Psychology Midterm Review PDF
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This document appears to be a study guide or review sheet for a psychology midterm. It covers topics like localization of function, memory, and social cognitive theory and includes key studies like Maguire (2000) and Milner (1966).
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Localization of Function: he theory that behaviors have their origin in specific areas of the brain. Damage T to that part of the brain would result in an inability to carry out that behavior. In both an SAQ or an ERQ, you are expected to first describe and/or explain the theory. For the...
Localization of Function: he theory that behaviors have their origin in specific areas of the brain. Damage T to that part of the brain would result in an inability to carry out that behavior. In both an SAQ or an ERQ, you are expected to first describe and/or explain the theory. For the command termdescribe, this means that you are identifyingand defining the different components of the theory. Explainasks you to be specific abouthow the theory actually works - that is, identifying assumptions made by the theory and/or explaining how the components of the theory interact. Explaining localization of function istributive processing:The theory that behavioris the result of interaction between several D parts of the brain and not strictly localized to a singular part of the brain. quipotentiality:the theory that the brain has thecapacity in the case of injury to transfer E functional memory from the damaged portion of the brain to other undamaged portions of the brain. ocalization of function: The theory that behaviorshave their origin in specific areas of the L brain. Damage to that part of the brain would result in an inability to carry out that behavior. elative localization: The theory that although one part of the brain may play a key role in a R behavior, several parts of the brain also play a lesser role in that behavior. Strict localization: The theory that behaviors can be attributed to a single area of the brain. or an SAQ, you need to be able to describe/explain one study. This means that you have to be F able to describe the aim, procedure, and findings of the study. To explain it, you must link it to the theory or concept in the question. In an ERQ, you should know two pieces of research. In addition, to describing the aim, procedure, and findings, you need to be able to evaluate the research. The use of correct terminology when describing a study - for example, correctly identifying the research method - is an important aspect of the top mark band. Key study 1. Maguire (2000) he aim ofMaguire (2000)was to see whether the brains of London taxi drivers would be T structurally different from the average person as a result of their exceptional knowledge of the city and the many hours that they spend behind the wheel navigating the streets of London. he researchers compared MRI scans of 16 right-handed male London taxi drivers with the scans of T 50 right-handed males who did not drive taxis. All taxi drivers had at least 1.5 years. The mean age did not differ between the two groups. he study was correlational in nature as the IV is not manipulated by the researcher. The study was T a single-blind study. ixel counting revealed that the posterior hippocampi of taxi drivers had more grey matter compared P to those of control subjects. Voxel-based morphometry (VBM) showed that the volume of the right posterior hippocampi correlated with the amount of time spent as a taxi driver. No differences were observed in other parts of the brain. Key study 2. Milner (1966) he aim ofMilner's (1966)case study was to betterunderstand the effects that the removal of T hippocampi had had on patient HM. Method triangulation was used. In her research, Milner carried out psychometric testing (e.g. IQ testing), direct observation of his behavior, interviews, and memory tests. ilner found that HM could recall information from before the surgery, but was unable to form new M episodic or semantic memories. In other words, HM had anterograde amnesia – the ability to form new memories. This suggests that the hippocampus plays a key role in the consolidation of some types of memory. M had a capacity for working memory since he was able to carry on a normal conversation. When H asked to recall the number 584, HM was able to do so even 15 minutes later, apparently by means of constant rehearsal. However, after the task was over, HM would not be able to recall the number. emories in the form of motor skills, i.e. procedural memories, were well maintained; for example, M he knew how to mow a lawn. He also showed improvements in the performance of new skills such as reverse mirror drawing in which he had to acquire new eye-hand coordination. Although he showed improvement in the skill over time, he never remembered learning the skill. orkin (1992, 2003) carried out an MRI scan of HM’s brain to see the extent of the damage. It was C possible to see that parts of HM’s temporal lobe, including the hippocampus and amygdala, had the most damage. Damage to the hippocampus explains the problem of transferring short-term memory to long-term memory emember that critical thinking is an essential part of the ERQs, but not of the SAQs. There are two R key ways in which critical thinking is assessed. First, you need to be able to evaluate the research that you use in your response. Secondly, you need to address the command term. The command term may ask you toevaluatethe theory ordiscussthe theory. Evaluatemeans that you must address both strengths and limitations of the theory. Discussis