Final Exam Of P& I In Translation PDF

Yara’s notes♡ Final exam of P& I in translation Genre Chapter 6 from (Thinking Arabic Translation by James Dickins) Introduction de nition /T or F / Fill in the blank # Different STs require different strategic priorities. In deciding which textual variables to prioritize,...

Yara’s notes♡ Final exam of P& I in translation Genre Chapter 6 from (Thinking Arabic Translation by James Dickins) Introduction de nition /T or F / Fill in the blank # Different STs require different strategic priorities. In deciding which textual variables to prioritize, the translator has always to ask: What is the purpose of the ST, and what is the purpose of the TT? These questions imply two others: What kind of text is the ST, and what kind of text should the TT be? At issue here is a fundamental consideration in translation: all texts are de ned in terms of genre. By genre we mean what Hymes calls a ‘type of communicative event’ (quoted in Hervey 1992: 199) – that is, a category to which, in a given culture, a given text is seen to belong and within which the text is seen to share a type of communicative purpose and effect with other texts. # Meaning of Genre The term text type is often used in a similar sense to ‘genre’. The term genre was borrowed in the early 19th century from French and its literal meaning is 'a kind’ #De nition Genre: means kind, category, or sort. #Most texts belong to a genre or genres. Therefore, in order to assess the nature and purpose of the ST, the translator must have some sort of overview of genre types in the source culture and be familiar with the characteristics of relevant genres within those types. #What is true of SL texts is true of TL texts. Because the nature and purpose of a given text imply each other, the translator has to be as familiar with target-culture genre types as with those of the source culture. Paying due attention to the nature and purpose of the TT guarantees a degree of TL bias that helps to prevent the excessive SL bias, or literalness, that so often defeats the stated or implied purpose of the TT. Without translation just for understanding ( Reading) 1 fi fi fi Reading #Some of the ways in which TT (a) reads strangely have to do with features of meaning that correlate with formal differences between English and Arabic. Others, however, simply re ect the fact that the formal features of English in certain kinds of writing tend to be different from the formal features of Arabic, notably in respect to parallelism and metaphor. #There is nothing in the linguistic structure of English that requires that the use of parallelism and metaphor in ‘personal opinion’ columns in English to be different from their use in Arabic. #It is simply conventional that writing of this kind in English does not make as dense use of these features as is normal in Arabic. In other kinds of writing particularly in poetry it would be much more normal for English to make wider use of them. #In translating a ‘personal opinion’ text of this kind, the translator has to bear in mind that the conventions of English for this kind of writing are rather different from those for Arabic. #Assuming that the intention is to produce an idiomatic TT, the translator must attempt at least to modify the TT in the direction of more typical English-language forms, as in TT (b). #Of course, it may not always be possible to achieve a TT that reads entirely like an original English text. For example, an attempt to produce an entirely natural-sounding English text might result in unacceptable loss of message content. Because translators need to consider these genre-related questions before translating a text, it is useful for them to have a framework of broad genre types. This will help them to identify salient generic characteristics of the ST and to check the generic characteristics of the TT they are producing. In determining the genre of a text, the essential factor is the author’s attitude to the treatment of the subject matter of the text. 2 fl  T or F / Fill in the blank ♧ Treatment of subject matter Subject matter # in itself is not a useful criterion for describing genres, because the same subject matter can gure in very different genres. What is at issue is the author’s attitude, implicit or explicit, to treatment of the subject matter. This attitude also includes the intention that the text should have a particular sort of effect on the reader or listener and an acceptance of the probability or improbability of this intention being completely achieved. On this basis, we shall distinguish ve broad categories of genre, each corresponding to a traditional Western categorization, and illustrate these with Arabic examples. We will then consider how these relate more broadly to traditional Arabic genres and then to modern Arabic genres. 1-The rst category is that of literary genres. Literary genres have subdivided and diversi ed very greatly over the centuries. There are innumerable subgenres of poetry, ction and drama, each with its own characteristic style. However, all texts in this category have two essential features. First, they concern a world created autonomously in and through the texts themselves and not controlled by the physical world outside. Second, whatever other characteristics they have, and whatever their subject matter, literary texts contain features of expression, on any level of textual variables, that emphasize, modify or actually create features of content. 2-The second category comprises religious genres. In terms of the author’s attitude, the subject matter of religious texts implies the existence of a spiritual world that is not ctive but has its own external realities and truths. The author is understood not to be free to create the world that animates the subject matter but to be merely instrumental in exploring it. 3-The third category comprises philosophical genres. These have as their subject matter a ‘world’ of ideas. Pure mathematics is the best example of the kind of subject matter that de nes philosophical genres. Philosophical genres have not proliferated as much as literary ones, but they are strikingly diverse nonetheless. 4- The fourth category is that of empirical genres. Genres in this category purport to deal with the real world as it is experienced by observers. An empirical text is more or less informative, and it is understood to take an objective view of observable phenomena. Scienti c, technological and many scholarly texts fall into this category. It thus goes on diversifying into new genres and subgenres as new scienti c and academic disciplines are created. 3 fi fi fi fi fi fi fi fi fi  T or F / Fill in the blank ♧ Oral and written texts Another factor in determining genre is the question of whether the text is oral or written. Each of the ve traditional Western genre categories discussed in the previous section includes both oral and written texts. In practice, however, it is almost impossible not to distinguish an oral text as belonging to a discrete oral genre and a written text as belonging to a discrete written genre, even where the texts share the same subject matter: the difference in medium generally entails a difference in attitude to treatment of the subject matter. To get an idea of the signi cance of these factors for translation, it is helpful rst to look at some of the speci c characteristics of oral texts as distinct from written ones. An oral text is in essence a eeting and unrepeatable event This has important implications. 1- First, vocal utterance is usually accompanied by visual cues, such as gestures or facial expressions, that are secondary to it but do form part of the overall text and can play a role in creating its meaning. 2- Second, on every level of textual variable, effective oral texts avoid information overload, elaborate cross- referencing, excessive speed and so on, because these can make the text hard to follow. Naturally, in these respects, what is true for oral STs is true for oral TTs as well. 3- A third implication of orality is the appearance of spontaneity that often characterizes oral texts. This goes not only for impromptu conversation or narrative but also for prepared texts, such as memorized lines in a play An oral text is always very different in nature and impact from even the most closely corresponding written version. An awareness of these properties of oral texts is a necessary starting point for translating an oral ST into an oral TT. Spoken communication has characteristics that are very much language speci c. Oral translation is not simply a matter of verbal transposition: the genre-related techniques of the target culture must be respected as well, including gestures, facial expressions and so on. Translating a joke, for instance, will generally involve different genres from conference interpreting. Both, however, make it clear that an oral text in any genre is not only an utterance but also a dramatic performance. 