Feldman_10e_Ch01_VideoPPT.pptx

Development Across the Life Span Tenth Edition Chapter 1 An Introduction to Lifespan Development Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Learning Objectives (1 of 4) 1.1 Define the field of lifespan development and describe what it encompasses. 1.2 Describe the area...

Development Across the Life Span Tenth Edition Chapter 1 An Introduction to Lifespan Development Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Learning Objectives (1 of 4) 1.1 Define the field of lifespan development and describe what it encompasses. 1.2 Describe the areas that lifespan development specialists cover. 1.3 Describe some of the basic influences on human development. 1.4 Summarize four key issues in the field of lifespan development. 1.5 Describe how the psychodynamic perspective explains lifespan development. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Learning Objectives (2 of 4) 1.6 Describe how the behavioral perspective explains lifespan development. 1.7 Describe how the cognitive perspective explains lifespan development. 1.8 Describe how the humanistic perspective explains lifespan development. 1.9 Describe how the contextual perspective explains lifespan development. 1.10 Describe how the evolutionary perspective explains lifespan development. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Learning Objectives (3 of 4) 1.11 Discuss the value of applying multiple perspectives to lifespan development. 1.12 Describe the role that theories and hypotheses play in the study of development. 1.13 Compare the two major categories of lifespan development research. 1.14 Identify different types of correlational studies and their relationship to cause and effect. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Learning Objectives (4 of 4) 1.15 Explain the main features of an experiment. 1.16 Distinguish between theoretical research and applied research. 1.17 Compare longitudinal research, cross-sectional research, and sequential research. 1.18 Describe ethical issues that affect psychological research. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. An Orientation to Lifespan Development Defining Lifespan Development The Scope of the Field of Lifespan Development Influences on Development Key Issues and Questions: Determining the Nature— and Nurture—of Lifespan Development Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Growth and Change How people grow and change over the course of their lives is the focus of lifespan development. Source: Monkey Business/Fotolia Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Defining Lifespan Development (1 of 3) LO 1.1 Define the field of lifespan development and describe what it encompasses. Lifespan development is the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span. Researchers in lifespan development test their assumptions about the nature and course of human development by applying scientific methods. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Defining Lifespan Development (2 of 3) Lifespan development focuses on human development. – Universal principles of development – Cultural, racial, and ethnic differences – Individual traits and characteristics Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Defining Lifespan Development (3 of 3) Lifespan developmentalists: – View development as a continuing process throughout the life span – Focus on change and growth in addition to stability, consistency, and continuity in people’s lives – Are interested in people’s lives from the moment of conception until death Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Scope of the Field of Lifespan Development (1 of 6) LO 1.2 Describe the areas that lifespan development specialists cover. Topical Areas in Lifespan Development Physical development involves the body’s physical makeup, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep as a determinant of behavior. Cognitive development involves the ways that growth and change in learning, memory, problem solving, and intelligence influence a person’s behavior. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Scope of the Field of Lifespan Development (2 of 6) Topical Areas in Lifespan Development (continued) Personality development involves the ways that the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another change over the life span. Social development is the way in which individuals’ interactions with others and their social relationships grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 1-1: Approaches to Lifespan Development (1 of 3) Orientation Physical development Defining Characteristics Emphasizes how the brain, nervous system, muscles, sensory capabilities, and needs for food, drink, and sleep affect behavior Examples of Questions Researchers Ask* What determines the sex of a child? (2) What are the long-term results of premature birth? (3) What are the benefits of breast milk? (4) What are the consequences of early or late sexual maturation? (11) What leads to obesity in adulthood? (13) How do adults cope with stress? (15) What are the outward and internal signs of aging? (17) How do we define death? (19) Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 1-1: Approaches to Lifespan Development (2 of 3) Orientation Cognitive development Defining Characteristics Emphasizes intellectual abilities, including learning, memory, problem solving, and intelligence Examples of Questions Researchers Ask* What are the earliest memories that can be recalled from infancy? (5) What are the intellectual consequences of watching television? (7) Do spatial reasoning skills relate to music practice? (7) Are there benefits to bilingualism? (9) How does an adolescent’s egocentrism affect their view of the world? (11) Are there ethnic and racial differences in intelligence? (9) How does creativity relate to intelligence? (13) Does intelligence decline in late adulthood? (17) Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 1-1: Approaches to Lifespan Development (3 of 3) Orientation Personality and social development Defining Characteristics Emphasizes enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another and how interactions with others and social relationships grow and change over the life span Examples of Questions Researchers Ask* Do newborns respond differently to their caregivers than to others? (3) What is the best procedure for disciplining children? (8) When does a sense of gender identity develop, and how do sex and gender provide a context for development? (8) How can we promote cross-race friendships? (10) What are the causes of adolescent suicide? (12) How do we choose a romantic partner? (14) Do the effects of parental divorce last into old age? (18) Do people withdraw from others in late adulthood? (18) What are the emotions involved in confronting death? (19) Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Scope of the Field of Lifespan Development (3 of 6) Age Ranges and Individual Differences Prenatal period (conception to birth) Infancy and toddlerhood (birth to age 3) Preschool period (ages 3 to 6) Middle childhood (ages 6 to 12) Adolescence (ages 12 to 20) Young adulthood (ages 20 to 40) Middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65) Late adulthood (age 65 to death) Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Scope of the Field of Lifespan Development (4 of 6) Age Ranges and Individual Differences (continued) Broad periods of development are social constructions. – A social construction is a shared notion of reality, one that is widely accepted but is a function of society and culture at a given time. Emerging adulthood is another term used to describe the period from the late teenage years into the mid-20s. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Scope of the Field of Lifespan Development (5 of 6) Age Ranges and Individual Differences (continued) People mature at different rates and reach developmental milestones at different points. Environmental factors, such as one’s culture, can play a significant role in determining the age at which a particular event is likely to occur. In addition, age ranges are averages and some people will show substantial deviation. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Role of Cultural Factors This wedding of two children in Sudan is an example of how cultural factors can play a significant role in determining the age when a particular event is likely to occur. Source: DPA/The Image Works Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Scope of the Field of Lifespan Development (6 of 6) The Links between Topics and Ages Each of the broad topical areas of life span development —physical, cognitive, social, and personality development —plays a role throughout the life span. In this course, we’ll take a comprehensive approach, proceeding chronologically from the prenatal period through late adulthood and death. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Influences on Development (1 of 2) LO 1.3 Describe some of the basic influences on human development. A cohort is a group of people born at around the same time in the same place. – History-graded influences are the biological and environmental influences associated with a particular historical moment. – Age-graded influences are biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group, regardless of when or where they are raised. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Influences on Development (2 of 2) A cohort is a group of people born at around the same time in the same place. (continued) – Sociocultural-graded influences are the social and cultural factors present at a particular time for a particular individual, depending on such variables as race, ethnicity, social class, and subcultural membership. – Non-normative life events are specific, atypical events that occur in a person’s life at a time when they do not happen to most people. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Developmental Diversity and Your Life #1 How Culture, Ethnicity, and Race Influence Development Different cultures and subcultures have their own views of appropriate and inappropriate methods for child-rearing. Ethnic group and ethnicity relate to cultural background, nationality, religion, and language. Race originated as a biological concept based on physical and structural characteristics, but research shows it is not a meaningful way to differentiate people. Many people are fluid in how they see their own race and ethnic group membership. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 1-1: Shifting Race and Ethnicity Six percent of U.S. Census respondents shift in the way that they answer questions about their own race and ethnic group membership. The top 20 changes between the 2000 and 2010 census in self-identification are shown here. The data support the idea that race and ethnicity are social constructions, defined largely by people and their beliefs. NOTE: SOR = Some other race; AIAN = American Indian and Alaska Native. Elbert Wang, 2020 The Wall Street Journal, citing data from Liebler, Porter, et al., 2017. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Key Issues and Questions: Determining the Nature—and Nurture—of Lifespan Development (1 of 6) LO 1.4 Summarize four key issues in the field of lifespan development. Continuous change versus discontinuous change Critical periods versus sensitive periods Lifespan approach versus focus on particular periods The relative influence of nature versus nurture Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 1-2: Key Issues in Lifespan Development (1 of 2) Continuous Change Change is gradual. Achievements at one level build on previous levels. Underlying developmental processes remain the same over the life span. Critical Periods Certain environmental stimuli are necessary for normal development. Emphasized by early developmentalists. Discontinuous Change Change occurs in distinct steps or stages. Behavior and processes are qualitatively different at different stages. blank Sensitive Periods People are susceptible to certain environmental stimuli, but consequences of absent stimuli are reversible. Current emphasis in lifespan development. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 1-2: Key Issues in Lifespan Development (2 of 2) Lifespan Approach Current theories emphasize growth and change throughout life; relatedness of different periods. Nature (Genetic Factors) Emphasis is on discovering inherited genetic traits and abilities. Focus on Particular Periods Infancy and adolescence are emphasized by early developmentalists as most important periods. Nurture (Environmental Factors) Emphasis is on environmental influences that affect a person’s development. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Key Issues and Questions: Determining the Nature—and Nurture—of Lifespan Development (2 of 6) Continuous Change versus Discontinuous Change Continuous change involves gradual development in which achievements at one level build on those of previous levels. Discontinuous change is development that occurs in distinct steps or stages, with each stage bringing about behavior that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behavior at earlier stages. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Key Issues and Questions: Determining the Nature—and Nurture—of Lifespan Development (3 of 6) Critical and Sensitive Periods: Gauging the Impact of Environmental Events A critical period is a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences and the presence of certain kinds of environmental stimuli is necessary for development to proceed normally. A sensitive period is a point in development when individuals are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environments, but the absence of those stimuli does not always produce irreversible consequences. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Key Issues and Questions: Determining the Nature—and Nurture—of Lifespan Development (4 of 6) Lifespan Approaches versus a Focus on Particular Periods Early developmentalists focused on infancy and adolescence. Today, the entire life span is seen as important. – Growth and change continue throughout life. – A person’s social environment is important. Development across the life span involves both gains and losses. People shift their resource allocation at different points during their life span. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Key Issues and Questions: Determining the Nature—and Nurture—of Lifespan Development (5 of 6) The Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture on Development Nature refers to traits, abilities, and capacities that are inherited from one’s parents. – It encompasses any factor produced by maturation, the predetermined unfolding of genetic information. Nurture refers to the environmental influences that shape behavior. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Key Issues and Questions: Determining the Nature—and Nurture—of Lifespan Development (6 of 6) The Later Action of Nature and Nurture Developmental psychologists reject the notion that behavior is the result solely of either nature or nurture. It is useful to think of the nature–nurture issue as opposite ends of a continuum, with particular behaviors falling somewhere between the two ends. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Theoretical Perspectives on Lifespan Development The Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the Inner Person The Behavioral Perspective: Focusing on Observable Behavior The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the Roots of Understanding The Humanistic Perspective: Concentrating on the Unique Qualities of Human Beings The Contextual Perspective: Taking a Broad Approach to Development Evolutionary Perspectives: Our Ancestors’ Contributions to Behavior Why “Which Approach Is Right?” Is the Wrong Question Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Historical Views of Childhood Society’s view of childhood and what is appropriate to ask of children has changed through the ages. These children worked full-time in mines in the early 1900s. Source: North Wind Picture Archives/Alamy Stock Photo Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the Inner Person (1 of 11) LO 1.5 Describe how the psychodynamic perspective explains lifespan development. Psychodynamic perspective: the approach stating that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people’s awareness and control The inner forces, which may stem from one’s childhood, continually influence behavior throughout the life span. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the Inner Person (2 of 11) Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Psychoanalytic theory suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior. According to Freud (1856–1939): – The unconscious is a part of the personality about which a person is unaware and is responsible for much of our everyday behavior. – One’s personality has three aspects: id, ego, and superego. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the Inner Person (3 of 11) Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory (continued) Id: the raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality present at birth that represents primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses Ego: the part of personality that is rational and reasonable – It acts as a buffer between the outside world and the primitive id. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the Inner Person (4 of 11) Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory (continued) Superego: the aspect of personality that represents a person’s conscience, incorporating distinctions between right and wrong – It begins to develop around age 5 or 6. – It is learned from parents, teachers, and other significant figures. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the Inner Person (5 of 11) Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory (continued) Psychosexual development is a series of stages that children pass through in which pleasure, or gratification, focuses on a particular biological function and body part. – Oral (birth to 12–18 months) – Anal (12–18 months to 3 years) – Phallic (3 to 5–6 years) – Latency (5–6 years to adolescence) – Genital (adolescence to adulthood) Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the Inner Person (6 of 11) Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory (continued) If children are unable to gratify themselves sufficiently or receive too much gratification, a fixation may occur. – Fixation is behavior reflecting an earlier stage of development. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 1-3: Freud’s and Erikson’s Theories (1 of 4) Approximate Age Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development Major Characteristics of Freud’s Stages Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Positive and Negative Outcomes of Erikson’s Stages Birth to 12–18 months Oral Interest in oral gratification from sucking, eating, mouthing, biting Trust versus mistrust Positive: Feelings of trust from environmental support Negative: Fear and concern regarding others 12–18 months to 3 years Anal Gratification from expelling and withholding feces; coming to terms with society’s controls relating to toilet training Autonomy versus shame and doubt Positive: Selfsufficiency if exploration is encouraged Negative: Doubts about self, lack of independence Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 1-3: Freud’s and Erikson’s Theories (2 of 4) Approximate Age Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development 3 to 5–6 years Phallic Interest in the genitals; coming to terms with Oedipal conflict, leading to identification with same-sex parent Initiative versus guilt Positive: Discovery of ways to initiate actions Negative: Guilt from actions and thoughts 5–6 years to Adolescence Latency Sexual concerns largely unimportant Industry versus inferiority Positive: Development of sense of competence Negative: Feelings of inferiority, no sense of mastery Major Characteristics of Freud’s Stages Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Positive and Negative Outcomes of Erikson’s Stages Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 1-3: Freud’s and Erikson’s Theories (3 of 4) Approximate Age Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development Major Characteristics of Freud’s Stages Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Positive and Negative Outcomes of Erikson’s Stages Adolescence to adulthood (Freud) Adolescence (Erikson) Genital Reemergence of sexual interests and establishment of mature sexual relationships Identity versus role diffusion Positive: Awareness of uniqueness of self, knowledge of role to be followed Negative: Inability to identify appropriate roles in life Early adulthood (Erikson) blank blank Intimacy versus isolation Positive: Development of loving, sexual relationships and close friendships Negative: Fear of relationships with others Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 1-3: Freud’s and Erikson’s Theories (4 of 4) Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development Major Characteristics of Freud’s Stages Middle adulthood (Erikson) blank Late adulthood (Erikson) blank Approximate Age Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Positive and Negative Outcomes of Erikson’s Stages blank Generativity versus stagnation Positive: Sense of contribution to continuity of life Negative: Trivialization of one’s activities blank Ego integrity versus despair Positive: Sense of unity in life’s accomplishments Negative: Regret over lost opportunities of life Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Video: Getting Help—Psychotherapy: Crash Course Psychology #35 (1 of 2) Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the Inner Person (7 of 11) Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Psychosocial development is the approach that encompasses changes in our interactions with and understandings of one another, as well as in our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the Inner Person (8 of 11) Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory (continued) Erikson suggested that developmental change occurs throughout our lives in eight distinct stages: – Trust versus mistrust (birth to 12–18 months) – Autonomy versus shame and doubt (12–18 months to 3 years) – Initiative versus guilt (3 to 5–6 years) – Industry versus inferiority (5–6 years to adolescence) – Identity versus role diffusion (adolescence to adulthood) – Intimacy versus isolation (early adulthood) – Generativity versus stagnation (middle adulthood) – Ego integrity versus despair (late adulthood) Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the Inner Person (9 of 11) Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory (continued) The stages emerge in a fixed pattern and are similar for all people. Each stage presents a crisis or conflict that each individual must address sufficiently. Unlike Freud, Erikson believed that development continued throughout the life span. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the Inner Person (10 of 11) Assessing the Psychodynamic Perspective Contemporary psychological research supports the idea that unconscious memories have an influence on our behavior. The notion that people pass through stages in childhood that determine their adult personalities has little research support. Because Freud based his theory on a small sample of uppermiddle-class Austrians living during a strict, puritanical era, its application to multicultural populations is questionable. Because his theory focuses on men, it has been criticized as sexist and may be interpreted as devaluing women. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Psychodynamic Perspective: Focusing on the Inner Person (11 of 11) Assessing the Psychodynamic Perspective (continued) Erikson’s view that development continues throughout the life span is highly important and has considerable support. However, Erikson also focused more on men than women. Much of Erikson’s theory is too vague to test rigorously. In sum, the psychodynamic perspective provides good descriptions of past behavior but imprecise predictions of future behavior. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Behavioral Perspective: Focusing on Observable Behavior (1 of 8) LO 1.6 Describe how the behavioral perspective explains lifespan development. The behavioral perspective suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment. – Behaviorists reject the notion that people universally pass through a series of stages. – Development occurs as the result of continuing exposure to specific factors in the environment. – Development is viewed as quantitative rather than qualitative. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Behavioral Perspective: Focusing on Observable Behavior (2 of 8) Classical Conditioning: Stimulus Substitution Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response. – John B. Watson (1878–1958) argued that by effectively controlling a person’s environment, it was possible to produce virtually any behavior. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Behavioral Perspective: Focusing on Observable Behavior (3 of 8) Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences. – B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) claimed that people operate on their environments to bring about a desired state of affairs. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Behavioral Perspective: Focusing on Observable Behavior (4 of 8) Operant Conditioning (continued) Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus is provided that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated. Punishment is the introduction of an unpleasant or painful stimulus or the removal of a desirable stimulus; it will decrease the probability that a behavior will occur in the future. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Behavioral Perspective: Focusing on Observable Behavior (5 of 8) Operant Conditioning (continued) When behavior receives no reinforcement, it is likely to be discontinued, or extinguished. Principles of operant conditioning are used in behavior modification, a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Behavioral Perspective: Focusing on Observable Behavior (6 of 8) Social-Cognitive Learning Theory: Learning through Imitation Albert Bandura and colleagues suggested that a certain amount of learning occurs in the form of social-cognitive learning theory. – This learning occurs by observing the behavior of another person, called a model. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Behavioral Perspective: Focusing on Observable Behavior (7 of 8) Social-Cognitive Learning Theory: Learning through Imitation (continued) Social-cognitive learning proceeds in four steps: – The observer must pay attention to the model’s behavior. – The observer must successfully recall the behavior. – The behavior must be reproduced accurately. – The observer must be motivated to learn and carry out the behavior. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Forms of Learning What form of learning is being demonstrated in this picture? Source: Jutta Klee/Getty Images Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Behavioral Perspective: Focusing on Observable Behavior (8 of 8) Assessing the Behavioral Perspective According to classical and operant conditioning, people are opaque boxes in which nothing that occurs inside is understood or even cared about. Social learning theorists argue that what makes people different from rats and pigeons is mental activity, which must be taken into account. Social learning theory has come to predominate over classical and operant conditioning in recent decades. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the Roots of Understanding (1 of 12) LO 1.7 Describe how the cognitive perspective explains lifespan development. The cognitive perspective focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world. Developmental researchers using this perspective hope to understand how children and adults process information and how their ways of thinking and understanding affect their behavior. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the Roots of Understanding (2 of 12) Developmental researchers also seek to learn: – How cognitive abilities change as people develop – The degree to which cognitive development represents quantitative and qualitative growth in intellectual abilities – How different cognitive abilities are related to one another Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the Roots of Understanding (3 of 12) Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget (1896–1980) proposed that all people pass in a fixed sequence through a series of universal stages of cognitive development. In each stage, the quantity of information increases; the quality of knowledge and understanding changes as well. Piaget suggested that human thinking is arranged into schemes, organized mental patterns that represent behaviors and actions. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the Roots of Understanding (4 of 12) Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development (continued) Piaget suggested that the growth of children’s understanding of the world can be explained by two principles: – Assimilation is the process through which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking. – Accommodation refers to changes in existing ways of thinking in response to encounters with new stimuli or events. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Video: Assimilation and Accommodation Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the Roots of Understanding (5 of 12) Assessing Piaget’s Theory Thousands of investigations have shown it to be largely accurate. Some cognitive skills emerge earlier than Piaget suggested or, in non-Western countries, according to a different timetable. In every culture, some adults never reach Piaget’s highest level of cognitive thought: formal, logical thought. Many developmentalists argue that growth is considerably more continuous than Piaget’s view. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the Roots of Understanding (6 of 12) Information Processing Approaches Information processing approaches are models that seek to identify the ways individuals take in, use, and store information. Theorists assume that even complex behaviors such as learning, remembering, categorizing, and thinking can be broken down into a series of individual steps. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the Roots of Understanding (7 of 12) Information Processing Approaches (continued) These approaches assume cognitive growth is more quantitative than qualitative. They suggest that as people age, they are better able to control the nature of processing and can change the strategies they use to process information. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the Roots of Understanding (8 of 12) Information Processing Approaches (continued) Neo-Piagetian theory considers cognition as being made up of different types of individual skills. – Cognitive development proceeds quickly in certain areas and more slowly in others. – Experience plays a greater role in advancing cognitive development. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the Roots of Understanding (9 of 12) Assessing Information Processing Approaches They pay little attention to behavior such as creativity. They do not take into account the social context in which development takes place. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the Roots of Understanding (10 of 12) Cognitive Neuroscience Approaches Cognitive neuroscience approaches look at cognitive development through the lens of brain processes. Cognitive neuroscientists seek to identify actual locations and functions within the brain that are related to different types of cognitive activity—for example, by using brain scans. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the Roots of Understanding (11 of 12) Cognitive Neuroscience Approaches (continued) Brains of children diagnosed with the autism spectrum disorder sometimes show explosive, dramatic growth in the first year of life. This innovative research has identified specific genes associated with some physical and psychological disorders. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 1-2: The Brain and Children with Autism Researchers have found abnormalities in the temporal lobe of the brain in some children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. Source: Boddaert N., et al.. MRI Findings in 77 Children with Non-Syndromic Autistic Disorder, PLoS ONE. 2009; 4: e4415. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Cognitive Perspective: Examining the Roots of Understanding (12 of 12) Assessing Cognitive Neuroscience Approaches They represent a new frontier in child and adolescent development. Results of investigations are often more descriptive than explanatory. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Humanistic Perspective: Concentrating on the Unique Qualities of Human Beings (1 of 3) LO 1.8 Describe how the humanistic perspective explains lifespan development. The humanistic perspective contends that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their behavior. According to this approach, each individual has the ability and motivation to reach more advanced levels of maturity, and people naturally seek to reach their full potential. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Video: Getting Help—Psychotherapy: Crash Course Psychology #35 (2 of 2) Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Humanistic Perspective: Concentrating on the Unique Qualities of Human Beings (2 of 3) This perspective emphasizes free will, the ability of humans to make choices and come to decisions about their lives. Carl Rogers (1902–1987) suggested that all people have a need for positive regard that results from an underlying wish to be loved and respected. Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) suggested that selfactualization, a state of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique way, is a primary goal in life. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Humanistic Perspective: Concentrating on the Unique Qualities of Human Beings (3 of 3) Assessing the Humanistic Perspective It has not had a major impact on the field of lifespan development. It has not identified any sort of broad developmental change that is the result of age or experience. Some of the concepts drawn from the humanistic perspective, such as self-actualization, have helped describe important aspects of human behavior and are widely discussed in areas from health care to business. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Contextual Perspective: Taking a Broad Approach to Development (1 of 8) LO 1.9 Describe how the contextual perspective explains lifespan development. The contextual perspective considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds. It suggests that a person’s unique development cannot be properly viewed without seeing how that person is enmeshed within a rich social and cultural context. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Contextual Perspective: Taking a Broad Approach to Development (2 of 8) The Bioecological Approach to Development The bioecological approach by Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) suggests that five levels of the environment simultaneously influence individuals: – Microsystem: the everyday, immediate environment, such as homes, caregivers, friends, and teachers – Mesosystem: connects various aspects of the microsystem, linking children to parents, students to teachers, employees to bosses, and friends to friends Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Contextual Perspective: Taking a Broad Approach to Development (3 of 8) The Bioecological Approach to Development (continued) – Exosystem: broader influences such as local government, community, schools, places of worship, and local media – Macrosystem: larger cultural influences such as society in general, types of government, and religious and political value systems – Chronosystem: underlies the previous systems and involves the way the passage of time, including historical events, affects children’s development Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 1-3: Bronfenbrenner’s Approach to Development Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological approach to development offers five levels of the environment that simultaneously influence individuals: the macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, microsystem, and chronosystem. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Contextual Perspective: Taking a Broad Approach to Development (4 of 8) The Bioecological Approach to Development (continued) There are several advantages to taking a bioecological approach to development: – It emphasizes the interconnectedness of the influences on development. – It illustrates that influences are multidirectional. – It stresses the importance of broad cultural factors that affect development. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Contextual Perspective: Taking a Broad Approach to Development (5 of 8) The Bioecological Approach to Development (continued) The dominant Western philosophy is individualism, emphasizing personal identity, uniqueness, freedom, and the worth of the individual. Collectivism is the notion that the well-being of the group is more important than that of the individual. Assessing the Bioecological Approach Some critics argue that the perspective pays insufficient attention to biological factors. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Contextual Perspective: Taking a Broad Approach to Development (6 of 8) Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896–1934) was a Russian child developmentalist. He developed sociocultural theory, which emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture. Vygotsky argued that children’s understanding of the world is acquired through their problem-solving interactions with adults and other children. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Contextual Perspective: Taking a Broad Approach to Development (7 of 8) Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory (continued) To understand the course of development, we must consider what is meaningful to members of a given culture. Sociocultural theory emphasizes that development is the result of recurring reciprocal transactions between people in the child’s environment and the child. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Contextual Perspective: Taking a Broad Approach to Development (8 of 8) Assessing Vygotsky’s Theory Some suggest the strong emphasis on culture and social experience ignores biological factors. It seems to minimize the role individuals can play in shaping their own environment. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Evolutionary Perspective: Our Ancestors’ Contributions to Behavior (1 of 4) LO 1.10 Describe how the evolutionary perspective explains lifespan development. The evolutionary perspective seeks to identify behavior in today’s humans that is the result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Video: Evolutionary Psychology Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Evolutionary Perspective: Our Ancestors’ Contributions to Behavior (2 of 4) The evolutionary perspective grew out of the work of Charles Darwin (1809–1882), who argued in On the Origin of Species that a process of natural selection creates traits in a species that are adaptive to their environment. The evolutionary perspective argues that our genetic inheritance determines not only such physical traits as skin and eye color, but also certain personality traits and social behaviors. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Evolutionary Perspective: Our Ancestors’ Contributions to Behavior (3 of 4) The evolutionary perspective draws on the field of ethology (Konrad Lorenz, 1903–1989), which examines the ways in which our biological makeup influences our behavior. The evolutionary perspective encompasses one of the fastest growing areas within the field of lifespan development: behavioral genetics, which studies the effects of heredity on behavior. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Evolutionary Perspective: Our Ancestors’ Contributions to Behavior (4 of 4) Assessing the Evolutionary Perspective The evolutionary perspective is increasingly visible in the field. Some developmentalists criticize the evolutionary perspective for paying insufficient attention to the environment and social factors. Others argue that there is no good way to experimentally test theories derived from evolution. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Why “Which Approach Is Right?” Is the Wrong Question LO 1.11 Discuss the value of applying multiple perspectives to lifespan development. Each emphasizes different aspects of development: – The psychodynamic approach emphasizes emotions, motivational conflicts, and unconscious determinants of behavior. – Behavioral approaches emphasize overt behavior. – Cognitive and humanist approaches look more at what people think than what they do. – The contextual approach looks at the interrelationship of a person’s physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds. – The evolutionary perspective focuses on how inherited biological factors underlie development. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 1-4: Major Perspectives on Lifespan Development (1 of 2) Perspective Key Ideas about Human Behavior and Development Major Proponents Example Psychodynamic Behavior throughout life is motivated by inner, unconscious forces, stemming from childhood, over which we have little control. Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson This view might suggest that a young adult who is overweight has a fixation in the oral stage of development. Behavioral Development can be understood through studying observable behavior and environmental stimuli. John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner, Albert Bandura In this perspective, a young adult who is overweight might be seen as not being rewarded for good nutritional and exercise habits. Cognitive Emphasis on how changes or growth in the ways people know, understand, and think about the world affect behavior. Jean Piaget This view might suggest that a young adult who is overweight hasn’t learned effective ways to stay at a healthy weight and doesn’t value good nutrition. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Table 1-4: Major Perspectives on Lifespan Development (2 of 2) Key Ideas about Human Behavior and Development Major Proponents Humanistic Behavior is chosen through free will and motivated by our natural capacity to strive to reach our full potential. Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow In this view, a young adult who is overweight may eventually choose to seek an optimal weight as part of an overall pattern of individual growth. Contextual Development should be viewed in terms of the interrelationship of a person’s physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds. Urie Bronfenbrenner, Lev Vygotsky In this perspective, being overweight is caused by a number of interrelated factors in that person’s physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds. Evolutionary Behavior is the result of genetic inheritance from our ancestors; traits and behavior that are adaptive for promoting the survival of our species have been inherited through natural selection. Influenced by early work of Charles Darwin, Konrad Lorenz This view might suggest that a young adult might have a genetic tendency toward obesity because extra fat helped his or her ancestors to survive in times of famine. Perspective Example Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Research Methods Theories and Hypotheses: Posing Developmental Questions Choosing a Research Strategy: Answering Questions Correlational Studies Experiments: Determining Cause and Effect Theoretical and Applied Research: Complementary Approaches Measuring Developmental Change Ethics and Research Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Theories and Hypotheses: Posing Developmental Questions (1 of 3) LO 1.12 Describe the role that theories and hypotheses play in the study of development. The scientific method is the process of posing and answering questions using careful, controlled techniques that include systematic, orderly observation and the collection of data. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Theories and Hypotheses: Posing Developmental Questions (2 of 3) The scientific method involves three major steps: 1. Identifying questions of interest 2. Formulating an explanation 3. Carrying out research that either lends support to the explanation or refutes it Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Theories and Hypotheses: Posing Developmental Questions (3 of 3) The scientific method involves the formulation of theories, the broad explanations and predictions about phenomena. Theories are used to form hypotheses, predictions stated in a way that permit testing. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 1-4: The Scientific Method A cornerstone of research, the scientific method is used by psychologists as well as researchers from all other scientific disciplines. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Video: Scientific Research Methods Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Choosing a Research Strategy: Answering Questions LO 1.13 Compare the two major categories of lifespan development research. Correlational research seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists. Experimental research is designed to discover causal relationships between various factors. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Video: How to Answer Psychological Questions Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Correlational Studies (1 of 5) LO 1.14 Identify different types of correlational studies and their relationship to cause and effect. Correlational research examines the relationship between two variables to determine whether they are associated, or correlated. Correlations do not prove causality, but they can provide important information. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 1-5: Finding a Correlation Finding a correlation between two factors does not imply that one factor causes the other factor to vary. For instance, suppose a study found that viewing media with high levels of aggression is correlated with actual aggression in children. The correlation may reflect at least three possibilities: (a) watching media containing high levels of aggression causes aggression in viewers; (b) children who behave aggressively choose to watch media with high levels of aggression; or (c) some third factor, such as a child’s socioeconomic status, leads both to high viewer aggression and to choosing to watch media with high levels of aggression. What other factors, besides socioeconomic status, might be plausible third factors? Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Correlational Studies (2 of 5) The Correlation Coefficient The strength and direction of a relationship between two factors is represented by a correlational coefficient that ranges from +1.0 to –1.0. – Positive correlation: as the value of one factor increases, it can be predicted that the value of the other will also increase. – Negative correlation: as the value of one factor increases, the value of the other factor declines. – Finding that two variables are correlated with one another proves nothing about causality. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Correlational Studies (3 of 5) Types of Correlational Studies Naturalistic observation is a type of correlational study in which some naturally occurring behavior is observed without intervention in the situation. Ethnography is a method borrowed from the field of anthropology used to investigate cultural questions. In qualitative research, researchers choose particular settings of interest and seek to carefully describe, in narrative fashion, what is occurring and why. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Correlational Studies (4 of 5) Types of Correlational Studies (continued) Case studies are studies that involve extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular individual or small group of individuals. – Case studies often employ the use of diaries. Survey research is a type of study in which a group of people chosen to represent some larger population is asked questions about their attitudes, behavior, or thinking on a given topic. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Correlational Studies (5 of 5) Psychophysiological Methods Psychophysiological methods focus on the relationship between physiological processes and behavior. Among the most frequently used psychophysiological measures are: – Electroencephalogram (EEG) – Computerized tomography (CT) scan – Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scan Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Experiments: Determining Cause and Effect (1 of 4) LO 1.15 Explain the main features of an experiment. An experiment is a process in which an investigator, called an experimenter, devises two different experiences for participants and then studies and compares the outcomes. The group receiving the treatment is known as the treatment group or experimental group. The control group is the group that receives either no treatment or alternative treatment. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Experiments: Determining Cause and Effect (2 of 4) Independent and Dependent Variables and Replication The independent variable is the variable that researchers manipulate in an experiment. The dependent variable is the variable that researchers measure in an experiment and expect to change as a result of the experimental manipulation. In random assignment, participants are assigned to different treatment groups on the basis of chance alone. Before complete confidence can be placed in a conclusion, research must be replicated, or repeated. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 1-6: Elements of an Experiment In this experiment, researchers randomly assigned a group of adolescents to one of two conditions: viewing a film that contained violent imagery or viewing a film that lacked violent imagery (manipulation of the independent variable). Participants were observed later to determine how much aggression they showed (the dependent variable). Analysis of the findings showed that adolescents exposed to aggressive imagery showed more aggression later. In this experiment and others like it, why is random assignment important? (Based on an experiment by Leyens et al., 1975.) Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Experiments: Determining Cause and Effect (3 of 4) Choosing a Research Setting Researchers choose a sample, a group of participants chosen for the experiment. Field study is a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting. Laboratory study is a research investigation conducted in a controlled setting explicitly designed to hold events constant. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Developmental Diversity and Your Life #2 Do Lifespan Development Research Participants—and Researchers—Represent the World’s Diversity? To represent the full range of humanity, lifespan development research must incorporate children of different races, ethnicities, cultures, sexes, genders, and other categories. The field also needs to include a diverse population of researchers. Progress in this area has been slow. At the same time, demographic changes have increased the need for research on people of color. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 1-7: Shifting Populations The proportion of individuals who self-identify as people of color has grown significantly over the past 40 years, and it is projected to continue to increase. (Source: U.S. Census Bureau 2021) Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Experiments: Determining Cause and Effect (4 of 4) Choosing a Research Setting (continued) Lack of inclusiveness has led to at least two problems in lifespan development research: – The establishment of metrics to assess typical development may disregard the role of the sociocultural context in shaping attainment of skills. – Cultural bias in the research that informs education practices and policies results in privileging one group of children over others. Lack of inclusiveness and equity among researchers is also a concern. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Theoretical and Applied Research: Complementary Approaches LO 1.16 Distinguish between theoretical research and applied research. Theoretical research is research designed specifically to test some developmental explanation and expand scientific knowledge. Applied research is research meant to provide practical solutions to immediate problems. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. From Research to Practice Using Lifespan Developmental Research to Improve Public Policy Policymakers and other professionals use research findings to determine how best to implement programs. Research findings can provide policymakers a way to understand and promote beneficial behavior for individuals and society. Research findings and the testimony of researchers are often part of the process by which laws are drafted. Research techniques are used to evaluate the effectiveness of existing programs and policies. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Measuring Developmental Change (1 of 4) LO 1.17 Compare longitudinal research, cross-sectional research, and sequential research. There are three major research strategies for the measurement of change and differences over age and time: – Longitudinal research – Cross-sectional research – Sequential research Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Measuring Developmental Change (2 of 4) Longitudinal Studies: Measuring Individual Change In longitudinal research, the behavior of one or more study participants is measured as they age. Assessing Longitudinal Studies Drawbacks of longitudinal studies include: – They require a tremendous investment of time. – Participants often drop out, move away, or otherwise become unavailable. – Participants may become “test-wise.” Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Measuring Developmental Change (3 of 4) Cross-Sectional Studies In cross-sectional research, people of different ages are compared at the same point in time. Assessing Cross-Sectional Studies Difficulties of cross-sectional studies include: – Differences may be due to cohort effects. – Selective dropout: participants in some age groups are more likely to quit the study than others. – They are unable to inform about changes in individuals or groups. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Cross-Sectional Research Cross-sectional research allows researchers to compare representatives of different age groups at the same time. Source: Mat Hayward/Shutterstock Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Measuring Developmental Change (4 of 4) Sequential Studies In sequential studies, researchers examine a number of different age groups at several points in time. – This combines longitudinal and cross-sectional research. – It can inform about the consequences of age change versus age difference. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 1-8: Research Techniques for Studying Development In a cross-sectional study, 3-, 4-, and 5-yearolds are compared at a similar point in time (in the year 2022). In a longitudinal study, a set of participants who are 3 years old in 2022 are studied when they are 4 years old (in 2023) and when they are 5 years old (in 2024). Finally, a sequential study combines crosssectional and longitudinal techniques; here, a group of 3-year-olds would be compared initially in 2022 with 4- and 5-year-olds but would also be studied one and two years later, when they themselves were 4 and 5 years old. Although the graph does not illustrate this, researchers carrying out this sequential study might also choose to retest the children who were 4 and 5 in 2022 for the next two years. What advantages do the three kinds of studies offer? Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Ethics and Research LO 1.18 Describe ethical issues that affect psychological research. Ethical guidelines for researchers (SRCD, APA) Researchers must protect participants from physical and psychological harm. Researchers must obtain informed consent from participants before their involvement in a study. The use of deception in research must be justified and cause no harm. Participants’ privacy must be maintained. Promote equity in research. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Video: Ethics and Psychological Research Click on the screenshot to view this video. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Development in Your Life Thinking Critically about “Expert” Advice Consider the source of the advice. Evaluate the credentials of the person providing advice. Understand the difference between anecdotal evidence and scientific evidence. If advice is based on research findings, there should be a clear, transparent description of the studies on which the conclusion is based. Do not overlook the cultural context of the information. Don’t assume that because many people believe something, it is necessarily true. Copyright © 2023, 2020, 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. 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