the broader command term allowing you to discuss either the strengths or limitations of the theory, why it is difficult to study the theory or the implications of the research. Discussing localization of function Much of the research on localization is limited, using case studies of people with brain damage or autopsies. The overall effect of the damage on the brain is not really clear. Very few behaviors appear to be strictly localized; research supports that most behaviors are the result of the interaction of different parts of the brain. Attributing complex human behaviors to a single part of the brain is seen as a reductionist approach to human behavior. This is seen, for example, in studies like LeVay (1991)in which human sexuality is attributedto a single nucleus in the hypothalamus. Although fMRI scans can reveal where activity is taking place in the brain during some behaviors, the ability for people to carry out a range of behaviors in such scanners is very limited. MRIs can be used to determine localization by observing areas of the brain with more grey matter; however, these studies are correlational and do not determine causality. Additionally, other areas of the brain may play a role but not show a significant increase in grey matter in such scans. efinition: Localization of function refers to the concept that specific areas of the D brain are responsible for specific psychological functions, such as emotions, movement, or cognition. xplanation: In the context of IB Psychology HL, localization of function suggests E that different parts of the brain are specialized for different tasks. For example, the f rontal lobe is associated with decision-making and problem-solving, the temporal lobe with auditory processing and memory, and the hippocampus with memory formation. This theory is often supported by studies of brain lesions, brain imaging (e.g., fMRI), and neuropsychological research that show how damage to specific areas of the brain can result in impairments in certain cognitive or emotional functions. xample: The study of Broca's area (responsible for speech production) in patients E with speech deficits due to brain damage illustrates the principle of localization. The research of Paul Broca and Carl Wernicke on patients with aphasia supports the idea that certain regions in the brain are specialized for language processing. Emotion and Memory: Conceptual understanding In both an SAQ and an ERQ, you are expected to first describe and/or explain the theory. For describe, this means that you are identifying and defining the different components of the theory. Explain asks you to be specific about how the theory actually works - that is, identifying assumptions made by the theory and/or explaining how the components of the theory interact. Explaining flashbulb memories drenaline:a hormone linked to the human flight-or-fightresponse that appears to play a role A in the creation of flashbulb memories. Amygdala:the part of the brain that is responsiblefor the encoding of emotional memories. pisodic memory:the recollection of specific events,situations, and experiences. Episodic E memory is autobiographical. lashbulb memories: a highly detailed, exceptionallyvivid 'snapshot' of the moment and F circumstances in which surprising and consequential news was learned about. Importance-driven model: This model expanded on theoriginal model by Brown and Kulik. The model argues that the personal significance of an event plays a key role in whether a flashbulb memory is encoded. emember when describing flashbulb memories, there are several important components. Our prior R knowledge (schema) helps us to decide whether something is important or not. For example, if I did not know who Michael Jackson was, I would not be surprised by his death or feel that it was important to my life. In addition, emotions - specifically, surprise - plays a key role in the encoding of the memory. Psychologists argue that this is the "biological mechanism;" adrenaline may interact with the amygdala - leading to the vividness and emotion tied to the memory. inally, "big news" is often talked about a lot. This is overt rehearsal which also helps to create the F flashbulb memory - but may also lead to distortion. Understanding research or an SAQ, you need to be able to describe/explain one study. This means that you have to be F able to describe the aim, procedure, and findings of the study. To explain it, you must link it to the theory or concept in the question. In an ERQ, you should know two pieces of research. In addition, to describing the aim, procedure, and findings, you need to be able to evaluate the research. The use of correct terminology when describing a study - for example, correctly identifying the research method - is an important aspect of the top mark band. Key study 1. Brown and Kulik (1977) rown & Kulik (1977)asked 40 black and 40 white Americanmale participants to fill out a B questionnaire regarding the death of public figures - such as President John F Kennedy and civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr - as well as of someone they personally knew. They were asked a series of questions about the event including: Where were you when you heard about the event? Who was with you when you heard about the event? What were you doing when you heard about the event? How did you find out about the event? How did you feel when you heard about the event? (to indicate the level of emotion) How important was this event in your life? (to indicate personal relevance) How often have you talked about this event? (to indicate rehearsal) he researchers found that 90% of the participants recalled a significant amount of detail about the T day when Kennedy was assassinated. Most participants had very detailed memories of the death of a loved one. However, there was a difference in their memories of the assassination of public officials, based on the personal relevance of the event to the participant. 