F24 Midterm 2 Study Guide PDF

Midterm 2 - Study Guide Exam details - Date: 11.12.24 | Time: 3:30pm to 4:45pm | Location: IV Theater 1 There will be 35 multiple-questions on the midterm. No notes are allowed while taking the exam. Approximately 1/3 of the material will be just from the book, the rest will be a combination...

Midterm 2 - Study Guide Exam details - Date: 11.12.24 | Time: 3:30pm to 4:45pm | Location: IV Theater 1 There will be 35 multiple-questions on the midterm. No notes are allowed while taking the exam. Approximately 1/3 of the material will be just from the book, the rest will be a combination of the book and the lectures. Chapters 4-7 Attention and Consciousness (Contd.) Meta-awareness, mind wandering, and alcohol ○ Mindfulness and mind wandering ○ Model of meta-awareness and its relationship with consciousness ○ Components ○ Characteristics of meta-awareness Big picture Sensory and Working Memory Defining and contrasting short-term and long-term memory ○ Short-term memory (STM): Holds a small amount of recent information briefly. Limited to about 7 "chunks" of information. Easily forgotten if not processed further. ○ Long-term memory (LTM): Stores vast amounts of information for a lifetime. Retains experiences and knowledge indefinitely. Limits of short-term memory ○ Brown/Peterson & Peterson technique Participants memorize items and then perform a distracting task to prevent rehearsal. Findings: Memory is fragile when stored for only a few seconds. Interference from previous items reduces recall accuracy. ○ Serial position effect Describes a U-shaped recall pattern in a list. Recency Effect: Better recall for items at the end of a list (likely still in STM). Primacy Effect: Better recall for items at the beginning due to rehearsal. Used to measure STM capacity (3-7 items).  ○ Primacy and recency effects Primacy Effect: Early items in a list are remembered better. Due to increased rehearsal and less competition from other items. Recency Effect: Items at the end of a list are also remembered well. Likely still active in short-term memory at recall, making them easier to retrieve. ○ Proactive interference Definition: Occurs when earlier learning disrupts memory of new information. Example: Previously learned items interfere with recalling similar, newly learned items. Release from Proactive Interference: If new material differs in content or category, PI is reduced. / Recall for the new category improves due to the "release" effect. Atkinson-Shiffrin model of information processing (definition of information processing) ○ Definition of Information Processing: A model explaining how information flows through three main stages of memory: sensory, short-term, and long-term. Often compared to a computer, with data entering, being processed, stored, and later retrieved. ○ Sensory memory Function: Acts as an initial stage that briefly holds sensory information from the environment. Duration is very short, typically lasting a fraction of a second. Characteristics: Allows only a brief retention of sensory information (visual, auditory, etc.) before it fades. Enables quick transfer to short-term memory if attention is given to the information. ○ Their conceptualization of short-term memory Function: Temporarily holds information for immediate use or processing. Often considered the "working" memory stage in this model. Capacity: Limited to about 7±2 items or chunks of information. Duration: Information typically lasts for 15-30 seconds without rehearsal. Role in Model: Information is either transferred to long-term memory through rehearsal or is lost. ○ Long-term memory  Function: Stores information over extended periods, potentially a lifetime. Capacity: Believed to be unlimited. Characteristics: Information in LTM is stored based on meaning and organized for retrieval. / Items in LTM are relatively permanent, especially if frequently retrieved or highly meaningful. ○ Control processes Definition: Techniques used to manage the flow of information between memory stages. Examples: Rehearsal: Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory longer or encode it into long-term memory. Encoding: Converting information into a form that can be stored in long-term memory. Retrieval: Bringing information back from long-term memory to short-term memory for use. Attention: Focusing on sensory input to transfer information to short-term memory. ○ Shortcomings/concerns about this model? Oversimplification: The model is linear and doesn’t account for complex interactions between memory stages. Limited View of Short-Term Memory: Doesn’t fully encompass the "working memory" concept, where manipulation and processing occur. Lack of Detail on Long-Term Memory Types: The model does not differentiate between various types of long-term memory (e.g., procedural, semantic, episodic). Neglects Parallel Processing: Fails to account for the brain’s ability to process multiple pieces of information simultaneously. Control Processes Vary by Individual: Assumes control processes are the same for everyone, without accounting for individual differences in memory strategies. The working-memory approach ○ Definition of working memory Working memory refers to the cognitive system responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating information needed for complex tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension. It’s an active system that allows us to store, update, and work with information over short periods of time. Working memory is involved in tasks like problem-solving, decision-making, and language comprehension. ○ Characteristics of the main components of the working memory approach (phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, central executive and episodic buffer) and research supporting each component Don’t focus too much on the neuroscience of each component  Also know the three important points related to limited working memory capacity Phonological