Developmental Psychology Exam Notes PDF

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYSCHOLOGY ========================= Physical development -------------------- ### Prenatal development 1. Germinal Stage (0-2 weeks): a. Characterized by rapid cell division (mitosis). 2. Embryonic Stage (2-8 weeks): b. Formation of vital organ systems and nerve cel...

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYSCHOLOGY ========================= Physical development -------------------- ### Prenatal development 1. Germinal Stage (0-2 weeks): a. Characterized by rapid cell division (mitosis). 2. Embryonic Stage (2-8 weeks): b. Formation of vital organ systems and nerve cells in the spine. 3. Foetal Stage (9 weeks-birth): c. Development of sex organs and completion of the cerebral cortex. [Factors Affecting Prenatal Development: ] - Maternal Conditions: - Physical, social, and psychological well-being of the mother, including nutrition and stress levels, directly impact foetal development. - Malnutrition or undernutrition before and during pregnancy elevates risks. - Maternal Age - STIs ### Neonatal Period 1. first 2-4 Weeks After Birth 2. Newborns exhibit over 20 involuntary reflexes. 3. Perceptual Development: a. Vision: Limited focusing ability. b. Hearing: Preference for the mother\'s voice. c. Taste and Smell: Sensitivity to and ability to differentiate various smells. ### Preschool Period 1. Rapid growth of the trunk during the first year. 2. Continued development of the brain and nervous system. 3. Progression of gross and fine motor skills. 4. Principles of Physical Development: a. Cephalocaudal Trend: Development progresses from head to toe. b. Proximodistal Trend: Development proceeds from the centre of the body outwards. ### Middle Childhood 1. 6 Years-Puberty 2. Enhancements in strength, coordination, and muscular control. ### Adolescence: 1. Puberty: Period of accelerated physical maturation, primarily in early adolescence. ### Early Adulthood (20-40 Years): 1. Peak physical growth, muscular strength, and manual dexterity. 2. Health risks associated with violence and disease. ### Middle Adulthood (40-60 Years): 1. Noticeable decline in physical attributes and functioning. 2. Reduced functioning of the digestive system and decreased blood flow to the brain. 3. Health Risks: Increased susceptibility to various ailments and ongoing bodily degeneration. ### Late Adulthood (60+ Years): 1. Senescence: Progressive decline of all bodily systems. 2. Health Risks: Deterioration in health and heightened vulnerability to illness. Cognitive development --------------------- ### Neonatal and preschool periods - Infants develop a basic understanding of the world around them - Language development - The sensorimotor stage: - Infants begin to coordinate sensory input with motor activity - Infants achieve object permanence - The preoperational stage: - Children increasingly use symbolic thought, but they cannot yet think logically - Thought is characterized by egocentrism and animism ### Middle Childhood - - - - - - - - - - - ### Adolescence - - - - - - ### Adulthood - - - ### Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development - Vygotsky\'s theory emphasizes the **social and cultural influences** on cognitive development. He believed that cognitive growth is a **socially mediated activity**, where children acquire higher mental functions through interaction with more knowledgeable individuals. - **Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):** A crucial concept in Vygotsky\'s theory, representing the difference between a child\'s current level of development and their potential development with guidance. - - - **Cultural Tools:** Vygotsky highlighted the role of cultural tools, such as language and symbols, in shaping cognitive development. - **Stages of Speech Development:** - - - Social and Emotional Development -------------------------------- ### Neonatal Period: - - - - - - - - **Infancy (Stage 2 in Nsamenang\'s Theory):** - - - ### Preschool Period - - - - - - - - - - - ### Early Childhood - **(Stage 3 - Social Apprenticeship in Nsamenang\'s Theory):** - - ### Middle Childhood: - - - **Puberty (Stage 4 - Social Entree in Nsamenang\'s Theory):** - - ### Adolescence - **(Stages 5 & 6 in Nsamenang\'s and Erikson\'s Theories, Respectively):** - - - - - - - - ### Early Adulthood - **(Stage 6 in Erikson\'s Theory):** - ### Middle Adulthood - **(Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation in Erikson\'s Theory):** - - ### Late Adulthood - **(Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair in Erikson\'s Theory):** - - - **Old Age/Senescence/Death (Stage 7 in Nsamenang\'s Theory):** Represents the final stage of the lifespan. PSYCHOPATHOLOGY =============== Defining psychopathology ------------------------ **Psychological Disorder:** A syndrome characterized by significant disturbances in cognition, emotion regulation, or behaviour, reflecting dysfunction in underlying psychological, biological, or developmental processes. a. **Statistical Deviance:** Behaviour or experiences that fall outside the statistical norms of a population. This approach is influenced by sociocultural perspectives. b. **Maladaptiveness:** Behaviours that are detrimental to the individual or others, hindering adaptation and well-being. Sociocultural factors also play a role in