4 fl fi fi fi fi fi  T or F / Fill in the blank # Two words of caution are needed here : 1- First, it is easy for student translators to begin their strategic considerations something like this: ‘This text belongs to genre A; therefore, it has characteristics x, y and z.’ This is putting the cart before the horse. It is much more useful to identify the text’s characteristics rst, and then, on that basis, to assign it to a genre. our aim here is to encourage and enable students to isolate the salient features and the purpose of an ST so that they can relate these to the purpose of the TT and thus be in a position to develop an appropriate translation strategy on the basis of these things. 2- The second word of caution is that it is absolutely essential for translators to be familiar with the characteristic features of the TL genre or genres that they decide correspond most closely to the ST genre(s). Chapter 7: TECHNOLOGY AND TRANSLATION Introduction T or F / Fill in the blank #Since the 1990s, translation as a commercial activity has become a global business whose growth outstrips that of world trade as a whole (Boucau 2006). This is a natural consequence of the globalization of trade in general. The rapid expansion of the internet has been a major factor in allowing even smaller companies to market and sell their products internationally. And the demand from consumers for product information, software, user manuals, games, educational materials and so on in their own language has fuelled in its turn the demand for translation. Since time-to-market is so crucial to pro tability, the time available for the translation of a given product may be only a matter of days. Of necessity, translation is therefore a team effort, and the members (e.g. project manager, terminologist, translator, reviser, DTP specialist, software engineer) will often be dispersed around the world. These trends are both enabled and driven by technology. Some of it, such as the internet and the semantic web, forms the general fabric for communicating and sharing information globally. Meanwhile, there is a continual evolution of other technologies designed to support language processing in general and translation in particular. These are the focus of the present chapter, brie y outlined in the next paragraph. T or F / Fill in the blank / de nition # Before returning to these topics in greater detail, we need to clarify some important terms in widespread use in the translation industry First, internationalization, describes the process of designing both documents and software (programs or websites) 5 fl fi fi fi in such a way that they can accommodate different linguistic and cultural requirements and options without the need for redesign. This includes ensuring that the required character sets (Arabic,Chinese, Russian, etc.) can be displayed and the corresponding keyboard layouts supported, that numbers and dates are correctly formatted, and that there is enough space on a page to t the (often longer) translated text next to artwork, whose size and position must remain the same across all language versions of a document Localization then entails adapting a product to the linguistic and cultural expectations of the target locale (region plus language). In the industry, this is seen as a ‘special kind of translation’ that takes into account the culture of the location or region where the translated text is expected to be used. However, in the translation studies community, this is simply a commonly accepted de nition of translation itself. Accordingly, in this chapter we use ‘localization’ only in respect of software; in all other contexts the generic term ‘translation’ is preferred. We also restrict globalization to the implementation of the internationalization and localization processes necessary for operating in a global marketplace. 7.1. INFRASTRUCTURE TECHNOLOGIES ‘Technology’ is not only hardware and software tools; it includes collections of techniques that enable humans to produce goods and services and, more generally, control the environment. Metadata plays a crucial role in documenting the individuals, resources, and tools involved in the creation and translation of content, bene ting content publishers, language service providers (LSPs), and tool vendors. Standards like TBX (Term Base eXchange) and TMX (Translation Memory eXchange) facilitate the consistent use of terminology and the exchange of translation memory data, which consists of source and target language sentence pairs. In larger organizations, these translation memories can accumulate into millions of pairs, making them a valuable asset. By adopting these standards, publishers and freelancers gain independence and future-proo ng, avoiding dependency on a single LSP or tool provider. ✸ 7.1.2 UNICODE AND OPEN SOURCE Unicode is the character encoding standard for XML and has been widely adopted by global organizations, since its use can hugely facilitate software localization. ✸ 7.1.3 CORPUS DATA AND TOOLS a corpus (plural corpora) is ‘a collection of naturally occurring language data’ To be exploitable for the purposes of translation technology a corpus must be machine-readable – which is typically the case whatever the purpose – and large, consisting of tens of millions rather than tens of thousands of words. There are corpora of text data, speech data and multimodal data 6 fi fi fi fi  (such as subtitled lm or sign language interpretation); this section focuses on corpora of written language. T or F / Fill in the blank If, for example, the goal is to create an MT system for pharmaceutical texts, then the selection of data for the corpus must represent that domain and not the domain of chemistry. Moreover, it must strike a balance between the various types of text that talk about pharmaceuticals – patient information lea ets, research papers, etc. – and between data from the various major manufacturers. Other tools exist to enhance the value of corpora by adding linguistic information, or annotations, such as part of speech taggers that mark up the part of speech of each word, or parsers that label the structural constituents of each sentence. For languages where there are no whitespaces between words, such as Chinese and Japanese, tokenisers must rst split the strings of characters between punctuation marks into individual words. Corpora are the raw resource for many applications described in the following sections: mining terminology, creating authoring and MT systems, and reusing previous translations. Since translation strategies and choices at all linguistic levels are highly sensitive to the particular conjunction of genre and subject matter realized in a given source text, it follows that if a corpus is to adequately serve any such purpose, it cannot simply be compiled from a random collection of data. Rather it needs to be designed as a representative and balanced sample of the data that exists (it is rarely possible to build a corpus that includes everything). To sum up a corpus must be large and machine-readable to be useful in translation technology. The design of a corpus needs to be representative of speci c genres and subject matters. Parallel corpora are especially bene cial for identifying translation equivalents. Linguistic tools, including taggers and parsers, enhance the usability of corpora for various applications. 7.2. TERMINOLOGY TOOLS T or F / Fill in the blank / de nition Terminology’ is both the process of identifying, organizing and presenting terms to users and the product of this process – collections of domain-speci c expressions, often multi-word expressions (MWEs In translation applications, terminology can be massively multilingual. The concomitant increasing human reliance on authoring, CAT and MT tools means, therefore, that terminology needs to be uni ed across all these applications. The bene ts include a possibly signi cant cut in time spent on research and revision, and a gain in accuracy. The clear implication is that terminology – process and product – needs to be managed centrally and delivered locally. 