Psychology Midterm Review PDF

‭Localization of Function:‬ ‭ he theory that behaviors have their origin in specific areas of the brain. Damage‬ T ‭to that part of the brain would result in an inability to carry out that behavior.‬ I‭n both an SAQ or an ERQ, you are expected to first describe and/or explain the theory. For the‬...

‭Localization of Function:‬ ‭ he theory that behaviors have their origin in specific areas of the brain. Damage‬ T ‭to that part of the brain would result in an inability to carry out that behavior.‬ I‭n both an SAQ or an ERQ, you are expected to first describe and/or explain the theory. For the‬ ‭command term‬‭describe‬‭, this means that you are identifying‬‭and defining the different components of‬ ‭the theory.‬ ‭Explain‬‭asks you to be specific about‬‭how the theory actually works - that is, identifying‬ ‭assumptions made by the theory and/or explaining how the components of the theory interact.‬ ‭Explaining localization of function‬ ‭ istributive processing:‬‭The theory that behavior‬‭is the result of interaction between several‬ D ‭parts of the brain and not strictly localized to a singular part of the brain.‬ ‭ quipotentiality:‬‭the theory that the brain has the‬‭capacity in the case of injury to transfer‬ E ‭functional memory from the damaged portion of the brain to other undamaged portions of the‬ ‭brain.‬ ‭ ocalization of function:‬ ‭The theory that behaviors‬‭have their origin in specific areas of the‬ L ‭brain. Damage to that part of the brain would result in an inability to carry out that behavior.‬ ‭ elative localization‬‭: The theory that although one part of the brain may play a key role in a‬ R ‭behavior, several parts of the brain also play a lesser role in that behavior.‬ ‭Strict localization‬‭: The theory that behaviors can be attributed to a single area of the brain.‬ ‭ or an SAQ, you need to be able to describe/explain one study. This means that you have to be‬ F ‭able to describe the aim, procedure, and findings of the study. To explain it, you must link it to the‬ ‭theory or concept in the question. In an ERQ, you should know two pieces of research. In addition,‬ ‭to describing the aim, procedure, and findings, you need to be able to evaluate the research. The‬ ‭use of correct terminology when describing a study - for example, correctly identifying the research‬ ‭method - is an important aspect of the top mark band.‬ ‭Key study 1. Maguire (2000)‬ ‭ he aim of‬‭Maguire (2000)‬‭was to see whether the brains of London taxi drivers would be‬ T ‭structurally different from the average person as a result of their exceptional knowledge of the city‬ ‭and the many hours that they spend behind the wheel navigating the streets of London.‬ ‭ he researchers compared MRI scans of 16 right-handed male London taxi drivers with the scans of‬ T ‭50 right-handed males who did not drive taxis. All taxi drivers had at least 1.5 years. The mean age‬ ‭did not differ between the two groups.‬ ‭ he study was correlational in nature as the IV is not manipulated by the researcher. The study was‬ T ‭a single-blind study.‬ ‭ ixel counting revealed that the posterior hippocampi of taxi drivers had more grey matter compared‬ P ‭to those of control subjects. Voxel-based morphometry (VBM) showed that the volume of the right‬ ‭posterior hippocampi correlated with the amount of time spent as a taxi driver. No differences were‬ ‭observed in other parts of the brain.‬ ‭Key study 2. Milner (1966)‬ ‭ he aim of‬‭Milner's (1966)‬‭case study was to better‬‭understand the effects that the removal of‬ T ‭hippocampi had had on patient HM. Method triangulation was used. In her research, Milner carried‬ ‭out psychometric testing (e.g. IQ testing), direct observation of his behavior, interviews, and memory‬ ‭tests.‬ ‭ ilner found that HM could recall information from before the surgery, but was unable to form new‬ M ‭episodic or semantic memories. In other words, HM had anterograde amnesia – the ability to form‬ ‭new memories. This suggests that the hippocampus plays a key role in the consolidation of some‬ ‭types of memory.‬ ‭ M had a capacity for working memory since he was able to carry on a normal conversation. When‬ H ‭asked to recall the number 584, HM was able to do so even 15 minutes later, apparently by means‬ ‭of constant rehearsal. However, after the task was over, HM would not be able to recall the number.‬ ‭ emories in the form of motor skills, i.e. procedural memories, were well maintained; for example,‬ M ‭he knew how to mow a lawn. He also showed improvements in the performance of new skills such‬ ‭as reverse mirror drawing in which he had to acquire new eye-hand coordination. Although he‬ ‭showed improvement in the skill over time, he never remembered learning the skill.