75% of black participants had flashbulb memories of the murder of Martin Luther King, compared to 33% of white participants. Key study 2. Neisser and Harsh (1992) Neisser & Harsch (1992)carried out a study to seeif flashbulb memories could be distorted. n the morning after the Challenger disaster – less than 24 hours after the event - 106 university O students were given a questionnaire. They were asked to write a description of how they heard the news and then asked questions similar to those in Brown & Kulik’s study. ½ years later, 44 of the original participants were given the same questionnaire to fill in again. This 2 time they were also asked for each response to rate how confident they were of the accuracy of their memory on a scale from 1 to 5. emi-structured interviews were carried out a few months later in order to determine if the S participants would repeat what they had written a few months earlier or revert to the original memory. At the end of the interview, the participants were shown their original 1986 reports in their own handwriting. he researchers found that the mean score for accuracy was less than 3/7 of the questions. T However, the average level of confidence was 4/5. In the interview, even when given cues to help them recall the original memory, most of the participants confirmed their changed memory, rather than their original one. emember that critical thinking is an essential part of the ERQs, but not of the SAQs. There are two R key ways in which critical thinking is assessed. First, you need to be able to evaluate the research that you use in your response. Secondly, you need to address the command term. The command term may ask you toevaluatethe theory ordiscussthe theory. Evaluatemeans that you must address both strengths and limitations of the theory. Discussis the broader command term allowing you to discuss either the strengths or limitations of the theory, why it is difficult to study the theory or the implications of the research. Discussing emotion and memory There is biological evidence that supports the role of emotion in memory formation - for example, McGaugh & Cahill (1995) and Sharot (2007). Neisser argues that it is one's level of confidence, not accuracy, which defines FBM. There are cultural differences that indicate that rehearsal may play the most important role in the development of FBM. Often with real-life research on flashbulb memories, it is impossible to verify the accuracy of the original memories. It is not possible to measure one's emotional state at the time of an event - thus making it impossible to demonstrate a clear causal explanation. efinition: This theory explores the relationship between emotions and the D formation, storage, and retrieval of memories. It suggests that emotional experiences are more likely to be remembered because of the activation of certain brain regions, like the amygdala. xplanation: In the context of IB Psychology HL, the theory emphasizes how E emotions can impact memory processes. Strong emotional experiences are often stored more vividly and are recalled more easily than neutral events. This is partly because the amygdala, a brain structure involved in processing emotions, interacts with the hippocampus (involved in memory storage), making emotional memories more durable. The theory also explores how stress hormones (like cortisol) can enhance memory encoding during emotionally charged events. xample: The research of Sharot et al. (2007) on flashbulb memories, which are E highly detailed and vivid memories of significant events (such as 9/11), illustrates the influence of emotion on memory. The study found that people were more likely to recall emotional aspects of the event than neutral details. Social Cognitive Theory: Conceptual understanding In both an SAQ or an ERQ, you are expected to first describe and/or explain the theory. For describe, this means that you are identifying and defining the different components of the theory. Explain asks you to be specific about how the theory actually works - that is, identifying assumptions made by the theory and/or explaining how the components of the theory interact. Explaining Social Cognitive Theory When writing about social cognitive theory, the following concepts should be explained: ttention, retention, motivation, potential: Thecognitive "mediating processes" that A Bandura argued play a role in whether we will imitate a model or not. The individual needs to pay attention to the behavior and its consequences and form a mental representation of the behavior. It is important that a memory of the behavior is formed to be performed later by the observer. There has to be the desire to imitate the behavior - as well as the ability to do so. actors influencing imitation: In addition to thefour key mediating processes, there are F other factors that may affect whether we imitate a model. These include whether the model is a member of our in-group, whether we like the model, whether we like the reward that the model received, and whether the model's behavior is consistent over time. Self-efficacy: a person's belief in his or her abilityto succeed in a particular situation. Social learning: Learning through the observationof the behaviors of others. icarious reinforcement: When a learner observes someone they identify with and the role V model