7 fi fl fi fi fi fi fi fi fi fi ✸ 7.2.1 TERM EXTRACTION T or F / Fill in the blank Extracting, or ‘mining’ terminology from monolingual or parallel corpora may be done by a language service provider (LSP) in preparation for a job or, in the case of an MT vendor, prospectively to extend the system’s domain coverage. The technology exploits two main approaches for nding candidate terms: linguistic approaches require part-of-speech tagged data to identify word combinations that match predetermined patterns (e.g. NOUN+NOUN – water pressure), while statistical approaches rely on the fact that the component parts of terminological MWEs tend to co- occur more often than would be predicted by chance (e.g. dialogue and box). A particular tool may combine elements of both approaches. Searching for patterns such as NOUN+of+NOUN (e.g. part of speech, best of breed) or ADJECTIVE+NOUN (hard drive) will successfully nd matching terms however infrequent, but tends to return also many false or irrelevant candidates that need to be eliminated manually (e.g. cup of tea, long walk). So the initial list of candidates may be ltered according to various statistical criteria and the survivors ranked according to their likely ‘termhood’. A further disadvantage of the linguistic approach is that the patterns need to be rede ned for every language processed. Purely statistical methods escape this drawback and are language-independent, but overlook terms whose frequency of occurrence is below some preset threshold. 7.3. AUTHORING TOOLS The awareness that linguistic quality must be assured as early as possible in the document lifecycle is not new – poor source documents have long been the bane of the translator’s life. 7.4.1 TRANSLATION MEMORY (TM) TOOLS T or F / Fill in the blank / de nition A translation memory is a database that stores sentences, paragraphs or segments of text that you have translated before. Each entry, or segment, in the translation memory includes the original language, known as the ‘source’, and its translation, known as the ‘target’. These pairs are called translation units, or ‘TUs’. Translation memory is most effective with documents – such as manuals or catalogues – with a high degree of internal repetition or of external repetition relative to previous releases of the same document or, for example, documents describing related products. T or F / Fill in the blank / General questions Q : How does a translation memory work? Translation memories sit at the heart of computer-assisted translation (CAT) software. When you open the document you want to translate (the source le) in the CAT tool, the translation memory checks to see whether any of the content has been translated before. If a source segment is identical to one that has been translated in the past, it’s indicated as a 100% match. If it’s similar, but not exact, it’s called a ‘fuzzy match’. 8 fi fi fi fi fi fi Q : What are the bene ts of translation memories? Using translation memories means linguists don’t have to translate the same content more than once – the more you translate, the larger the translation memories become and the more leverage you receive. With translation memories, you can: Deliver faster time to market: Translators can spend their time focusing on translating new content, rather than translating everything from scratch, ultimately speeding up the translation process. Improve quality: By leveraging segments you have translated before you can increase consistency throughout your document and across projects. With everyone working with the same translation memory (e.g. across different departments) you can ensure a consistent tone of voice. Reduce translation cost: Reusing previously translated content also brings down costs. As a rule, translation leveraged from a TM is charged at a lower per-word rate than new content Q : How does a translation memory differ from machine translation? Translation memories are created by a professional translator and reuse content that has been previously translated to improve the speed, quality and consistency of future translations. Machine translation (MT) automatically translates without any human input. MT tools are fast, but can produce lower- quality translations as a machine is not able to fully understand the context or subtleties of language. As a result, quality and accuracy isn’t as good as a translation by a person. Machine translation does have its uses, however, particularly when used in conjunction with a translation memory to increase the overall speed of a translation. 7.4.2 SOFTWARE LOCALIZATION (L10N) TOOLS T or F / Fill in the blank In addition to the terminology, TM matching and pre-translate functions, software localization tools add specialized functions that re ect their prime use in translating text embedded in computer programs. Just as TM tools protect the formatting, so localization tools protect the program code by extracting the translatable text – mostly text that appears in the user interface, often called ‘strings’ – for translation in a safe environment and eventually reinsert the translated version in the right places in the right les. 7.5 MACHINE TRANSLATION (MT) TOOLS There are two basic approaches to building an MT system: (1) encode linguistic knowledge about the morphological, lexical, syntactic and functional structures of the source and target languages and the mappings between them; (2) provide enough aligned data to ‘train’ it to ‘learn’ the statistically most likely mappings between strings of characters in the two languages. The rst approach is that of rule- based MT (RBMT) and the second that of statistics- based MT (SMT). If there is a new enthusiasm nowadays among content publishers and LSPs alike about the potential of MT, it is largely due to the advent of commercial and free online SMT – from Language Weaver and Google, respectively – thanks to the availability of very large corpora of aligned data, including TMs. SMT systems can be built in days or weeks rather than months or years, hence much of the excitement, even if the quality of the output has not necessarily improved. The rest of 9 fi fi fl fi  this section investigates the implications for the translator of the availability of large volumes of cheap but imperfect translations. 7.5.1 CURRENT USE AND DEPLOYMENT OF MT T or F / Fill in the blank / General questions # The overwhelming use of MT today, certainly of free online MT, is for assimilation – the understanding of incoming information. # Errors and lack of uency may be tolerated provided the translation is good enough for the user to get the gist and extract speci c information, especially in the case of time- sensitive documents, such as nancial market bulletins, where waiting even hours for a human translation is not an option # MT used in this way enabled the Global Public Health Intelligence Network to detect the outbreak of SARS from Chinese reports in late 2002, two months before the rst media reports in English (Blench 2007). # The European Patent Of ce is deploying MT to enable affordable browsing of patent content. This is no threat to the employment of professional translators, since the demand for translation outstrips supply. 7.5.2 ARCHITECTURES AND LIMITATIONS ON IMPROVABILITY #The predominant RBMT model is the transfer architecture. An initial analysis stage is intended to result in identifying the constituents of the input sentence and the functional relations – predicate, subject, object, etc. – between them, as well as sentential features such as tense, aspect and modality. #Analysis relies on knowledge of the source language (SL) only, expressed as far as possible in terms of generalizations about combinations of part-of-speech categories rather than individual lexical items. # The following transfer stage relies on a bilingual dictionary and mappings between the abstract structure describing an SL sentence and a structure underlying the corresponding target language (TL) sentence. #The nal generation stage aims to linearize this TL structure as a grammatically correct sequence of TL words. #The main challenge for RBMT is ambiguity at any linguistic level (Arnold et al. 1994; Arnold 2003), hence the attraction of controlled languages. #For SMT the main challenge is data sparsity – words in the current source text which have been encountered only rarely (or even not at all) in the training data. #Of course, the corrections made to SMT output by the translator are added to the TM so that the available training data constantly improves. Yet SMT systems are prone to run into dif culties when used on data different from that on which they were trained – to translate email correspondence rather than technical reports, for example. 