determining what is considered maladaptive. c. **Personal Distress:** While distress can be a normal response to challenging situations, persistent and excessive distress may indicate psychopathology. Classifying Mental Illness -------------------------- ### Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5): Developed by the American Psychiatric Association, it categorizes mental disorders based on symptoms and signs. The DSM-5 has faced criticism for its biomedical and descriptive emphasis, potential cultural bias, and concerns about validity and reliability. ### International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11): Published by the World Health Organization, it provides an alternative classification system, potentially addressing some limitations of the DSM-5. Perspectives on Psychopathology ------------------------------- ### Biomedical Perspective: - Attributes mental disorders to biological factors such as genetic predisposition, abnormal functions of neurotransmitters, and structural abnormalities in brain. ### Psychodynamic Perspective: - Rooted in Freudian psychoanalysis, it emphasizes unconscious conflicts and early childhood experiences as contributors to psychopathology. - Psychopathology occurs for 2 reasons: - Conflict between the id, ego and superego leading to distressing symptoms - Deficiencies in ego impede individual's ability to repress the id ### Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective: - Focuses on the role of maladaptive thoughts, beliefs, and learned behaviours in the development and maintenance of mental disorders. ### Community Psychology Perspective: - Highlights the importance of social, political, and cultural contexts in understanding psychopathology. Integrated approaches to psychopathology ---------------------------------------- ### Diathesis-Stress Model: - Proposes that mental disorders arise from an interaction between predisposing vulnerabilities (diathesis) and environmental stressors. ### Biopsychosocial Approach: - Considers the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding the causes, triggers, and perpetuating factors of mental illness. - **Predisposing factors:** increase the likelihood of developing a particular mental illness - **Precipitating factors:** looks at triggers that a person experiences - **Perpetuating factors:** maintain or worsen a mental illness - **Protecting factors:** decrease the likelihood of developing a mental health problem Common Psychological Disorders ------------------------------ ### Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): A common disorder in South Africa, often arising from exposure to traumatic events. Leads to re-experiencing the trauma, avoidance behaviours, negative thoughts and mood, and heightened arousal. Symptoms: a. Hyperarousal b. Intrusion c. constriction ### Complex PTSD/Continuous Trauma: Occurs in situations of prolonged or repeated trauma, such as abuse or exposure to community violence. ### Schizophrenia: A disorder characterized by disorganized thoughts, emotions, and behaviours, including delusions, hallucinations, and negative symptoms like flat affect and avolition. #### Schizophrenia or cultural bound syndromes? d. They raise the issue of cultural interpretations of mental illness, contrasting the DSM-5 diagnosis of schizophrenia with traditional African concepts like \"Amafufunyana\" and \"Ukuthwasa.\" THEORIES OF PERSONALITY ======================= **Personality:** the unique patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviour that distinguish one person from another - A product of both biology and environment, personality remains fairly consistent throughout life The Psychoanalytic approach --------------------------- Structure of personality: - Largely unconscious - People are unaware of the motivations for their behaviour - Behaviour is influenced by the conflicts between drives, unconscious motives, past experiences and societal norms - 2 basic drives: 1. Life drive a. **Libido:** psychic energy derived from the life drive 2. Death drive b. We are self-destructive as humans - Personality has 3 levels and 3 components a. Levels: 1. Conscious 2. Preconscious 3. Unconscious 1. Components 1. Superego a. Internalized moral rules; developmental of ego-ideal 2. Ego b. Moderates how the id is expressed, but services the id's demands c. Tries to moderate between id, superego and reality i. When it can't anxiety The Neopsychoanalytic approach ------------------------------ Jung rejects the idea that sexuality is a major determinant of behaviour a. Believes personality develops throughout our lives b. **Libido:** generalized life force, which he saw from two different perspectives 1. General life energy that refers not only to sexuality but also to other human strivings and desires 2. Focused psychic energy that facilitates how the personality functions - The structure of the psyche: 2. Ego 3. Personal unconscious 4. Collective unconscious - **Archetype:** primordial images that lie within the collective unconscious 5. **Persona:** the social role people assume in society - between my true and social identity 1. **Shadow:** thoughts, feelings, and behaviour people possess but which are unacceptable to society or the individual because of the persona, not society - social desires and emotions that are incompatible with the persona 2. **The