Loop Processes and stores verbal/auditory information. Includes a phonological store (stores sounds briefly) and articulatory rehearsal system (repeats information). Research: Word length effect and phonological similarity effect show the loop's role in verbal processing. Visuospatial Sketchpad Processes visual and spatial information (e.g., navigating space, visualizing objects). Research: Dual-task studies support its independence from the phonological loop. Central Executive Controls attention, task switching, and integrates info from other components. Research: Damage to the frontal lobes affects multitasking and cognitive flexibility. Episodic Buffer Integrates information from other components and long-term memory into coherent episodes. Helps form meaningful chunks of information. ○ Applications of working memory Capacity Limitations: Holds a limited amount of info (7 ± 2 items). Individual Differences: Some people have larger working memory capacities, aiding in complex tasks. Cognitive Load: High cognitive load can overwhelm working memory. Academic performance High working memory capacity correlates with better academic performance, especially in reasoning, reading, and math. In clinical populations ADHD, dyslexia, brain injury: Working memory deficits are common in these populations, affecting attention, reading, and daily tasks. Cognitive training: Some interventions show success in improving working memory in clinical settings. Lecture Material: Sensory memory definition according to the modal model ○ Sensory memory: large capacity, same modality as experience, very fast decay What do the following methods tell us about sensory memory? How do they differ from each other? ○ Span of apprehension How much could a person see in a brief instant? Whipple (1914) ○ Assessed memory for firefly flashed letter arrays Perfect up to 4-5 letters Persisted for some time Could rarely report more than 4 letters ○ Sperling partial report paradigm Briefly presented array Brief delay Report Full report – recall all the items Partial report – recall cued items ○ Auditory cued row High-tone = recall top row Medium tone = recall middle row Low tone = recall bottom row Advantage of partial report = provides test of knowledge of all of the rows while only testing one row Why? People don’t know which row they will be tested Findings Estimate of total recall performance ○ 4 letters using full report ○ 9 letters using partial report How do you estimate total recall performance from partial reports? ○ Proportion correct of partial report provides estimate of total items remembered Average 3 out of 4 on row = 75% 75% of 12 items provide an estimate of 9 Why was performance so much better with partial report? ○ With full report participants forgot the items before they could report them all Decay rate ○ Decayed from 9-4 letters in 1 second ○ Suggests brief detailed sensory memory ○ Dillolo missing dot technique Purely perceptual (not verbally mediated)  Present 24/25 dots Three phases ○ First 12 dots ○ Pause ○ Second 12 dots If sensory memory for first 12 dots lasts longer than the pause, then can determine missing dot How long can the pause last? Approximately 100ms Which produces longer sensory memory First 12 dots for 10ms or 80ms? Answer – shorter presentation = longer sensory memory ○ Sensory memory triggered by onset of stimulus ○ Sensory memory runs out of stimulus persists too long Some concerns/challenges to sensory memory ○ Haber: limited functionality of sensory memory Only occurs when followed by a dark blank screen Otherwise new scene masks old one Only clear application is reading in a lightning storm ○ Function of sensory memory Allows for integration of briefly presented info Provides a short-term buffer Manifestation of processes that typically go on at the subliminal level Short term memory and long term memory distinctions ○ Neurocognitive evidence HM (Milner) – not transfer to LTM Clive Wearing No transfer to LTM JB (Shallice and Warrington) – impaired STM – otherwise normal ○ Behavioral evidence Brown/Peterson paradigm Trigrams presented ○ SJW Count backward by 3’s (5-30 seconds) Attempt to recall trigram Precipitous forgetting in 18 seconds  Serial position curve Recall advantage for first and last items of a word list Dissociations ○ Logic – some manipulations influence one section of curve but not the other Suggests distinct system ○ Primary and asymptote LTM ○ Recency STM Speed of presentation Delay ○ Interference ○  ○ Neuroimaging evidence relation to primacy and recency effects? Retrieval from long-term memory specifically activates the hippocampus Retrieval from working memory specifically activates the perirhinal cortex Atkinson and Shiffrin’s explanation ○ Transfer to LTM due to time in the limited buffer ○ As new information enters the buffer, old items randomly eliminated ○ The longer in the buffer, the more likely to transfer to occur ○ Evidence - Rundus Rehearsal technique Presented list of words one at a time Had people rehearse as many words as they could remember between each word Number of times each word was rehearsed predicted ○ Primacy and asymptote Because time in buffer influences transfer to LTM ○ But not recency Because recent terms still in buffer ○ Limitations ○ Know the main “problems” and research evidence that counters the modal model Impaired STM does not necessarily hurt learning Possible to access LTM without going through STM Subliminal perception of word meanings Coding not always acoustic Evidence for visual working memory Rehearsal does not always lead to better memory Craik and Watkins incidental learning task ○ Hear list of words and repeat words beginning with specific letter ○ Number of repetitions did not alter memory What is depth of processing and how does it relate to findings regarding maintenance rehearsal? ○ Effects of rehearsal depend on the depth of processing Shallow processing Focus on appearance Focus on sound Poorly remembered