, and speech. A famous example: railroad worker Phineas Gage, who suffered an injury to the association area of his cerebral cortex and underwent a notable change in personality. Injuries to the association areas can produce aphasia, problems with language. Broca’s aphasia: difficulty speaking. Wernicke’s aphasia: difficulty understanding others’ speech and in producing language. © McGraw Hill 52  Neuroplasticity and the Brain Neuroplasticity: the brain’s ability to change throughout the life span through the addition of new neurons, new interconnections between neurons, and the reorganization of information-processing areas. Neurogenesis, the creation of new neurons, is now known to occur in certain areas of the brain in adulthood. © McGraw Hill 53  The Specialization of the Hemispheres: Two Brains or One? The brain is divided into two roughly mirror-image halves. Hemispheres: symmetrical left and right halves of the brain that control the side of the body opposite to their location. Left hemisphere tends to process information sequentially, particularly in verbal areas. Right hemisphere tends to process information globally, particularly in nonverbal areas. Lateralization: the dominance of one hemisphere of the brain in specific functions, such as language. Note that the differences are not great, and the two hemispheres work interdependently. © McGraw Hill 54  The Split Brain: Exploring the Two Hemispheres In split-brain patients, the corpus collosum has been cut or injured. This is a last-resort treatment for severe epilepsy. Studies of how each hemisphere operates have shown that they should be regarded as different in terms of the efficiency with which they process certain kinds of information. © McGraw Hill 55  MODULE 9 FIGURE 7 Hemispheres of the brain. (a) The corpus callosum connects the cerebral hemispheres of the brain, as shown in this cross section. (b) A split-brain patient is tested by touching objects behind a screen. Patients could name the objects they touched with their right hand but couldn’t name them when they touched them with their left hand. Access the text alternative for slide images. © McGraw Hill 56  Questions? © McGraw Hill 57  End of Main Content Because learning changes everything. ® www.mheducation.com © 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.