self: our attempt to unify/integrate all aspects of our personality** The lifespan approach: Erik Erikson ----------------------------------- First major theory of personality to cover the entire lifespan - 8 age-graded stages of psychosocial development - How we resolve the crises determines our personality Humanistic approaches: Maslow ----------------------------- - Focuses on internal motivators of behaviour - Optimistic view of human nature - Maslow: a theory of human motivation - Rests on a hierarchy of 5 innate needs - **Hierarchy of needs:** human motivations are based on attempting to fulfil basic needs before advancing to more complex needs AFRICAN PSYCHOLOGY ================== **African psychology:** broad category of the body of knowledge and practices that encompasses all of what psychologists in, or in relation to Africa, do **African-centred psychology:** distinctive orientation within and towards psychology and Africa The four African psychology orientations ---------------------------------------- ### Psychology in Africa - Centres around western/euromerican culture - Dominates nearly all theoretical explanatio9ns - Considered to be scientific, objective, value-free and apolitical - Conserves the nature of psychology - Advantages: - Fits in perfectly with mainstream psychology - No need to reinvent the wheel - Criticisms include: - Can be colonialist - Seen as supportive of the status quo - "a pathetic clone" of hegemonic psychology - Can't be viewed as African-centred psychology - Doesn't centre Africa - Merely a setting for questions and theories generated elsewhere - Can become African-centred psychology - If it takes seriously and situates itself within the realities of Africa - To become African-centred: - Reformulate psychological theories and methods from the bottom up - Start over and develop a new approach - Conduct studies informed by existing conditions and concrete practices of subjects in Africa ### Cultural African psychology - Studies of persons embedded in a metaphysical, spiritual or cultural environment - Interests in elements such as the importance of shared African languages, values, beliefs, worldviews, philosophies, and knowledge - Conveys a cultural view of the discipline - Vehicle that organizes the way that people see, speak, and understand the subjects of psychology as inherently cultural - An attempt to reject cultural domination in and via psychology as a way to reaffirm the fullness of life in Africa - Focuses on colonialism: - Subjugates, misrecognises and pathologizes the cultures of the colonized - Begins the moment violence, coercion or other mechanisms are used to invade and seize land and resources - Culminates in the invaders establishing political, economic, social, and cultural control over the indigenous people - **Cultural colonization:** colonization of the cultural world of the indigenous people - Has influence on cognition, affect and behaviour - *Focused on influence of spiritual, cultural and metaphysical phenomena on its subjects* - Advantages - Cultural particularity and ways of knowing are taken seriously - Context in which psychology is produced and disseminated is seen as important - Seeks to indigenize psychology - Criticisms include: - Views Africans as exceptional or atypical - Hampered by a metaphysical search for an ahistorical Africa - Tends to treat Africa like one big village - Not critical enough of prevalent and injurious African cultural practices ### Critical African psychology - African psychology as materialist, political or critical psychology - Poses questions about the working of power and knowledge and what they make possible - Recognizes culture as an important element in theories, methodologies and explanations - *Focused on historical and contemporary contestations around culture* - Aims to decolonize mainstream psychology and criticize African societies - Political as it takes positions about its objects of interest, and is not neutral when it comes to apartheid, therapy, GBV, or ideas about happiness - Work needs to be done to theorise and undertake empirical work from on an African-centred critical psychological perspective - Work that recognizes the pervasiveness and impact of questions of political and economic power in Africa on psychological thought - Work that recognizes the powers, possibilities and effects of psychological discourse in political and socio-economic life in Africa ### Psychological African studies African studies developed to understand who and what they have colonized in order to control the colonized Psychology was deeply implicated in creating and supporting colonial and stereotyping of black people and Africans - Centres around psychological perspectives on Africa as an object of study - Puts psychological processes at the centre of its enquiries - Borrows from theories of psychology but takes seriously non-psychological studies on societies, histories, politics, cultures, languages, and religions in Africa - Aimed at integrating the theories, tools and insights of the field into studies of Africa - Challenges: - Development can be hampered by and has to overcome the fact that disciplines come with and often are the theories and tools - A need to unlearn some of the ways the discipline of psychology understands people - Development can be inhibited by the perception that African