10 fi fi fl fi fi fi fi  #In these circumstances RBMT systems are judged more robust in maintaining their translation quality. While SMT errors may more often be unfathomable, the errors made by RBMT systems tend to be more consistent and, as a result, easier for post- editors to nd since they are the product of a rule-based process. #For example, a given MT system might regularly insert the de nite article before abstract nouns (‘the love conquers all’) when translating from Romance languages. #Similarly, instructional steps beginning You must in an English manual might be more appropriately translated into many languages by an impersonal construction such as it is necessary to Specialized companies are already offering post-editing services to other LSPs. MT tools are rarely good at supporting the post-editing process but this new niche market may drive the development of better technologies (Allen 2003). Annotation (CATFORD'S TRANSLATION SHIFTS) T or F / Fill in the blank Catford (1965) associated translation with three elds of linguistics, namely general linguistics, comparative linguistics, and applied linguistics. During the process of translation, many linguistic changes take place, especially when the source language and the target language belong to different language families and hence have distinct linguistic systems. To trace and analyze such changes, many scholars,, have proposed various types of translation shifts introduced the linguistic- oriented notion of ‘translation shifts’ and its types, which was his major contribution to the eld of translation theory. For such contribution, De nition Catford is named ‘The Father of Translation Shifts’. Catford (1965) de ned ‘shifts’ as the “departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL” (p. 73). : ‫ كامل‬Shifts ‫ طريقة االسئلة لقسم‬ +T or F / Fill in the blank ‫ الي صار‬shift‫ ممكن تجيب املثال وتقول ايش نوع ال‬+ ‫مصطلح لنوع النظرية‬ 2.5.1 Level Shifts De nition * Catford (1965) de ned ‘level shifts’ as the change that takes place when “a SL item at one linguistic level has a TL equivalent at a different level” (p. 73). He explained that shifts from ‘grammar to lexis’ are “the only possible level-shifts in translation; and such shifts are, of course, quite common” (p. 73). In other words, a grammatical item in the source language is expressed using a word in the target language or vice versa. An example of level shifts is the translation of “ ‫” أفعالي كلھا مقدرة عنده‬into “all my actions have been preordained by him.” The lexis ‘ ‫’ مقدرة‬has been translated into grammar ‘have been preordained’ (Al-Hamed, 2016, p. 33) 11 fi fi fi fi fi fi fi fi  2.5.2 Category Shifts The other type of Catford's translation shifts─ category shifts─ is subdivided into four types: structure shifts, class shifts, unit shifts, and intra-system shifts. 2.5.2.1 Structure Shifts Structure shifts are the changes in the grammatical structure (word order) of a sentence at any linguistic rank (i.e., phrases, clauses, and sentences). For example, the Arabic sentence “ ‫قال‬ ‫” صدیقي في شماتة‬is translated into “My friend spoke gloatingly” where the Verb-Subject order in Arabic is reversed into Subject-Verb in English (Al-Hamed, 2016, p. 37). 2.5.2.2 Class Shifts Class shifts are the change from one part of speech to another without affecting the meaning. This shift corresponds to Vinay and Darbelnet’s ‘transposition’ translation procedure (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1995). An example of class shifts is found in the translation of “ ”‫صدیقي رجل یحب الجدل ویھوى الكالم‬into “My friend is a man who likes to argue and delights in talking.” The Arabic noun ‘ ’‫الجدل‬is translated into a verb in English. In spite of the change in part of speech, the meaning is still the same (Al- Hamed, 2016, p. 37). 2.5.2.3 Unit Shifts De nition Another type of category shifts is unit shifts─ also referred to as ‘rank-change.’ Catford (1965) de ned unit shifts as “departures from formal correspondence in which the translation equivalent of a unit at one rank in the SL is a unit at a different rank in the TL” (p. 79). They are changes in the units of language (i.e., words, phrases, clauses, sentences...etc.). For example, the Arabic sentence “ ”‫كیف یخلق الكراھیة والقبح والشر؟‬is translated into “how then did it come that he created hatred, ugliness, and evil?” The Arabic word ‘ ’‫كیف‬is translated into the clause ‘how then did it come that’ (Al-Hamed, 2016, p. 2.5.2.4 Intra-system Shifts The last type of category shifts is intra-system shifts. This kind occurs when the “translation involves selection of a non-corresponding term in the TL system,” (Catford, 1965, p. 80). Intra- system shifts usually take place in the cases of plural and singular, de nite and inde nite, and neutral and gender-speci c (Al- Hamed, 2016). An example of ” ‫“لنا على ذلك براھین تؤیدنا وتشجب كالمكم‬ this type of shifts is found the translation of the Arabic into “We have evidence to support our view and refute yours. The Arabic plural word ( ‫ )براھین‬is translated into a singular word in English ‘evidence’ (Al-Hamed, 2016, p 48). Chapter 8 (Issues in Interpreting Studies) T or F / Fill in the blank ⌘Introduction # The position of interpreting studies within the broader discipline of translation studies is curiously ambiguous. Often referred to as a ‘(sub)discipline’, it is both an increasingly autonomous 12 fi fi fi fi fi  T or F / Fill in the blank and diversi ed eld of academic pursuit, on a par with translation studies, and a domain within the latter, alongside such specialized elds as audiovisual translation. T or F / Fill in the blank / de nition # Though subject to fundamental principles and insights concerning translation in general, interpreting studies is clearly distinguished by its unique object of study, that is, ‘real-time’ human translation in an essentially shared communicative context. (Interpreting is commonly referred to as ‘oral’ as opposed to ‘written’ translation, i.e. as the activity of rendering spoken messages in another language, but this simple de nition fails to accommodate a number of important phenomena, as explained in section 8.2). # Interpreting studies function as both a sub-discipline of translation studies and an independent academic eld. Interpreting focuses on real-time spoken or signed language translation in shared communicative contexts. #Unlike written translation, interpreting is performed under time constraints, without opportunities for review or correction.It demands advanced cognitive skills, including attention management and short-term memory. * important T or F / Fill in the blank ⌘ 8.1 EVOLUTION AND STATE OF THE ART 8.1.1 Beginnings Ancient Practice: Interpreting has existed since ancient times but wasn’t recognized as an academic eld until the 20th century. Rise of Simultaneous Interpreting: It gained prominence during the Nuremberg Trials, where simultaneous interpreting was extensively used. Early psychological studies focused on the mental processes involved in interpreting, particularly the simultaneous mode. 8.1.2 Academic Foundations Founding Figures: In the 1960s, several personalities with a professional background in interpreting worked towards establishing the study of interpreting (and translation) as a subject in academia. One of them was Otto Kade provided a foundational de nition of interpreting and its unique characteristics. # Seleskovitch played a pioneering role both in the profession (more speci cally, in the International Association of Conference Interpreters – AIIC) and in the university-level training of conference interpreters at the École Supérieure d’Interprètes et de Traducteurs (ESIT) in Paris. Well into the 1980s, the Paris School paradigm held sway in matters of research on interpreting as well as the training of conference interpreters, and the monograph by Seleskovitch and Lederer (1989) describing the ESIT teaching approach remains highly in uential to this day. 13 fi fi fi fi fi fi fi fi fl fi  The Paris School, led by Danica Seleskovitch, emphasized understanding meaning (théorie du sens- The theory of meaning) rather than focusing only on linguistic elements. 8.1.3 Increasing Depth and Breadth (The theory of meaning,), which goes back to the early 1960s, essentially holds that interpreting is not linguistic transcoding but a process based on knowledge- based comprehension. Research expanded from conference interpreting to community interpreting, addressing new professional contexts. Interdisciplinary collaboration, such as sociolinguistics, enriched the eld. 8.1.4 Unity in Diversity T or F / Fill in the blank / ‫تعداد‬ # Multiple theoretical paradigms coexist in interpreting studies, including: 1. Interpretive Theory (focused on meaning comprehension). 