Deep processing  Focus on the meaning Better remembered ○ Shallow vs deep processing Experimental evidence for benefits of deep processing on memory recall Why does deep processing improve later memory recall? ○ Craik and Watkins lack of benefit of maintenance rehearsal ○ Craik and Tulving Incidental learning – read words without knowing they would be tested Alternative tasks Appearance ○ Upper or lower-case Auditory (rhyming) ○ Does this word rhyme with ____ Semantic ○ Fits in the sentence Surprise memory recall test Semantic performance superior What are problems with the depth of processing approach? Transfer appropriate processing ○ Transfer appropriate processing Quality of retrieval depends not on depth of processing but match between encoding and retrieval conditions Morris, Bransford, and Franks 1978 Encoded words semantically or phonologically Tested words semantically or phonologically ○ Prediction depth of processing ○ ○ Predictions transfer appropriate processing  ○ ○ Transfer appropriate processing results ○ Implies not depth of processing that is important so much as match between encoding retrieval conditions Subsequent research suggests both depth of encoding and match between encoding and retrieval are important Working memory approach ○ Model ○ ○ Central executive Provides the basic area in which calculations are made Characteristics Plans and coordinates, but does not store information Executive supervisor Decides which issues deserve attention Selects a strategy Decides how to tackle a problem Limited ability to perform simultaneous tasks  Evidence Load (rehearsing digits) ○ Learning (primacy but not recency) ○ Recall ○ Sentence verification ○ Categorization ○ Reasoning ○ Everything but recognition Damage to frontal cortex leads to ○ Difficulty planning ○ Difficulty reasoning ○ Evidence for the central executive: effects of cognitive load ○ Task: hold “X” digits in mind while generating random number sequences ○ Randomness of digit generation (greater redundancy) as function of concurrent digit memory load ○ Phonological store Slave system for audition (auditory) Phonological similarity effects “pgtvcd” harder to remember than “rhxkwy” Why? Letters sound similar so more easily considered in phonological store Unattended speech effects Hear nine digits accompanied with: ○ Silence ○ Spoken words ○ Nonsense words Recall impaired by sounds regardless of meaning Why? ○ Phonological store holds sounds regardless of meaning Word length effects Long words are less remembered Welsh speaking children have shorter digit spans than English speaking Why? ○ Phonological store holds limited number of syllables  Articulatory suppression Repeating syllables (ie “tah-tah-tah”) while completing a verbal span test reduces WM capacity Eliminates “sound-alike” errors (ie misremembering “F” as “S”) ○ Visual-spatial sketch pad Slave system for vision Brooks Visualized block F and tried to decide which corners were pointing outward Two ways to respond ○ Spatial Point to a yes or a no ○ Verbal Speak yes or no Result Verbal response more efficient than spatial response Implications Visual imagery draws on visual-spatial sketch pad Pointing but not speaking also draws on visual-spatial sketch pad More difficult when task and response both draw on the same system ○ Analogy of circuit breakers (more likely to short if multiple heavy appliances are on the same circuit) ○ Episodic buffer Integrates information from different modalities Episodic buffer Temporary storehouse that can hold and combine information from the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory Integrates information from different modalities Evidence People remember words in a sentence better than words presented out of the context of a sentence ○ Suggests words are stored in a meaningful representation in working memory Cannot be accommodated by other systems ○ Central executive – No storage capacities  ○ Phonological store No capacity for meaningful analysis ○ Visual spatial sketch pad Sentence advantage works with auditory information ○ Big picture conclusions What we remember quickly whittles down Most info in sensory memory does not make it into STM Most info in STM does not make it into LTM Working memory is like RAM on a computer A desktop where all the work gets done Both sensory and working memory involve multiple types that are distinguished by sensory modality Sensory memory ○ Visual sensory memory ○ Echoci sensory memory Working memory ○ Visual-spatial sketch pad ○ Phonological store Long Term Memory Definition of long-term memory ○ Definition: Long-term memory (LTM) refers to the storage of information over extended periods of time, from hours to a lifetime. Episodic memory, Semantic memory and Procedural memory (definition and examples) ○ Similarities and differences between these types of long-term memory Episodic Memory: Memory of personal experiences (e.g., your first day of school). Semantic Memory: General knowledge and facts (e.g., the capital of France). Procedural Memory: Memory for skills and tasks (e.g., riding a bike). Similarities: All are types of declarative memory (episodic and semantic) or non-declarative memory (procedural). Differences: Episodic is event-based, semantic is fact-based, and procedural is skill-based. Definition of encoding ○ Levels/depth of processing Why does deeper processing during encoding lead to better recall? Definition: Encoding is the process of converting sensory input into a form that can be stored in long-term memory.  