receives a reward, the learner is motivated to imitate the behavior as if they had been rewarded themselves. This is also the case with vicarious punishment. Understanding research or an SAQ, you need to be able to describe/explain one study. This means that you have to be F able to describe the aim, procedure, and findings of the study. To explain it, you must link it to the theory or concept in the question. In an ERQ, you should know two pieces of research. In addition, to describing the aim, procedure, and findings, you need to be able to evaluate the research. The use of correct terminology when describing a study - for example, correctly identifying the research method - is an important aspect of the top mark band. You can read more about both of these studieshere. Key study 1. Joy et al (1986) oy, Kimball & Zabrack(1986) conducted their studyin three small towns in British Columbia, J Canada. Television was introduced into the Notel community in 1973. In two other communities, they also received the new channel but already had access to television. The psychologists observed both physical and verbally aggressive behavior displayed by elementary school children on the playground before Notel received a television channel and then two years after Notel received one Canadian channel. There were 120 children in the sample. In addition, teacher and peer ratings of aggressive behavior and information about television viewing habits were obtained. he aggressive behavior of children in Notel increased significantly from 1973 to 1975, whereas, the T aggressive behavior of children in the other two towns did not change significantly over the same period. The peer and teacher ratings supported the findings. Key study 2. Charlton et al (2002) harlton et al(2002) carried out a study on the remoteisland of St Helena, where television was C introduced in 1995, to investigate the influence of television on aggression in children. Cameras were set up on the playgrounds of two primary schools. The behavior of 160 children (ages 3 - 8 years) was observed before and after the introduction of television. nalysis of hundreds of hours of videotape, backed up by interview data from teachers, parents, and A some of the older children, showed no increase in anti-social behavior among the children of St elena. The behavior before the arrival of television had been maintained after five years of H exposure to violent television. Critical thinking emember that critical thinking is an essential part of the ERQs, but not of the SAQs. There are two R key ways in which critical thinking is assessed. First, you need to be able to evaluate the research that you use in your response. Secondly, you need to address the command term. The command term may ask you toevaluatethe theory ordiscussthe theory. Evaluatemeans that you must address both strengths and limitations of the theory. Discussis the broader command term allowing to discuss either the strengths or limitations of the theory, why it is difficult to study the theory or the implications of the research. Evaluating Social Cognitive Theory When evaluating Social Cognitive Theory, you may consider the following points: The theory can be applied to explain a lot of different behaviors. The theory has high heuristic validity. The theory is difficult to test undernaturalisticconditionswhere it is difficult to control for extraneous variables. There are severalconstructsthat are difficult tomeasure - for example, motivation, self-efficacy, and one's level of attention. The theory has astrong biastoward the "nurture"side of the argument. Today psychologists would argue that social learning interacts with our physiology, leading to behavior. On its own, social learning cannot explain individual differences. Bandura proposed several variables that may increase the likelihood that a behavior will be imitated. This increases thepredictive powerof the theory. There isbiological supportfor the theory. Modernbiological research indicates that mirror neurons may play an important role in learning. efinition: Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), developed by Albert Bandura, D emphasizes the role of observational learning, imitation, and modeling in behavior acquisition. It asserts that learning occurs not only through direct experience but also through watching the actions of others and the consequences of those actions. xplanation: In the context of IB Psychology HL, Social Cognitive Theory E explores how behavior is influenced by social interactions and cognitive processes. SCT suggests that individuals learn by observing others, particularly in a social context, and then mimic or internalize behaviors. Key concepts within SCT include attention (focusing on a model), retention (remembering the behavior), reproduction (being able to replicate the behavior), and motivation (the desire to perform the behavior based on expected outcomes). Bandura's concept of self-efficacy also plays a role, as individuals are more likely to engage in behaviors they believe they can successfully execute. xample: One of the most famous studies supporting Social Cognitive Theory is E Bandura's Bobo Doll experiment (1961). In this study, children observed an adult behaving aggressively toward a Bobo doll and later replicated that behavior themselves when given the opportunity, demonstrating the influence of observational learning on aggression. ach of these theories offers a different lens through which to understand human E behavior, cognition, and emotion, and they have been fundamental in the development of psychology as a field of study, particularly within the IB curriculum.