2. Cognitive Processing (focused on memory and multitasking). 3. Social Interaction (focused on the interpreter's role in communication). ⌘ 8.2 Memes and Models T or F / Fill in the blank 8.2.1 INTERPRETING (DEFINED) AS TRANSLATION As early as the 1960s, Otto Kade de ned interpreting as a form of translation (in the wider sense) in which (a) the source-language text is presented only once and thus cannot be reviewed or replayed, and (b) the target-language text is produced under time pressure, with little chance for correction and revision. This de nition encompasses spoken and signed language interpreting, as well as sight translation. 8.2.2 COGNITIVE PROCESSING # The most popular perspective on interpreting by far, at least for international conference interpreting, has been the view from cognition (see also Chapter 4). Charged with the comprehension and production of verbal messages, the interpreter has been conceived of as an information processing system relying on memory structures (working memory, long-term memory) and a number of cognitive subskills, such as anticipation, inferencing and macro- processing. 14 fi fi fi 8.2.3 INTERCULTURAL MEDIATION # Rather than as a set of mental structures and processes, interpreting is also conceptualized, most evidently, as mediated interaction between two or more communicating parties with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds, foregrounding issues of communicative purpose, role, trust, status and power. Viewed from a social rather than a cognitive- psychological perspective, the interpreter is seen as a mediator not only between languages but also ‘between’ cultures and value systems. ⌘ 8.3 MAJOR ISSUES T or F / Fill in the blank 8.3.1 COGNITIVE PROCESSING # Challenges: Listening, processing, and speaking simultaneously. Managing limited cognitive resources, such as attention and memory. Given the limitations of human working memory, a crucial concern is the high cognitive task load generated by the simultaneity of the main processing operations – concurrent source-text comprehension and target-text production in the simultaneous mode, but also source-text comprehension, memorizing and note taking in consecutive interpreting. # Strategies Anticipation, compression of information, and syntactic restructuring. A related focus of interest is the strategies used by interpreters to cope with such processing constraints as high source-text presentation rate (speed), high information density, scripted style and unusual accents. They include online strategies such as anticipation, compression and syntactic restructuring as well as off-line strategies preceding the real-time task (e.g. background research, study of documents, preparation of glossaries). Most of the latter are designed to enhance the interpreter’s thematic and contextual knowledge and thus to aid ‘top- down’ (knowledge-driven) processing of linguistic input. 8.3.2 QUALITY: #Producing an interpretation that ful ls the communicative needs and expectations of the intended addressee is arguably the interpreter’s primary task – and the principal yardstick for measuring the quality of an interpreter’s product and performance. For conference settings, survey research among users has yielded a rather stable pattern of quality criteria, in which delity to the source, cohesion, uency and correct terminological usage rank above delivery-related features such as pleasant voice and native accent. # Nevertheless, experimental studies have shown such non-verbal components of the interpreter’s output to have a signi cant impact on the quality judgements of interpretation users, who are by de nition unable to check the target text reliably against its source. Establishing such source– target correspondence, often in terms of omissions, additions and translation errors (e.g. 15 fi fi fi fi fl  Barik 1975), has rather been left to researchers and examiners, although tempered by the recognition that quality implies not (only) equivalence on the linguistic level but an equivalent effect of the interpretation on the listeners. 8.3.3 TRAINING # Given the high demands on interpreters’ performance and professional responsibility, training has been an overriding concern in the literature of interpreting studies ever since pioneering Handbook. Fuelled by the growth of international conference interpreting, the demand for professional interpreters led to the creation of university- level training institutions as early as the And with organizations such as the United Nations and the European institutions, as well as the interpreting profession (AIIC) taking an active interest, the training of conference interpreters, at postgraduate level, has long been consolidated and institutionalized, most recently in the form of a European model curriculum. # Its core includes: consecutive interpreting with the aid of (more or less systematic) note taking; simultaneous interpreting in the booth, for which various preliminary exercises have been suggested ; and a variable dose of sight translation, either as a simultaneous mode of its own or in the booth (‘simultaneous with text’). In either modality, the education of community interpreters is often signi cantly different from that of international conference interpreters. Rather than text-processing skills, the focus is on managing the dynamics of interpersonal interaction, including issues of culture and unequal status, and the interpreter’s fraught position ‘in-between’. 8.3.4 ETHICS AND ROLE # In any profession, having clear rules for ethical behaviour is essential. These rules guide professionals in how they should act while serving society. For interpreters, the AIIC (International Association of Conference Interpreters) created a Code of Professional Ethics in 1957. One of its main principles was professional secrecy, ensuring interpreters do not share con dential information. In 1965, the RID (Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf) developed a more detailed code that included ideas like impartiality and faithfulness to the source message. These principles helped de ne the interpreter's role in different settings. # Over time, the concept of the interpreter's role has evolved, especially in signed-language interpreting. Initially, interpreters were seen as neutral "conduits," meaning they simply passed messages without in uencing the communication. However, this shifted to a more active role, where interpreters are viewed as facilitators of communication or bilingual, bicultural specialists who navigate between two languages and cultures. 16 fi fl fi fi # In spoken-language community interpreting, particularly in healthcare, interpreters often take on multiple roles. The pyramid model explains these roles: T or F / Fill in the blank / ‫تعداد‬ 1. Message Converter: The basic role of accurately translating messages. 2. Message Clari er: Helping clarify information when needed. 3. Cultural Broker: Addressing cultural misunderstandings. 4. Advocate: Speaking on behalf of a client when necessary. T or F / Fill in the blank # In court interpreting, however, interpreters are expected to follow stricter rules. The legal system often requires a "verbatim" translation, meaning word-for-word accuracy, even if this is not always realistic or effective. Judges and lawyers may hesitate to give interpreters more freedom to adapt messages, keeping their role limited to strict translation. This creates tension between the interpreter’s need to ensure communication ows smoothly and the legal system's demand for neutrality and accuracy. Ultimately, the interpreter's role and ethical boundaries are in uenced not just by interpreters themselves but also by the expectations of the institutions and elds in which they work. 8.3.5 TECHNOLOGY # Technology has always in uenced interpreting. Since the 1920s, electro-acoustic systems made simultaneous interpreting possible. Though conference interpreters initially disliked being moved to booths at the back of rooms, this equipment became essential for seamless conference communication. # The most signi cant technological change today is remote interpreting, where interpreters work via audio or video without being physically present. This includes telephone interpreting, widely used in community settings, and video remote interpreting, which is especially valuable in healthcare, legal contexts, and for Deaf individuals. In international conferences, remote interpreting has been in use since the 1970s, with organizations like the UN and EU conducting trials. Modern setups include better screens and cameras, but challenges like limited visual cues, eye strain, and reduced interpreter motivation remain concerns. Despite these issues, remote interpreting continues to expand access to interpreting services globally. 