Levels/Depth of Processing: Refers to the depth at which information is processed; shallow processing involves simple repetition, while deep processing involves meaning and connections. Why Deeper Processing Leads to Better Recall: Deeper processing (e.g., making connections to prior knowledge) creates more elaborate and distinct memory traces, making recall easier. Elaboration and Distinctiveness ○ Elaboration: Adding meaning or connections to new information. ○ Distinctiveness: Making the memory unique or different from other experiences to enhance recall. Self-reference effect ○ The phenomenon where people tend to remember information better if it is related to themselves. ○ Encoding specificity principle Research supporting the principle Definition: Memory is more likely to be recalled if the context during encoding matches the context during retrieval. Research Supporting the Principle: Studies like Godden & Baddeley (1975) show that recall is better when environmental conditions during learning and retrieval are similar (e.g., learning underwater vs. on land). Recall and recognition tasks – how do they differ? ○ Recall: Retrieving information without cues (e.g., essay exam). ○ Recognition: Identifying previously learned information from a set of options (e.g., multiple-choice exam). Emotion and memory – what does the research say? ○ Research: Emotional events are remembered better than neutral events due to the involvement of the amygdala in processing emotional information, which strengthens memory encoding. ○ Pollyanna principle Tendency to remember positive events more easily than negative ones. Positivity effect People tend to recall positive information more than negative, especially in older adults, due to a preference for positive experiences. Definition of retrieval ○ Examples of explicit and implicit memory tasks Definition: The process of accessing stored information from long-term memory. Explicit Memory Tasks: Involve conscious recall (e.g., naming all U.S. presidents).  Implicit Memory Tasks: Involve unconscious retrieval (e.g., word completion tasks, like filling in "co_ _" as "coffee"). How are explicit and implicit memory related to anxiety disorders? Explicit: May be negatively impacted by anxiety disorders, as they can interfere with conscious retrieval of information. Implicit: Anxiety can influence automatic, unconscious memory processes, such as biases toward fearful stimuli. Amnesia – what is it and what type of memory is impacted? ○ Retrograde amnesia ○ Anterograde amnesia Definition: A condition characterized by memory loss, often due to brain injury or trauma. Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to recall past memories before the onset of amnesia. Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia. How do novices and experts differ? Differences: Experts have more organized, efficient, and detailed knowledge structures, allowing them to process information more quickly and accurately than novices. Autobiographical memory ○ Memory of life events, including both episodic and semantic information about oneself Source monitoring vs reality monitoring ○ Source Monitoring: The process of determining the source of a memory (e.g., whether it was seen on TV or experienced personally). ○ Reality Monitoring: Differentiating between memories of real events and imagined events. Definition, example and research studies related to flashbulb memory and eyewitness testimony ○ Flashbulb Memory: A highly detailed, vivid memory of an emotionally significant event (e.g., 9/11). ○ Eyewitness Testimony: Memory recall of an event by a person who witnessed it. Often influenced by factors like stress, misinformation, and feedback. ○ Research: Flashbulb memories are often distorted despite high confidence in their accuracy (e.g., Talarico & Rubin, 2003). ○ What factors influence eyewitness testimony accuracy Stress, Delay, Plausibility of Misinformation, Social Pressure, and Positive Feedback: All increase the likelihood of errors in eyewitness testimony (Kovera & Borgida, 2010; Wells et al., 2000). Post-misinformation effect and its relation to errors in eyewitness testimony ○ The tendency for people to incorporate misleading information into their memory after an event, which can lead to errors in eyewitness testimony (Loftus, 1978).  ○ Constructivist approach Memory is viewed as an active process where past experiences and external information shape the way memories are constructed. Recovered memory/false memory controversy (see lecture notes too) ○ Recovered Memory: Suggests that some people can forget traumatic experiences (e.g., sexual abuse) and later "recover" these memories (Freyd, 2005). ○ False Memory: Suggests that many recovered memories may be inaccurate, possibly influenced by suggestion or external cues (Bernstein & Loftus, 2009). Understand the debate regarding recovered memories of abuse as it relates to memory Some researchers argue that repressed memories of abuse can be recovered, while others believe that most "recovered" memories are false and are the result of suggestive therapy or external influences. How are case analyses used? ○ Usage: Case analyses involve examining individual cases of memory to understand the mechanisms of memory formation, retrieval, and distortion, especially in cases of recovered or false memories. They help researchers explore the complex nature of autobiographical memory and its susceptibility to external influences. Lecture material: Three aspects of long-term memory (provide definition of each) ○ Encoding (provide examples and research findings related to the following) Encoding: Processes that enable information to be transferred from STM to LTM Self-reference effect Encode words with respect to: ○ Structure (upper or lower case) ○ Sound (rhymed with another word) ○ Semantics (was synonym with another word) ○ Relation to self (was this true of the self?) Reason for advantage: the self is highly meaningful (maximum depth of processing) Generation effect Encode items in two ways ○ Read: hot-cold ○ Generate: hot-c_ _ _ Free recall  Result: generate leads to better recall than reading Reason for advantage: generated items are more self-relevant and meaningful, and they’re more deeply processed Schemas Memory tends to be schematic Schema: general knowledge or expectations based on past experiences (essentially a pattern of thought that