‬ ‭ orkin (1992, 2003) carried out an MRI scan of HM’s brain to see the extent of the damage. It was‬ C ‭possible to see that parts of HM’s temporal lobe, including the hippocampus and amygdala, had the‬ ‭most damage. Damage to the hippocampus explains the problem of transferring short-term memory‬ ‭to long-term memory‬ ‭ emember that critical thinking is an essential part of the ERQs, but not of the SAQs. There are two‬ R ‭key ways in which critical thinking is assessed. First, you need to be able to evaluate the research‬ ‭that you use in your response. Secondly, you need to address the command term. The command‬ ‭term may ask you to‬‭evaluate‬‭the theory or‬‭discuss‬‭the theory.‬ ‭Evaluate‬‭means that you must‬ ‭address both strengths and limitations of the theory.‬ ‭Discuss‬‭is the broader command term allowing‬ ‭you to discuss either the strengths or limitations of the theory, why it is difficult to study the theory or‬ ‭the implications of the research.‬ ‭Discussing localization of function‬ ‭‬ ‭Much of the research on localization is limited, using case studies of people with brain‬ ‭damage or autopsies. The overall effect of the damage on the brain is not really clear.‬ ‭‬ ‭Very few behaviors appear to be strictly localized; research supports that most behaviors‬ ‭are the result of the interaction of different parts of the brain.‬ ‭‬ ‭Attributing complex human behaviors to a single part of the brain is seen as a‬ ‭reductionist approach to human behavior. This is seen, for example, in studies like‬ ‭LeVay (1991)‬‭in which human sexuality is attributed‬‭to a single nucleus in the‬ ‭hypothalamus.‬ ‭‬ ‭Although fMRI scans can reveal where activity is taking place in the brain during some‬ ‭behaviors, the ability for people to carry out a range of behaviors in such scanners is‬ ‭very limited.‬ ‭‬ ‭MRIs can be used to determine localization by observing areas of the brain with more‬ ‭grey matter; however, these studies are correlational and do not determine causality.‬ ‭Additionally, other areas of the brain may play a role but not show a significant increase‬ ‭in grey matter in such scans.‬ ‭ efinition: Localization of function refers to the concept that specific areas of the‬ D ‭brain are responsible for specific psychological functions, such as emotions,‬ ‭movement, or cognition.‬ ‭ xplanation: In the context of IB Psychology HL, localization of function suggests‬ E ‭that different parts of the brain are specialized for different tasks. For example, the‬ f‭ rontal lobe is associated with decision-making and problem-solving, the temporal‬ ‭lobe with auditory processing and memory, and the hippocampus with memory‬ ‭formation. This theory is often supported by studies of brain lesions, brain imaging‬ ‭(e.g., fMRI), and neuropsychological research that show how damage to specific‬ ‭areas of the brain can result in impairments in certain cognitive or emotional‬ ‭functions.‬ ‭ xample: The study of Broca's area (responsible for speech production) in patients‬ E ‭with speech deficits due to brain damage illustrates the principle of localization.‬ ‭The research of Paul Broca and Carl Wernicke on patients with aphasia supports‬ ‭the idea that certain regions in the brain are specialized for language processing.‬ ‭Emotion and Memory:‬ ‭Conceptual understanding‬ I‭n both an SAQ and an ERQ, you are expected to first describe and/or explain the theory. For‬ ‭describe, this means that you are identifying and defining the different components of the theory.‬ ‭Explain asks you to be specific about how the theory actually works - that is, identifying assumptions‬ ‭made by the theory and/or explaining how the components of the theory interact.‬ ‭Explaining flashbulb memories‬ ‭ drenaline:‬‭a hormone linked to the human flight-or-fight‬‭response that appears to play a role‬ A ‭in the creation of flashbulb memories.‬ ‭Amygdala:‬‭the part of the brain that is responsible‬‭for the encoding of emotional memories.‬ ‭ pisodic memory:‬‭the recollection of specific events,‬‭situations, and experiences. Episodic‬ E ‭memory is autobiographical.‬ ‭ lashbulb memories‬‭: a highly detailed, exceptionally‬‭vivid 'snapshot' of the moment and‬ F ‭circumstances in which surprising and consequential news was learned about.‬ I‭mportance-driven model‬‭: This model expanded on the‬‭original model by Brown and Kulik.‬ ‭The model argues that the personal significance of an event plays a key role in whether a‬ ‭flashbulb memory is encoded.