17 fi fi fl fl fl fi 8.3.6 History # Interpreting gained broader recognition as a profession only in the 20th century, but its history remains incomplete. Notable studies include Baigorri- Jalón's research on the origins of simultaneous interpreting, Gaiba's work on the Nuremberg Trials, and Wilss's account of interpreting in Germany. Despite these contributions, there is signi cant room for further research in diverse institutional and cultural contexts. Chapter 9 (ISSUES IN AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION) (AVT) *SP ( screen products) T or F / Fill in the blank ※Introduction # Audiovisual translation is one of several overlapping umbrella terms that include ‘media translation’, ‘multimedia translation’, ‘multimodal translation’ and ‘screen translation’. These different terms all set out to cover the interlingual transfer of verbal language when it is transmitted and accessed both visually and acoustically, usually, but not necessarily, through some kind of electronic device. Theatrical plays and opera, for example, are clearly audiovisual yet, until recently, audiences required no technological devices to access their translations; actors and singers simply acted and sang the translated versions. #Today, of course, screens are no longer restricted to cinema theatres alone. #Conversely, products for the screen (i.e. lms, TV series and serials, sitcoms, documentaries, etc.) are completely audiovisual in nature. This means that they function simultaneously on two different levels. Screen products (from this point onwards SP) are polysemiotic; in other words, they are made up of numerous codes that interact to produce a single effect AVT Modalities #The two most widespread modalities adopted for translating products for the screen are dubbing and subtitling. Dubbing is a process which uses the acoustic channel for translational purposes, while subtitling is visual and involves a written translation that is superimposed on to the screen. Another, less common, acoustic form of screen translation is voice-over. T or F / Fill in the blank / de nition Dubbing 18 fi fi fi  Dubbing is a process which entails ‘the replacement of the original speech by a voice track which attempts to follow as closely as possible the timing, phrasing and lip-movements of the original dialogue’. The goal of dubbing is to make the target dialogues look as if they are being uttered by the original actors so that viewers’ enjoyment of foreign products will be enhanced. General question/ multiple choice/ / ‫تعداد بالترتيب‬/ T or F / ll in the blank 1.1 THE DUBBING PROCESS There are traditionally four basic steps involved in the process of dubbing a lm from start to nish. First, the script is translated; second, it is adapted to sound both natural in the target language and to t in with the lip movements of the actors on screen; third, the new, translated script is recorded by actors; and nally it is mixed into the original recording. T or F / Fill in the blank # The rst translation is usually word for word. Some companies employ translators simply to provide a literal translation of the script, after which it is the adaptor or ‘dubbing translator’ who subsequently adjusts the rough translation to make it sound like natural target- language dialogue. By tradition, the dubbing translator need not be pro cient in the source language, but creative and talented enough in the target language to create fresh dialogue that is convincing. # As well as rendering talk natural, care is taken to ensure that the dialogue ts into visual features on screen such as lip movement, facial expressions and so on. Furthermore, the new dialogue also needs to take the emotive content of each utterance into account. However, with the awareness that a thorough understanding of the source text is a crucial asset for a translator, it is becoming ever more common for the two processes (the translation itself and the adaptation) to merge and be carried out by a single translator who is pro cient in both languages # Furthermore, the dubbing director may intervene in the translation of the dialogues wherever he or she wishes. In practice, a single person often carries out more than one of the four steps in the process. For example, the same person may double up as both dubbing director and dubbing translator or an actor may also double up as dubbing director Finally, once recording has been completed, the dubbed tracks are mixed with the international track and musical score so as to create a balanced effect. # Digital technology has modernized dubbing by allowing actors to record parts independently, eliminating the need for complex shifts and rewinding tapes. Unlike the traditional "artisan" approach that required actors to work together, software now seamlessly edits separate recordings into a complete lm, making the process more exible and cost-effective. # As well as simplifying technical and organizational aspects of the dubbing process, new technology is also able to modify lip sync and voice quality. Software is now available that can automatically modify footage so that an actor mouths words that he or she did not actually speak in the original; in other words, the original sequence can be modi ed to sync the actors’ lip motions to the new soundtrack. Other programmes allow a dubbed voice to be readily assimilated to that of the original actor, irrespective of the source language, by recording rst a sample of the original voice and then the dubbed dialogues. The software matches the rst recording with the second, giving the impression that the original actor is speaking the target language with its characteristic quality and intonation patterns. 19 fi fi fi fi fi fi fl fi fi fi fi fi fi fi  Advantages and Disadvantages of Dubbing: General question/ multiple choice/ / ‫تعداد‬/ T or F / ll in the blank ※Advantages of Dubbing 1. Wider Audience Reach: Dubbing enables lms to reach larger audiences by making them fully accessible in the target language, potentially increasing sales. 2. Cultural Familiarity: Viewers can watch lms in their native language, making content more relatable and immersive. 3. Greater Filmic Uniformity: Dubbing retains the full visual experience without the need for text on the screen, maintaining visual and emotional coherence. 4. No Text Reduction: Unlike subtitling, dubbing doesn’t require condensing dialogue, allowing audiences to experience the full narrative without omissions. 5. Automatic Consumption: Dubbing is easier for viewers to consume passively since they don’t have to read subtitles, making it go “unnoticed” by those accustomed to it. ※Disadvantages of Dubbing 1. High Cost and Complexity: Dubbing involves numerous professionals, including translators, voice actors, and sound engineers, making it time-consuming and expensive. 2. Loss of Original Soundtrack: Dubbing replaces the original audio, which some audiences feel detracts from the authenticity and emotional impact of the original voices. 3. Arti cial Effect: Critics argue that dubbing can seem “fake” or “phoney” since it creates a mismatch between the original actors’ expressions and the dubbed voices. 4. Imperfections in Lip Sync: Dubbing often struggles with perfect lip-syncing, especially in close- up shots, although this issue is less noticeable to audiences in dubbing-prevalent regions. 