organizes categories of info) ○ Schemas influence what we encode Relationship between expertise, schemas and encoding Bransford and Johnson ○ Expertise can markedly enhance encoding of information relevant to one’s domain of expertise ○ Effects on encoding: experts can transfer more expertise-relevant info to LTM ○ Memory for random numbers Undergrad learned to remember 50 numbers after hearing them just once by relating to them to known track times (ie schematic information) ○ Expertise: memory for chess configurations ○ Results: Chess experts remember board configurations better But only for playable configurations ○ Expertise: memory for food orders Results: Waiters are much better at remembering orders Limited to domain of expertise Non-schematic information Although encoding is often schematic, it is not always so ○ Sometimes people maintain non-schematic information Ex ○ Remembering the location of text on a page Dual code theory Theory: two codes for concentrate things (verbal and picture) ○ Ex: the word “dog” and a picture of a dog Two retrieval codes for the information ○ Retention interval (how do each of the following impact people’s memory for experiences after they have been encoded?) Retention interval: Processes that occur after encoding that may influence whether the material is later available Retention interval: the period of time AFTER a memory has been encoded, but BEFORE it has been retrieved Various factors influence people’s memory for experiences after they have already been encoded Spacing effect Better memory for information studied a few times over a long period of time vs. studied repeatedly in a single interval Suggests cramming is bad ○ Although effects are more pronounced with delay Why is spacing helpful? ○ It increases the number of separate traces What is I MUST cram? ○ Study in different locations Passage of time Ebbinghaus forgetting over time ○ Initially dramatic forgetting, then plateau Sleep Sleep enables memory consolidation Enhances memory (especially for emotional material) Post-event information Loftus misinformation study ○ Saw a video of a car at a stop sign ○ Later, some participants heard questions referring to a yield sign ○ Tested on stop sign vs. yield sign ○ Result Participants who heard mention of yield sign were more likely to falsely recognize it Suggested autobiographical memories ○ Memory of our personal experiences Misinformation can produce false memories of entire events Relevant to court cases involving reports of child abuse  Loftus (and others) suggests some cases could be the result of planted memories Initial speculation was based off research we just saw (yield sign) Question: Can you plant memories of entire personal experiences? ○ Misinformation can produce false memories of entire events ○ Creating memories with pictures ○ Retrieval (how do the following factors maximize memory retrieval?) Retrieval: Processes that influence the ability to recall or recognize the previously encoded information Performance is maximized when encoding factors resemble retrieval conditions (transfer-appropriate processing; TAP) TAP has been studied in numerous fun contexts State dependent memory Definition: if you study in one state, your memory will be better if you’re also tested in that state Mood dependent memory Generate autobiographical memories in one mood or another (Eich) Recall previously generated events in the same, different, or neutral mood ○ Same mood → best recall ○ Different mood → worse recall Context dependent memory Participants studied either on land or under water ○ Tested on land or under water ○ Recognition and recall tests ○ State dependent effect for recall ○ General advantage for on land for recognition How can we use context dependent memory in a real-world setting? (Guiselman study) ○ Guiselman Participants witnessed crime with car having a visible license plate Gave participants either free recall or license plates with blanks to fill in  Results: fill-in-the-blank approach increases performance by 1.5x Impact of schemas on long-term memory retrieval? Deese Roediger Mcdermott paradigm ○ Study word list of related items Jenkins Demo ○ People falsely remember seeing sentences corresponding to the gist of the sentences they studied ○ Conclusion: people retrieve the gist of what they studied Big picture conclusions ○ Memory involves three key strategies Encoding Retention interval Retrieval ○ All three stages influenced by 2 key factors Memory tends to be schematic We remember the gist of experiences rather than the entire experience Memory is maximized when retrieval conditions correspond to encoding condition ○ Relevant to real-world topics Context reinstatement enhances memory for license plates Memory suggestions can potentially cause false memories of abuse Mental Imagery and Cognitive Maps Definition of mental imagery ○ Definition of mental imagery: The ability to create and manipulate images in the mind without direct sensory input. ○ What are some examples of what we use mental imagery for? Examples of mental imagery use: Visualizing a map to navigate, imagining a scene, recalling memories of a place. ○ How does mental imagery differ from perception? Difference from perception: Perception is direct sensory input, while mental imagery is internally generated and can be manipulated. Use of mental rotation tasks in measuring mental imagery ○ Use of mental rotation tasks: Tasks where participants mentally rotate objects to compare them to other objects to measure mental imagery ability. ○ Research findings related to mental rotation  People perform better with simple shapes; rotation time increases with greater angles. ○ Cognitive neuroscience and mental rotation Activation in brain regions like the parietal cortex during mental rotation tasks. What is the “imagery debate”? ○ Discussion on whether mental imagery is based on analog codes (visual) or propositional codes (abstract). ○ Analog code vs propositional