Psychology Midterm 2 Study Guide
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of the episodic buffer in working memory?

  • It maintains attention on a single task.
  • It integrates information from components and long-term memory. (correct)
  • It exclusively stores sensory information.
  • It enhances visual memory capacity.

What is the typical capacity limit of working memory?

  • 10 ± 3 items
  • 3 ± 1 items
  • 7 ± 2 items (correct)
  • 5 ± 2 items

High cognitive load can negatively affect which aspect of cognition?

  • Long-term memory retention
  • Visual attention span
  • Sensory memory duration
  • Working memory capacity (correct)

Individuals with ADHD often experience which type of cognitive deficit?

<p>Decreased working memory capacity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a key finding from the Whipple (1914) study on span of apprehension?

<p>Participants could recall up to 4-5 letters perfectly. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method assesses memory of a briefly presented array and allows for cued recall?

<p>Partial report paradigm (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the partial report method, what determines which row is recalled?

<p>The tone of an auditory cue (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which population is likely to experience working memory deficits as noted in the content?

<p>Individuals with dyslexia or brain injuries (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the process of accessing stored information from long-term memory called?

<p>Retrieval (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of amnesia results in an inability to recall past memories before the onset of the condition?

<p>Retrograde amnesia (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does anxiety typically impact explicit memory tasks?

<p>It may negatively impact retrieval of information (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which principle suggests that individuals tend to recall positive information more easily than negative?

<p>Positivity effect (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the memory structures of experts compared to novices?

<p>More organized, efficient, and detailed knowledge structures (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes recognition memory?

<p>Identifying previously learned information from options (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the amygdala in memory related to emotional events?

<p>Enhances memory encoding for emotional information (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do implicit memory tasks differ from explicit memory tasks?

<p>Implicit tasks involve unconscious retrieval (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory involves knowledge of personal experiences?

<p>Episodic Memory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of memory is associated with general knowledge and facts?

<p>Semantic Memory (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What processing method, involving connections and meaning, leads to better memory recall?

<p>Deep Processing (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon explains better memory retention when information is related to oneself?

<p>Self-reference Effect (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which principle indicates that memory is better recalled when encoding and retrieval contexts match?

<p>Encoding Specificity Principle (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which memory type is specifically categorized as non-declarative memory?

<p>Procedural Memory (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why does deeper processing result in improved recall?

<p>It creates distinct and elaborate memory traces (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do recall and recognition tasks primarily differ?

<p>Recall requires reconstructing information without cues, while recognition identifies previously learned items (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the presence of vivid imagery in individuals with prosopagnosia suggest?

<p>Visual imagery operates independently from facial recognition abilities. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors distinguishes visualizers from verbalizers?

<p>Visualizers think primarily in images, while verbalizers think in words. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do distance and shape effects demonstrate regarding mental imagery?

<p>Mental images appear larger when they are mentally positioned closer. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do gender differences in spatial abilities compare to other cognitive abilities?

<p>Gender differences are relatively small across most cognitive abilities. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is auditory imagery primarily concerned with?

<p>The mental representation of sounds, such as songs. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How vivid is auditory imagery compared to visual imagery typically?

<p>Auditory imagery is usually less vivid, but can be strong in some individuals. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines cognitive maps in relation to spatial layouts?

<p>Cognitive maps represent mental layouts of spaces such as maps and directions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which way can imagery distract from processing physical stimuli?

<p>Visual imagery can detract from accurate visual perception. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes repressed memories of abuse?

<p>Most recovered memories are likely false due to suggestive therapies. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do case analyses play in the study of memory?

<p>They examine individual cases to understand memory processes more deeply. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the self-reference effect in memory encoding suggest?

<p>Information related to oneself is encoded more deeply than other types. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the generation effect, how is memory recall affected?

<p>Generated items result in better recall than simply reading them. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a schema in the context of memory?

<p>A pattern of thought that organizes knowledge based on past experiences. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does expertise influence memory encoding?

<p>Expertise can enhance memory for information related to one's field. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the retention interval refer to?

<p>The period between encoding and retrieval of a memory. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the spacing effect influence memory retention?

<p>Spaced study leads to better memory than massed study. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What theory posits that two types of codes are used to retain memories?

<p>Dual code theory. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about non-schematic information is true?