‬ ‭ emember when describing flashbulb memories, there are several important components. Our prior‬ R ‭knowledge (schema) helps us to decide whether something is important or not. For example, if I did‬ ‭not know who Michael Jackson was, I would not be surprised by his death or feel that it was‬ ‭important to my life.‬ I‭n addition, emotions - specifically, surprise - plays a key role in the encoding of the memory.‬ ‭Psychologists argue that this is the "biological mechanism;" adrenaline may interact with the‬ ‭amygdala - leading to the vividness and emotion tied to the memory.‬ ‭ inally, "big news" is often talked about a lot. This is overt rehearsal which also helps to create the‬ F ‭flashbulb memory - but may also lead to distortion.‬ ‭Understanding research‬ ‭ or an SAQ, you need to be able to describe/explain one study. This means that you have to be‬ F ‭able to describe the aim, procedure, and findings of the study. To explain it, you must link it to the‬ ‭theory or concept in the question. In an ERQ, you should know two pieces of research. In addition,‬ ‭to describing the aim, procedure, and findings, you need to be able to evaluate the research. The‬ ‭use of correct terminology when describing a study - for example, correctly identifying the research‬ ‭method - is an important aspect of the top mark band.‬ ‭Key study 1. Brown and Kulik (1977)‬ ‭ rown & Kulik (1977)‬‭asked 40 black and 40 white American‬‭male participants to fill out a‬ B ‭questionnaire regarding the death of public figures - such as President John F Kennedy and civil‬ ‭rights leader Martin Luther King Jr - as well as of someone they personally knew. They were asked‬ ‭a series of questions about the event including:‬ ‭‬ ‭Where were you when you heard about the event?‬ ‭‬ ‭Who was with you when you heard about the event?‬ ‭‬ ‭What were you doing when you heard about the event?‬ ‭‬ ‭How did you find out about the event?‬ ‭‬ ‭How did you feel when you heard about the event? (to indicate the level of emotion)‬ ‭‬ ‭How important was this event in your life? (to indicate personal relevance)‬ ‭‬ ‭How often have you talked about this event? (to indicate rehearsal)‬ ‭ he researchers found that 90% of the participants recalled a significant amount of detail about the‬ T ‭day when Kennedy was assassinated. Most participants had very detailed memories of the death of‬ ‭a loved one. However, there was a difference in their memories of the assassination of public‬ ‭officials, based on the personal relevance of the event to the participant. 75% of black participants‬ ‭had flashbulb memories of the murder of Martin Luther King, compared to 33% of white participants.‬ ‭Key study 2. Neisser and Harsh (1992)‬ ‭Neisser & Harsch (1992)‬‭carried out a study to see‬‭if flashbulb memories could be distorted.‬ ‭ n the morning after the Challenger disaster – less than 24 hours after the event - 106 university‬ O ‭students were given a questionnaire. They were asked to write a description of how they heard the‬ ‭news and then asked questions similar to those in Brown & Kulik’s study.‬ ‭ ½ years later, 44 of the original participants were given the same questionnaire to fill in again. This‬ 2 ‭time they were also asked for each response to rate how confident they were of the accuracy of their‬ ‭memory on a scale from 1 to 5.‬ ‭ emi-structured interviews were carried out a few months later in order to determine if the‬ S ‭participants would repeat what they had written a few months earlier or revert to the original memory.‬ ‭At the end of the interview, the participants were shown their original 1986 reports in their own‬ ‭handwriting.‬ ‭ he researchers found that the mean score for accuracy was less than 3/7 of the questions.‬ T ‭However, the average level of confidence was 4/5. In the interview, even when given cues to help‬ ‭them recall the original memory, most of the participants confirmed their changed memory, rather‬ ‭than their original one.‬ ‭ emember that critical thinking is an essential part of the ERQs, but not of the SAQs. There are two‬ R ‭key ways in which critical thinking is assessed. First, you need to be able to evaluate the research‬ ‭that you use in your response. Secondly, you need to address the command term. The command‬ ‭term may ask you to‬‭evaluate‬‭the theory or‬‭discuss‬‭the theory.‬ ‭Evaluate‬‭means that you must‬ ‭address both strengths and limitations of the theory.‬ ‭Discuss‬‭is the broader command term allowing‬ ‭you to discuss either the strengths or limitations of the theory, why it is difficult to study the theory or‬ ‭the implications of the research.‬ ‭Discussing emotion and memory‬ ‭‬ ‭There is biological evidence that supports the role of emotion in memory formation - for‬ ‭example, McGaugh & Cahill (1995) and Sharot (2007).