code Analog code: Imagery is like a mental picture (visual). Propositional code: Imagery is symbolic and abstract. Research supporting each side of the debate Analog: People respond similarly to real images and mental images. Propositional: Imagery is influenced by language and abstract representations. ○ What do people with prosopagnosia tell us about the debate? People with prosopagnosia (difficulty recognizing faces) still have vivid imagery, suggesting a separate system for visual imagery ○ Ambiguous stimuli Images or objects that can be interpreted in multiple ways; used to study imagery and perception. ○ Visualizers vs verbalizers Factors that influence visual imagery ○ Visualizers: People who think in images. ○ Verbalizers: People who think in words. ○ Distance and shape effects Distance effects (mental images appear larger the closer they are). Shape effects (more complex shapes take longer to rotate). Research on how imagery interferes with physical stimuli ○ Imagery can distract from processing actual sensory input (e.g., visual imagery affects visual perception). Gender differences in spatial ability ○ How do they compare to gender comparisons of other cognitive abilities? Gender similarities ○ Are gender differences in spatial ability large? Men typically perform better on spatial tasks. Gender differences are small, especially in non-spatial cognitive abilities. Gender similarities: More similarities than differences across most cognitive abilities. Are gender differences in spatial ability large?: No, they are relatively small. Definition and examples of auditory imagery ○ Mental representation of sounds (e.g., imagining a song).  ○ Is auditory imagery as vivid as visual imagery? Generally less vivid, but can be strong in some individuals. ○ Auditory imagery and pitch Ability to imagine variations in sound frequency (high/low tones). ○ Auditory imagery and timbre Ability to imagine the quality of sounds (e.g., the difference between instruments). Definition of cognitive maps ○ Mental representations of spatial layouts (e.g., maps, directions). ○ How are cognitive maps related to spatial cognition? What is spatial cognition? Relation to spatial cognition: Cognitive maps are part of spatial cognition, which is how we process and represent spatial information. ○ Distance and shape effects on cognitive maps Distances between landmarks are often estimated as shorter or longer than they are. Shapes can be distorted in mental maps (e.g., straight roads appear curvier). Border bias Tendency to estimate distances as greater when crossing a border or boundary. Landmark effect Landmarks make it easier to remember locations and navigate 90-degree-angle-heuristic Tendency to assume streets and intersections are at right angles. ○ Position effects on cognitive maps (see examples from lecture) Perceptions are influenced by the relative positions of landmarks (e.g., objects in the center are easier to remember). Rotation heuristic Tendency to mentally rotate maps or scenes into a more familiar orientation (e.g., turning a map upright). Alignment heuristic Tendency to align objects or landmarks in a more organized pattern (e.g., assuming cities are aligned on a north-south axis). How are cognitive maps formed? ○ We integrate information from different sources and actively construct mental representations. ○ What does the spatial framework model suggest? Above-below dimension: Most prominent due to gravity and body orientation. Front-back dimension: Next most important due to body asymmetry. Right-left dimension: Least important, as the body is symmetrical. ○ What does the situated cognition approach suggest? Our cognitive abilities, including spatial thinking, are influenced by the physical environment and the situation we're in (context-dependent). Lecture material: Imagery demos o How many windows are there in the home where you grew up? o Which is darker, the green of pine trees or the green of grass? o Is the 3rd note of “three blind mice” higher or lower than the 1st note? o Imagine a capital letter B ▪ Rotate it 90 degrees counterclockwise ▪ Put a triangle below it having the same width and pointing down ▪ What do you see? What is mental imagery? o Experience of seeing, hearing, and touching without the presence of an external perceptual source o Seeing in the “mind’s eye” Controversy: What is imagery based on? o Propositions (Descriptions) vs Depictions ▪ Propositions (descriptions) Essential meaning Do not resemble what they stand for Abstract code A canary is a bird A canary has wings A canary can sing ▪ Depictions Resemble what they stand for (analog code) ▪ Example Descriptive (propositional) o F is above E o D is to the left of E o E is above B o D is above A Depictive  o o Dual Code Theory (Paivio) ▪ Theory: two codes for concentrate things (verbal and picture) Ex: the word “dog” and a picture of a dog o Analog view (Kosslyn) ▪ Store some information as images ▪ Images are functional in thinking o Propositional view (Pylyshyn) ▪ All information stored as propositions ▪ Images are “epiphenomenal” Early studies of imagery o Early studies (Galton) ▪ Imagine and describe your breakfast table ▪ People reported more and less vivid images o But based on introspection – no way of verifying what they actually imagined! o Need more objective method of studying! Evidence for imagery o Time to answer ▪ “Imagine a cat” vs. “think about a cat” ▪ Does a cat have a head? ▪ Does a cat have paws? ▪ Imagined cat: faster to confirm that cats have heads and than they have paws ▪ Think about a cat: the reverse was true! o Time to zoom ▪ Imagine a rabbit next to an elephant/fly ▪ Does the rabbit have eyelashes? ▪ Reaction time longer if rabbit was next to an elephant o Image scanning ▪ It takes longer to scan between objects that are further apart ▪ Same for mental images?  ▪ Kosslyn (1978) Subjects form accurate mental image of an island Task: answer questions by scanning between different landmarks on the map image ▪ Criticisms Were told to scan! “Demand” character: subjects act like they think you want them to act Experimenter expectancy: subtle cues from the experimenter Experimenters were told a false theory about scanning Got the same results o Time to rotate ▪ When an object moves or rates in space, it takes more time, te greater the displacement or rotation ▪ It also goes through all intermediate positions ▪ Do images behave similarly? ▪ Time to say whether two objects have same shape increases with theri angular disparity ▪ True for rotations in the picture plane and in depth ▪ Later experiments: Estimated people’s speed of rotation Indicated that their rotation went through all intermediate positions ▪ This is called an analog transformation Evidence against imagery o Limited detail ▪ Not completely picture-like o Reinterpretation of images ▪ Images cannot always be reinterpreted Chambers and Riesberg (1985) Task: create mental imge of this rabbit o Can you see anything else in your image?  o 0/15 could interpret the image as a duck 15/15 could interpret the figure after they drew it from memory Suggests that proposition (meaning) can dominate over analog code Best to think of propositions as complementary modes of representation Imagery and the brain o Same area (occipital lobe) active when viewing and imagining letters ▪ Earlier visual areas (V1,V2 active when maintaining highly detailed images) o Visual areas of brain also active during: ▪ Imagined walk ▪ Questions that require imagery o Motor cortex active during mental rotation of hands o Neural evidence ▪ Mental rotation: more brain activation for larger angles (Carpenter, Just and Keller) ▪ o Bissiach and Luzzati study ▪ Brain damage that affects vision also affects imagery  Neglect patient (Milan) imagined the view of the Piazza del Duomo from different perspectives Ignored landmarks on imagined left side of space from each perspective Individual differences in imagery o Different dimensions ▪ Vividness vs accuracy Vividness (visual imagery) o Galton’s classic studies o Vividness of visual imagery questionnaire Accuracy of image population manipulation (spatial transformations) o Measures of spatial visualization ability Spatial Cognition o Cognitive maps ▪ Cognitive maps as internal representations of enviroments ▪ Learned from Durect experience in environment Maps ▪ Uses in Navigation, wayfinding, staying oriented ▪ How accurate are our cognitive maps (demos)? Which is further west: Reno, NV or San Diego, CA Which is further south: Philadelphia, PN or Rome, Italy Individual differences in navigation ability o Abilities vs. strategies ▪ Abilities Individual differences are large Self reports of “sense of direction” are pretty predictive of these individual differences Not the same as individual differences in small-scale spatial abilities Individual differences include strategy differences ▪ Strategies Orientation strategy o I kept track of the direction (north, south, east, west) in which I was going  o I kept track of where I was in relation to the sun or moon) in the sky as I went o I kept track of the relationship between where I was and the center of town Route strategy o Before starting, I asked for directions telling me whether to turn left or right at a particular street or landmark o As I drove, I made a mental note of the number of streets I passed before making each turn o I made a mental note of landmarks, such as buldings or natural features, that I passed along the way Summary o Imagery is a special of mental representation: ▪ Images are not completely picture-like Cannot always be reinterpreted ▪ Imagery shares brain regions with perception ▪ Vivdness and accuracy are separate aspects of individual differences in imagery ▪ Cognitive maps are internal representations of environments that help us find our way and stay oriented Metacognition and Memory Strategies What are memory strategies? ○ Techniques to improve encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. Memory strategies related to practice ○ Total-time hypothesis More time spent learning leads to better memory retention. Distributed-practice effect Spacing study sessions improves retention over massed (crammed) learning. Spaced learning Intervals between study sessions enhance learning. Massed learning Cramming leads to less effective long-term retention. Desirable difficulties Introducing challenges in learning (e.g., spaced practice) can improve long-term memory. ○ Testing effect Testing yourself on material enhances memory more than repeated study. Mnemonics – what are they?  ○ Memory aids that help in encoding and recalling information. ○ Two types of mnemonics Mnemonics using mental imagery Keyword Method ○ Mnemonics using mental imagery: Creating vivid images to associate with the material (e.g., Keyword Method). ○ Mnemonics using organization: Organizing information into chunks or structures. Mnemonics using organization Chunking ○ Grouping information into manageable units. Hierarchy ○ Organizing information from general to specific. First-letter technique ○ Using the first letter of each word to form a memorable phrase. Narrative technique ○ Creating a story that links pieces of information together. Retrospective vs prospective memory – examples and definitions ○ How do they differ? What are some similarities? Retrospective memory: Remembering past events (e.g., recalling what you did last week). Prospective memory: Remembering to perform future actions (e.g., remembering to attend a meeting). Differences: Retrospective memory is about the past, while prospective memory concerns the future. Similarities: Both involve the retrieval of information from memory at the appropriate time. Memory aides and prospective memory ○ Memory aids (e.g., reminders, alarms) can improve prospective memory, helping to remember future tasks. Definition of metacognition ○ Awareness and regulation of one’s own cognitive processes, such as memory and learning. ○ What is metamemory? Foresight bias Immediate metamemory compared to metamemory after a delay? Research on metamemory (in relation to factors that influence metamemory, and regulation of study strategies) Metamemory: Awareness of one’s own memory abilities and strategies. Foresight bias: Overestimating one's ability to recall information in the future.  