<p>Individuals can sometimes recall non-schematic details like the location of text on a page. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What constitutes the basis of propositions in the context of imagery?

<p>They provide essential meaning. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which theory suggests the existence of both verbal and pictorial codes for representing information?

<p>Dual Code Theory (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was a limitation of early studies of imagery conducted by Galton?

<p>They were based on subjective introspection. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of time to answer imagery questions, which scenario demonstrates a faster reaction time?

<p>Imagining a cat having a head versus thinking about a cat having a head. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the image scanning evidence, what occurs when scanning between objects that are farther apart?

<p>It takes longer to scan. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect differentiates depictive representations from propositional representations?

<p>Depictive representations resemble what they stand for. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the view of imagery according to Pylyshyn?

<p>All information is stored as propositions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement regarding time to zoom is correct in the context of imagining a rabbit?

<p>It takes longer if the rabbit is next to an elephant. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Episodic Buffer

Integrates information from other working memory components and long-term memory to form meaningful episodes.

Working Memory Capacity

The amount of information a person can hold in their working memory; often around 7 ± 2 items.

Span of Apprehension

The maximum number of items a person can perceive and remember in a brief instant.

Partial Report Paradigm

A method to assess how much information is held in sensory memory, through strategically cued recall.

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Sensory Memory

A memory system with large capacity and rapid decay that stores sensory information similar to the way you heard or saw it.

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Cognitive Load

The amount of mental effort or resources needed to perform a task.

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Full Report vs Partial Report

Full report tests recalling all items, while partial reports test recalling specific items when cued.

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Sensory memory decay

Sensory memory quickly fades away if not processed further.

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Episodic Memory

Memory of personal experiences

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Semantic Memory

General knowledge and facts

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Procedural Memory

Memory for skills and tasks

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Encoding

Converting sensory input into storable memory

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Depth of Processing

Level of meaning during encoding

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Encoding Specificity

Similar context during learning & recall better memory

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Recall vs Recognition

Recall requires generating info; Recognition requires identifying info

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Self-Reference Effect

Relating info to yourself enhances recall

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Recall vs Recognition

Recall is retrieving information without cues, like an essay exam; recognition is identifying information from options, like multiple choice.

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Emotional Memory

Emotional events are remembered better due to the amygdala's role in memory encoding.

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Pollyanna Principle

Tendency to remember positive events more than negative ones.

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Retrieval

Accessing stored information from long-term memory.

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Explicit Memory Tasks

Consciously recalling information, such as naming presidents.

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Implicit Memory Tasks

Unconscious retrieval methods, like word completion.

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Amnesia

Memory loss due to brain injury or trauma.

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Novice vs Expert

Experts possess organized, efficient knowledge, processing faster than novices.

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Recovered Memories Debate

A disagreement on whether memories of abuse, reported after a period of apparent forgetting, are genuine or constructed.

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Case Analyses

Examination of specific cases to understand memory formation, retrieval, and distortion, particularly regarding recovered/false memories.

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Encoding

The process of transferring information from short-term to long-term memory.

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Self-Reference Effect

Encoding information related to oneself improves recall.

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Generation Effect

Generating information yourself leads to better recall than passively reading it.

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Schemas

Mental frameworks based on past experiences, used to organize information.

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Expertise & Encoding

Expert knowledge enhances memory of relevant information.

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Retention Interval

The time between encoding and retrieving a memory.

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Spacing Effect

Distributing study sessions over time leads to better recall.

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Dual Code Theory

Memory uses both verbal and visual codes for better information retention.

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Propositional code

Imagery is symbolic and abstract, influenced by language and representations.

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Analog code

Mental images are similar to real images, people respond similarly.

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Prosopagnosia

Difficulty recognizing faces, but still have vivid imagery.

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Visualizers vs Verbalizers

People who think in images (visualizers) vs. words (verbalizers).

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Gender differences in spatial ability

Men typically slightly better on spatial tasks, but differences small.

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Gender similarities

More similar than different across most cognitive abilities.

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Auditory imagery

Mental representation of sounds, like imagining a song.

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Cognitive maps

Mental representations of spatial layouts, like maps or directions.

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Mental Imagery

Experiencing sensory input (seeing, hearing, touching) without physical stimuli; 'seeing' in your mind's eye.