5. Competition with Subtitling: The rise of subtitled products, especially in DVDs and streaming, is a faster and cheaper alternative, challenging the traditional dubbing industry and its unique craftsmanship. Subtitling De nition Subtitling can be de ned as ‘the rendering in a different language of verbal messages in lmic media, in the shape of one or more lines of written text presented on the screen in sync with the original written message’ ※THESUBTITLINGPROCESS General question/ multiple choice/// T or F / ll in the blank # Subtitling consists of incorporating on the screen a written text which is a condensed version in the target text of what can be heard on screen. Depending on the mode of projection, subtitles can either be printed on the lm itself (‘open’ subtitles), selected by the viewer from a DVD or teletext 20 fi fi fi fi fi fi fi fi fi  menu (‘closed subtitles’) or projected on to the screen, although the latter mode is largely restricted to lm festivals where subtitles are displayed in real time. # The written, subtitled text has to be shorter than the audio, simply because the viewer needs the necessary time to read the captions while at the same time remaining unaware that he or she is actually reading. According to Antonini , the words contained in the original dialogues tend to be reduced by between 40 and 75 per cent in order to give viewers the chance of reading the subtitles while watching the lm at the same time. Especially, where an SP is thick with dialogue, the subtitling translator is forced to reduce and condense the original so that viewers have the chance to read, watch and, hopefully, enjoy the lm. T or F / Fill in the blank # Antonini (213–14) identi es three principal operations that the translator must carry out in order to obtain effective subtitles: elimination, rendering and simpli cation. Elimination consists of cutting out elements that do not modify the meaning of the original dialogue but only the form (e.g. hesitations, false starts, redundancies, etc.) as well as removing any information that can be understood from the visuals (e.g. a nod or shake of the head). Rendering refers to dealing with (in most cases eliminating) features such as slang, dialect and taboo language, while condensation indicates the simpli cation and fragmentation of the original syntax so as to promote comfortable reading. # Just like dubbing, the subtitling process may also involve several operators. The rst stage in subtitling is known as spotting or cueing and involves marking the transcript or the dialogue list according to where subtitles should start and stop. Traditionally, this stage in the process is carried out by a technician, who calculates the length of the subtitles according to the cueing times of each frame. With the aid of the dialogue list annotated for cueing, the translator will then take over and carry out the actual translation. In addition, it is not unusual for a third operator to be employed to perfect the nal subtitles, checking language but also technical aspects, such as ensuring that subtitles are in sync with changes of frame. # However, as with the dubbing process, thanks to technology it has become quite normal nowadays for a single operator to carry out all three steps of the entire procedure. Nevertheless, while subtitling translators working with SP for the cinema tend to create a new transcript from the original transcript in writing alone (i.e. their end product will be in written form), those working for DVD and TV are likely to work from computer-based workstations that allow them to receive all the necessary information, including the time- coded transcription or dialogue list, from which they devise, cue, check and even edit the subtitles. In other words, they will work directly on to electronic les and produce a complete product. # Traditionally, subtitles consist of one or two lines of 30 to 40 characters (including spaces) that are displayed at the bottom of the picture, either centred or left-aligned. However, lms for the big screen tend to have longer lines with more characters compared to TV screens because of movie audiences’ greater concentration and DVDs also have longer lines, presumably because viewers can rewind and re-read anything they may not have read According to Díaz Cintas, such 21 fi fi fi fi fi fi fi fi fi fi  restrictions are bound to disappear in the future as many subtitling programmes work with pixels that are able to manage space according to the shape and size of letters.9 # The exposure time for each subtitle should be long enough to permit comfortable reading; three to ve seconds for one line and four to six for two lines. Subtitles cannot remain on screen too long because the original dialogue continues and this would lead to further reduction in the following ‘sub’. Studies also show that, if they are left on the screen too long, viewers tend to re- read them, which does not appear to lead to better comprehension. However, at present subtitles adhere to what Gottlieb has de ned as the ‘one-size- ts-all’ rule of thumb , based on the assumption that slower readers who are not familiar with the source language set the pace. # This has led to the established length/timing conventions. Yet different languages use varying amounts of verbal content to express the same meaning. For example, the average German word is longer than the average English word, but subtitling conventions are the same for all. As indicated above, subtitles can also be either open, meaning that they cannot be turned off and controlled by the viewer (i.e. at cinemas), or closed, which means that they are optional and accessed by the user (i.e. subtitles for hard of hearing, subtitles on pay TV channels and DVDs). Advantages and Disadvantages of Subtitling: General question/ multiple choice/ / ‫تعداد‬/ T or F / ll in the blank ※Advantages of Subtitling : 1. Preserves Original Soundtrack: Subtitles keep the original dialogue and soundtrack, allowing audiences to hear the actors' voices and cultural nuances. 2. Language Learning Tool: Watching with subtitles supports foreign language learning by allowing viewers to listen and read simultaneously. 3. Less Distortion of Source Language: Subtitles do not alter the original audio, reducing the risk of distorting the source language or meaning. 4. Cost-Effective: Subtitling is usually less expensive and faster than dubbing, making it a preferred option for global distribution. 5. User-Friendly Improvements: Modern subtitling has become more readable, with improved layouts, bold fonts, and grammatical segmentation to enhance viewer experience. 6. Enhanced Accessibility: Subtitles make content accessible to viewers with hearing impairments and serve as an additional layer of context ※Disadvantages of Subtitling : 1. Divided Attention: Viewers need to read while watching, which can be distracting and may reduce immersion in the lm. 2. Limited Translation Options: Since the original dialogue remains audible, translators have limited exibility, especially when dealing with censored or sensitive content. 3. Reduction of Text: Subtitling requires condensing dialogue, which can lead to loss of detail and nuance in complex scripts. 4. Visual Clutter: Text on the screen can interfere with visual elements, potentially distracting from important visual cues. 5. Stronger Impact of Taboo Language: Written taboo language in subtitles can have a stronger impact than spoken language, often leading to more censoring or simpli cation of offensive terms. 6. Lack of Real Writing Structure: Subtitles are a form of writing but must omit standard language features (e.g., hesitations, slang) to t time and space constraints, limiting their expressiveness. 22 fi fl fi fi fi fi fi fi  OTHER SCREEN TRANSLATION MODALITIES T or F / Fill in the blank / de nition ‫لكل الجزئية نهاية التشابتر‬ VOICE-OVER # Voice-over can be de ned as a technique in which a disembodied voice can be heard over the original soundtrack, which remains audible but indecipherable to audiences. To date, this modality of screen translation has been very much overlooked and under- researched by academics. # Voice-over consists of a narrator who begins speaking in the target language following the initial utterance in the original and subsequently remains slightly out of step with the underlying soundtrack for the entire recording. Despite the fact that audiences may be familiar with the source language, the underlying speech cannot be clearly perceived apart from the initial and nal utterances of the original narrator and the insertion of the odd sound bite. A sound bite is a very short piece of footage of the original soundtrack which is not covered by the new target language audio. # This modality is generally linked to the sober narrative style adopted in traditional historical and wildlife documentaries as well as news broadcasts. However, it would be wrong to believe that voice-over is limited to these particular genres and to factual products alone. In Italy, for example, advertisements and shopping channels make frequent use of voice-over, although with an intonation which is less sober than that adopted for traditional documentaries. People acting as testimonials for products advertised are voiced over ‘theatrically’, as are celebrity chef programmes eyewitnesses in several historical documentaries De nition # LOCALIZATION FOR VIDEO GAMES Video games can be de ned as ‘computer-based entertainment software, using any electronic platform..., involving one or multiple players in a physical or networked environment’ # Video games incorporate human voices, thus products tend to be both dubbed and