Immediate metamemory: Self-assessment of memory during or shortly after learning. Metamemory after a delay: Self-assessment of memory after a period of time has passed. Factors influencing metamemory: Experience, confidence, and type of material affect how well individuals judge their memory. Tip-of-the-tongue effect ○ The feeling that you know something but cannot retrieve it at the moment. Feeling-of-knowing effect ○ The sense that you could recognize the correct answer if you were given options. Metacomprehension ○ Definition ○ How accurate is it? ○ How can we improve it? Metacomprehension: Awareness of how well you understand information. Accuracy: College students often overestimate their comprehension abilities. Improvement: To improve metacomprehension, strategies like summarizing material or explaining it in your own words can be helpful. Lecture material: What is meta-cognition? ○ One’s knowledge about what he or she knows ○ Meta-cognitive knowledge General knowledge about what one knows ○ Meta-cognitive experience Conscious cognitive or affective experiences that accompany and pertain to any intellectual enterprise What is meta-memory? ○ One’s knowledge about their own memory ○ Types of metamemory judgments Predicting future memory performance At encoding (judgments of learning) ○ Judgments of learning (JOL): predictions of how well one will remember something ○ Ease of learning How much study will be required to learn something? Predict learning rates fairly well  ○ Paired associative judgements Predict subsequent performance on paired-associate test Introducing brief delay between cue and associate enhances prediction People are abe to use initial retrieval to gauge subsequent ability At retrieval (tip of the tongue) ○ Tip of the tongue: inability to recall something combined with subjective feeling that recall is imminent ○ Brown and McNeil studies Gave participants definitions and asked them to recall the word Compared performance for those reporting TOT and those not reporting it Results Those experiencing TOT ○ More accurate with first letter ○ More accurate with number of syllables ○ More likely to eventually recall full word Assessing the source of one’s memory Source monitoring judgments ○ Reality monitoring Challenge: determine whether memory is internally or externally generated Failures occur with memories with overlapping attributes External vs internal memories External ○ Characterized by sensory details Internal ○ Characterized by cognitive operations Roommate study Keep track of and share dreams for a month  At the end of the month, indicate which dreams were yours and which were theirs Results: people confuse their own dreams with that of theri roommates Schooler stop/yield sign study ½ participants have false memory planted of yield sign ½ participants actually see a yield sign Compare the memories across these two groups Results: internal and external memories differ in properties Real memories have more sensory details False memories have more cognitive operations False memories described with more words Fruit study Greater confusion when properties overlap Mnemonics ○ Applying specific techniques for memory improvement (be able to define, understand the basic principle/goal and provide an example of each) Keyword method Basic principle: give meaning to meaningless information (youtube link in slides) Link/story method Basic goal: associate items in a manner that preserves order Basic principle: establish a chain of associations, with each item associated with the next (youtube link in slides) Method of Loci  Basic goal: memorize material (often a speech) by mentally placing items around a familiar location Basic principle: familiar location provides pre-established memory cues to associate information (youtube link on slides) Rhymes Basic goal: use rhyming phrase to stand for items you need to remember Examples ○ I before E except after C or when sounded “A” as in neighbor or weigh ○ 30 days have September, April, June, and November (all the rest have 31 except feb) Catch phrases Basic goal: clever expressions to remember associations Example ○ Spring forward, fall back Acronym Basic principle: abbreviating the first letter of to-be-remembered words Order in the rainbow, or visual spectrum ○ Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet ROY G BIV ○ Prospective memory Prospective memory: our ability to make plans, to retain and recollect them, and to carry out at the appropriate time or in the appropriate context Everyday examples Remembering to attend a 2pm meeting Remembering to take a medication Remembering to buy eggs after work How can we improve prospective memory? Implementation intentions ○ Implementation intentions: specific about where and when you will do something ○ Experimental study Participants were asked to write a report on how they spent Xmas eve, no more than 48 hours after Half requested to form implementation intentions  When and where they would complete the report Results ¾ completed with intentions ⅓ without Big picture conclusions ○ Meta-cognition There is an important difference between memory ability and what we know about our memory ability ○ Memory improvement Basic knowledge of encoding, retention interval, and retrieval very useful for enhancing memory Memory improvement strategies can be useful but demanding and have to remember to use them Best memory strategy is understanding ○ Prospective memory Best strategy for remembering to carry out future acts is to be very specific about where and when the action will be carried out