‬ ‭‬ ‭Neisser argues that it is one's level of confidence, not accuracy, which defines FBM.‬ ‭‬ ‭There are cultural differences that indicate that rehearsal may play the most important‬ ‭role in the development of FBM.‬ ‭‬ ‭Often with real-life research on flashbulb memories, it is impossible to verify the accuracy‬ ‭of the original memories.‬ ‭‬ ‭It is not possible to measure one's emotional state at the time of an event - thus making‬ ‭it impossible to demonstrate a clear causal explanation.‬ ‭ efinition: This theory explores the relationship between emotions and the‬ D ‭formation, storage, and retrieval of memories. It suggests that emotional‬ ‭experiences are more likely to be remembered because of the activation of certain‬ ‭brain regions, like the amygdala.‬ ‭ xplanation: In the context of IB Psychology HL, the theory emphasizes how‬ E ‭emotions can impact memory processes. Strong emotional experiences are often‬ ‭stored more vividly and are recalled more easily than neutral events. This is partly‬ ‭because the amygdala, a brain structure involved in processing emotions, interacts‬ ‭with the hippocampus (involved in memory storage), making emotional memories‬ ‭more durable. The theory also explores how stress hormones (like cortisol) can‬ ‭enhance memory encoding during emotionally charged events.‬ ‭ xample: The research of Sharot et al. (2007) on flashbulb memories, which are‬ E ‭highly detailed and vivid memories of significant events (such as 9/11), illustrates‬ ‭the influence of emotion on memory. The study found that people were more likely‬ ‭to recall emotional aspects of the event than neutral details.‬ ‭Social Cognitive Theory:‬ ‭Conceptual understanding‬ I‭n both an SAQ or an ERQ, you are expected to first describe and/or explain the theory. For‬ ‭describe, this means that you are identifying and defining the different components of the theory.‬ ‭Explain asks you to be specific about how the theory actually works - that is, identifying assumptions‬ ‭made by the theory and/or explaining how the components of the theory interact.‬ ‭Explaining Social Cognitive Theory‬ ‭When writing about social cognitive theory, the following concepts should be explained:‬ ‭ ttention, retention, motivation, potential‬‭: The‬‭cognitive "mediating processes" that‬ A ‭Bandura argued play a role in whether we will imitate a model or not. The individual needs to‬ ‭pay attention to the behavior and its consequences and form a mental representation of the‬ ‭behavior. It is important that a memory of the behavior is formed to be performed later by the‬ ‭observer. There has to be the desire to imitate the behavior - as well as the ability to do so.‬ ‭ actors influencing imitation‬‭: In addition to the‬‭four key mediating processes, there are‬ F ‭other factors that may affect whether we imitate a model. These include whether the model is‬ ‭a member of our in-group, whether we like the model, whether we like the reward that the‬ ‭model received, and whether the model's behavior is consistent over time.‬ ‭Self-efficacy‬‭: a person's belief in his or her ability‬‭to succeed in a particular situation.‬ ‭Social learning‬‭: Learning through the observation‬‭of the behaviors of others.‬  ‭ icarious reinforcement‬‭: When a learner observes someone they identify with and the role‬ V ‭model receives a reward, the learner is motivated to imitate the behavior as if they had been‬ ‭rewarded themselves. This is also the case with vicarious punishment.‬ ‭Understanding research‬ ‭ or an SAQ, you need to be able to describe/explain one study. This means that you have to be‬ F ‭able to describe the aim, procedure, and findings of the study. To explain it, you must link it to the‬ ‭theory or concept in the question. In an ERQ, you should know two pieces of research. In addition,‬ ‭to describing the aim, procedure, and findings, you need to be able to evaluate the research. The‬ ‭use of correct terminology when describing a study - for example, correctly identifying the research‬ ‭method - is an important aspect of the top mark band. You can read more about both of these‬ ‭studies‬‭here‬‭.‬ ‭Key study 1. Joy et al (1986)‬ ‭ oy, Kimball & Zabrack‬‭(1986) conducted their study‬‭in three small towns in British Columbia,‬ J ‭Canada. Television was introduced into the Notel community in 1973. In two other communities, they‬ ‭also received the new channel but already had access to television. The psychologists observed‬ ‭both physical and verbally aggressive behavior displayed by elementary school children on the‬ ‭playground before Notel received a television channel and then two years after Notel received one‬ ‭Canadian channel. There were 120 children in the sample. In addition, teacher and peer ratings of‬ ‭aggressive behavior and information about television viewing habits were obtained.