subtitled. However, language translation and software engineering go hand in hand in the localization of these products for individual markets, and, unlike for other SP, translation is considered an integral part of the localization process of each product. # Game publishers are usually also responsible for localizing their products, a process in which both functional and linguistic testing are part of quality assurance. Furthermore, translators are involved in each stage of projects. Of course, the negative side is that translators work with ‘unstable work models’ that are continually changing 23 fi fi fi fi fi  # O’Hagan and Mangiron highlight a number of similarities and diversities between video game localization and audiovisual translation. Firstly, while most SP are dubbed or subtitled from English into other languages, video games are mainly dubbed and subtitled into English from Japanese. The dubbing process for video games is similar to that of other SP; subtitling, however, differs. Most subtitled games make use of intralingual subtitles. Players are able to control them, by pausing for example, as when watching a DVD. Furthermore, in order to keep up with the rapid speed of a video game, subtitles appear at a faster speed than at the cinema or on TV. # Above all, however, the aim of video games is to provide entertainment and to be enjoyed. It is thus paramount that translators bear in mind the importance of the ‘look and feel’ of the original. Although this involves taking into account culture- speci c features and especially humorous effects, it also means that the translator should be familiar with the game genre itself and the speci c type of register it employs. In fact, translators are usually given total freedom to accommodate sub and dub so as to come up with a product that is as enjoyable as possible for each locale. Translators are given the freedom to make use as much as possible of local features, such as jokes and references to popular culture, so as to enhance the target product. This kind of translation is often termed ‘transcreation’ De nition REAL-TIME SUBTITLING AND RESPEAKING Real-time subtitling is ‘real time transcription using speaker-dependant speech recognition of the voice of a trained narrating interpreter in order to provide near simultaneous subtitles with a minimum of errors’ # Originally developed to provide intralingual subtitles for the deaf and hard of hearing, real-time subtitling is also widely used for interlingual subtitling in many countries worldwide. Whether inter- or intra-lingual, real-time subtitles are produced with a speaker/interpreter who reads and reduces and, in the case of interlingual subtitles, translates speech ow in the original language while a stenographer creates the subtitles. reports that Dutch television companies have been regularly adopting real-time subtitles, not only for international affairs, state weddings and funerals etc., but also for live programmes in a foreign language since the late 1990s. # However, more recently the practice of respeaking has been rapidly gaining ground. Thanks to speech recognition software able to transform oral speech into written subtitles with a certain degree of accuracy, the respeaker remains the only human operator in the entire process. Basically, the respeaker reduces the source message, software recognizes his or her voice and automatically translates this into written subtitles. At present, speech recognition software is able to transform oral speech into written subtitles with some accuracy, and there is reason to believe that future advances will eliminate existing technical shortcomings. 24 fi fi fl fi  Ch ( ERGONOMICS AND THE TRANSLATION PROCESS) T or F / Fill in the blank ✹Overview of Translation as a Complex System # Translation involves numerous factors, including work ow, communication, project management, translator job security, and status. Environmental factors (both physical, like lighting and temperature, and societal, like the role of translators) also impact the process. Ergonomics provides a useful framework to understand how these factors affect translators’ demanding work. ✹Importance of Ergonomics in Translation # Translators must produce high-quality work within physical, temporal, and organizational constraints. They often work under various pressures, like tight deadlines, the need to use complex technology, and sometimes uncomfortable work setups (like small desks or low-quality chairs). Using ergonomic ideas—like setting up comfortable workstations, managing time well, and organizing tasks—helps translators work better and more comfortably. This is especially important as translation tools and technology become more complex, so having a good setup and work plan can make the job easier and boost productivity. ✹De nitions of Ergonomics Ergonomics (or human factors) is the scienti c discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance (IEA). ✹ Relevance of Ergonomics to Translation # Ergonomics refers to the interaction between humans and their work environment, aimed at optimizing comfort and performance. In the translation industry, translators face multiple physical, cognitive, and organizational challenges due to the nature of their work and reliance on technology. The increased use of language technology makes understanding how various factors affect translator ef ciency crucial. 25 fi fi fi fl  ✹Three Ergonomic Domains in Translation General question/ multiple choice/ / ‫تعداد‬/ T or F / ll in the blank Physical Ergonomics: Translators often work in suboptimal conditions with of ce setups that could lead to strain and health issues. Good ergonomic practices help improve comfort and prevent injuries. Organizational Ergonomics: Focusing on teamwork, communication, and feedback, organizational ergonomics highlights the in uence of workplace policies and collaborative structures on translators' well-being and productivity. Cognitive Ergonomics: This involves mental processes like decision-making and information processing. A user-friendly setup minimizes cognitive load and enhances ef ciency. Translators depend signi cantly on CAT tools and software, but many nd them complex, causing stress and lowering productivity. Simplifying user interfaces and removing unneeded features can reduce mental strain and improve decision- making. ✹Impact of Technology and Organizational Changes T or F / Fill in the blank # Advances in technology and information speed have transformed translation work. Language technology improves productivity but also imposes constraints that can affect translator autonomy, leading to potential burnout. Addressing the human side in designing translation tools is essential to maintain translators’ engagement and job satisfaction. ✹Challenges in Ergonomic Integration T of F #Scholars argue that ignoring human and organizational factors in translation software and project management work ows risks alienating translators, which can negatively impact their professional identity and well-being. ✹Translators in the Centre of the Translation Process T or F / Fill in the blank / ‫تعداد‬ 1. Translators are at the heart of the translation process, integrating human creativity, empathy, and cultural awareness to produce high-quality translations. 2. Translation is a complex cognitive activity that occurs within speci c environments, in uenced by external factors such as technology and working conditions. 26 fi fi fl fi fl fl fi fi fi ✹Implications of an Ergonomic Perspective for Translation T or F / Fill in the blank / # Viewing translation from an ergonomic perspective highlights the importance of addressing physical, cognitive, and organizational factors to improve both performance and well-being. Translators’ ef ciency and decision-making are affected by the usability of tools, working conditions, and feedback mechanisms within their workplace. ✹Memory and Technology T or F # Technology like CAT tools supports translators by reducing memory load, thus freeing cognitive resources for decision-making and problem-solving. Widespread adoption of technology in the industry is shown by the majority use of CAT tools and translation management systems ✹Diversity in Translator Work Environments T or F / Fill in the blank / # Translators' work conditions vary greatly based on employment type, hours worked, and other factors. Ergonomics in translation studies is increasingly researched through workplace observations and experiments to enhance theory, training, and practices. Done ✅ ——————————————————— ‫اللهم إني أسألك فهم النبيني وحفظ املرسلني و املالئكة املقربني‬ 🙏 27 fi