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Propositional vs. Depictive Codes

Two ways mental images are represented: propositions (like descriptions, don't resemble the thing) and depictions (analog code, resemble the thing).

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Dual Code Theory

Theory suggesting the mind uses two codes (verbal and picture) to process information.

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Imagery Scanning

The perceived time it takes to 'travel' mentally through a visual scene.

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Propositional View of Imagery

All mental images are represented as abstract propositions, not visual representations.

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Analog View of Imagery

Mental images are stored as representations similar to pictures, aiding thinking.

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Reaction Time Imagery

Mental image processing is faster when confirming details that are closer in a mental image than those that are further away.

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Early Imagery Studies

Early studies relied on introspection to study vividness of mental imagery, but lacked objectivity for verification.

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Study Notes

Midterm 2 Study Guide

  • Exam date: 11/12/24
  • Exam time: 3:30 PM to 4:45 PM
  • Exam location: IV Theater 1
  • Exam format: 35 multiple-choice questions, approximately 1/3 from the book, 2/3 from book and lectures
  • Chapters covered: 4-7

Attention and Consciousness (Continued)

  • Topics: meta-awareness, mind-wandering, alcohol, mindfulness, and mind-wandering
  • Model of meta-awareness and its relationship to consciousness
  • Components of meta-awareness
  • Characteristics of meta-awareness

Sensory and Working Memory

  • Defining and contrasting short-term and long-term memory
    • Short-term memory (STM):
      • Briefly holds a small amount of recent information
      • Limited to about 7 "chunks" of information
      • Easily forgotten if not processed further
    • Long-term memory (LTM):
      • Stores vast amounts of information for a lifetime
      • Retains experiences and knowledge indefinitely
  • Limits of short-term memory
    • Brown/Peterson & Peterson technique: measured how quickly information is lost from STM through memorization tasks followed by a distracting task
    • Findings: Memory is fragile when stored only a few seconds; interference from previous items reduces recall accuracy
  • Serial position effect
    • Recency Effect: better recall for items at the end of a list (likely still in STM)
    • Primacy Effect: better recall for items at the beginning of a list (likely due to rehearsal)
  • Used to measure STM capacity (3-7 items)

Sensory Memory

  • Function: acts as an initial stage that briefly holds sensory information from the environment (visual, auditory, etc.)
  • Duration: very brief, typically lasting a fraction of a second
  • Characteristics:
    • Allows for quick transfer to short-term memory if attention is given
    • Enables brief retention of sensory information before it fades

Long-Term Memory

  • Function: stores information for extended periods potentially a lifetime
  • Capacity: believed to be unlimited
  • Characteristics of LTM: Information is stored based on meaning and organized for retrieval; items are relatively permanent, especially if they are frequently retrieved or highly meaningful

Control Processes

  • Definition: Techniques used to manage the flow of information between memory stages.
  • Examples: rehearsal, encoding, retrieval, attention

Working Memory Approach

  • Definition: a cognitive system responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating information needed for complex tasks, such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension.
  • Characteristics:
    • Active system storing, updating, and working with information over short periods
  • Role in tasks: problem-solving, decision-making, and language comprehension

Phonological Loop

  • Processes and stores verbal/auditory information
  • Includes: phonological store (briefly stores sounds) and articulatory rehearsal system (repeats information)
  • Research: Word length effect; phonological similarity effect (illustrates how the loop's role in verbal processing)

Visuospatial Sketchpad

  • Processes visual and spatial information
  • Research:Dual-task studies support its independence from the phonological loop (supports the concept that they are separate)

Central Executive

  • Controls attention, task-switching, and integrates information from other components.
  • Research: Damage to the frontal lobes affects multitasking and cognitive flexibility (supports idea of it playing a key role in cognitive control)

Episodic Buffer

  • Integrates information from other components and long-term memory into coherent episodes
  • Helps form meaningful chunks of information

Capacity Limitations

  • Holds a limited amount of information (7 ± 2 items or chunks)

Individual Differences

  • Some people have larger working memory capacities, which helps them complete complex tasks

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F24 Midterm 2 Study Guide PDF

Description

Prepare for your Midterm 2 exam on Attention and Consciousness, along with Sensory and Working Memory. This guide covers chapters 4-7, highlighting key concepts like meta-awareness, short-term, and long-term memory. Make sure to review the content from both the book and lecture notes for a comprehensive understanding.

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