‬ ‭ he aggressive behavior of children in Notel increased significantly from 1973 to 1975, whereas, the‬ T ‭aggressive behavior of children in the other two towns did not change significantly over the same‬ ‭period. The peer and teacher ratings supported the findings.‬ ‭Key study 2. Charlton et al (2002)‬ ‭ harlton et al‬‭(2002) carried out a study on the remote‬‭island of St Helena, where television was‬ C ‭introduced in 1995, to investigate the influence of television on aggression in children. Cameras‬ ‭were set up on the playgrounds of two primary schools. The behavior of 160 children (ages 3 - 8‬ ‭years) was observed before and after the introduction of television.‬ ‭ nalysis of hundreds of hours of videotape, backed up by interview data from teachers, parents, and‬ A ‭some of the older children, showed no increase in anti-social behavior among the children of St‬ ‭ elena. The behavior before the arrival of television had been maintained after five years of‬ H ‭exposure to violent television.‬ ‭Critical thinking‬ ‭ emember that critical thinking is an essential part of the ERQs, but not of the SAQs. There are two‬ R ‭key ways in which critical thinking is assessed. First, you need to be able to evaluate the research‬ ‭that you use in your response. Secondly, you need to address the command term. The command‬ ‭term may ask you to‬‭evaluate‬‭the theory or‬‭discuss‬‭the theory.‬ ‭Evaluate‬‭means that you must‬ ‭address both strengths and limitations of the theory.‬ ‭Discuss‬‭is the broader command term allowing‬ ‭to discuss either the strengths or limitations of the theory, why it is difficult to study the theory or the‬ ‭implications of the research.‬ ‭Evaluating Social Cognitive Theory‬ ‭When evaluating Social Cognitive Theory, you may consider the following points:‬ ‭‬ ‭The theory can be applied to explain a lot of different behaviors. The theory has high‬ ‭heuristic validity‬‭.‬ ‭‬ ‭The theory is difficult to test under‬‭naturalistic‬‭conditions‬‭where it is difficult to control‬ ‭for extraneous variables.‬ ‭‬ ‭There are several‬‭constructs‬‭that are difficult to‬‭measure - for example, motivation,‬ ‭self-efficacy, and one's level of attention.‬ ‭‬ ‭The theory has a‬‭strong bias‬‭toward the "nurture"‬‭side of the argument. Today‬ ‭psychologists would argue that social learning interacts with our physiology, leading to‬ ‭behavior. On its own, social learning cannot explain individual differences.‬ ‭‬ ‭Bandura proposed several variables that may increase the likelihood that a behavior will‬ ‭be imitated. This increases the‬‭predictive power‬‭of the theory.‬ ‭‬ ‭There is‬‭biological support‬‭for the theory. Modern‬‭biological research indicates that‬ ‭mirror neurons may play an important role in learning.‬ ‭ efinition: Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), developed by Albert Bandura,‬ D ‭emphasizes the role of observational learning, imitation, and modeling in behavior‬ ‭acquisition. It asserts that learning occurs not only through direct experience but‬ ‭also through watching the actions of others and the consequences of those actions.‬ ‭ xplanation: In the context of IB Psychology HL, Social Cognitive Theory‬ E ‭explores how behavior is influenced by social interactions and cognitive processes.‬ ‭SCT suggests that individuals learn by observing others, particularly in a social‬ ‭context, and then mimic or internalize behaviors. Key concepts within SCT include‬ ‭attention (focusing on a model), retention (remembering the behavior),‬ ‭reproduction (being able to replicate the behavior), and motivation (the desire to‬ ‭perform the behavior based on expected outcomes). Bandura's concept of‬ ‭self-efficacy also plays a role, as individuals are more likely to engage in behaviors‬ ‭they believe they can successfully execute.‬ ‭ xample: One of the most famous studies supporting Social Cognitive Theory is‬ E ‭Bandura's Bobo Doll experiment (1961). In this study, children observed an adult‬ ‭behaving aggressively toward a Bobo doll and later replicated that behavior‬ ‭themselves when given the opportunity, demonstrating the influence of‬ ‭observational learning on aggression.‬ ‭ ach of these theories offers a different lens through which to understand human‬ E ‭behavior, cognition, and emotion, and they have been fundamental in the‬ ‭development of psychology as a field of study, particularly within the IB‬ ‭curriculum.‬