studies tend to be dominated by historical, political, economic, sociological, cultural and literary studies' perspectives - African studies can be experienced as inhospitable to insights and tools of psychoanalysts and psychologists African centred positive psychology ----------------------------------- **Positive psychology:** scientific study of what is life worth living; of what is right with you and what is normal life Current positive psychology body of knowledge is largely rooted in mainstream North American social psychology **Wellbeing:** a social process with material, relational and subjective dimensions - People need to focus on what they feel and think they can be and do - Supports the notion of a bottom-up process of theory building informed by the views and experiences of those whom the knowledge is about The usual western way of perceiving wellbeing in terms of body and behaviour: - **Eudaimonia**: the pursuit for "greater things" - Grow through challenging experiences that bring meaning and fulfilment - **Hedonia**: pleasure - Maximise whatever feels good right now - Qualitative research shows that collectivist values that should foster trust might be hindered if the socio-economic context is not adequately considered in research and policy Nwoye says that Afrocentric paradigm is built on the assumption that visible and invisible worlds greatly affect each other and are intertwined. - Core argument: western psychology is prone to defining a person only in terms of body and behaviour and sometimes doesn't account for the role of spirituality in human wellbeing - Therefore, African positive psychology: 1. is centred on the need to understand shared African language, values, beliefs and worldviews 2. highlights that understanding wellbeing in the global south must emerge from a relational perspective since relationships lie at the heart of the experience of wellbeing Wellness consists of several dimensions: **I COPPE** A proper understanding of wellbeing is hindered when we do not take into consideration the cultural and environmental landscape surrounding the experience of wellbeing. The boundaries of the 4 different psychology orientations are permeable and could serve as a way forward for African-centred positive psychology. The intrinsic life goals of a sense of community are linked to the collectivist nature of most South African communities. - Spirituality is also a source of meaning linked to goals among south Africans - Provides a source of support and a sense of belonging with a larger group as well as with divine forces beyond the individual POVERTY AND ETHNICITY ===================== Children growing up in poverty experience various challenges: - Higher risk of malnutrition, physical disease and injury - More likely to take on parental responsibilities, and act as the head of the household - More likely to grow up in relatively crowded environments which leads to risk of physical and sexual abuse - Health services are less accessible due to affordability or poorly resourced local health facilities Poverty is often also about living in a situation of: 1. Hopelessness a. People tend to feel themselves caught in a depressing situation with little prospect of escaping b. The social skills learnt by people living in poverty are generally appropriate for their environment and sometimes not acceptable in the corporate world c. These social barriers can lead to people becoming resigned to the idea of always being poor d. Not all are trapped in a spiral of hopelessness i. Some have extensive networks of mutual support ii. Resilience 2. Uncertainty about the future a. People living in poverty are more vulnerable to economic shocks b. Certain degree of anxiety about unforeseen events c. No safety nets such as insurance, medical aid, etc. d. Some communities have support structures in place such as church groups, stokvels, etc. 3. Alienation from mainstream society e. Feel like they cannot fully participate in the socio-economic system f. More critical of the capitalist system i. Middle income people are more likely to consider the system just and be critical of government than the system i. Critical understanding of how the system works ii. First step towards liberation Obvious solution would be economic growth and effective government spending: - Economic growth leads to measurable improvement in people's lives - However, not being poor doesn't guarantee physical and mental wellbeing - In certain contexts, wealth creation has led to psychological and social impoverishment Pitfalls of wealth creation: 1. Psychological effects of consumer culture a. Cultural fantasy that the solution to all life's problems is to buy more material things b. Form of psychological impoverishment: i. Takes away people's sense of what is important, such as relationships ii. Leaves them with a sense of never having enough 2. Depletion of social capital a. Form of social impoverishment b. Stored wealth in the form of social networks, spaces and institutions c. Network of resources one has access to d. Can be: i. Informal: the people you know on the streets ii. Formal: church or school 3. Cultural imperialism e. Certain cultures impose its understandings and practices on others [Poverty and ethnicity:] - Socio-economic class continues to be divided along racial and/or ethnic lines - These links relate to unequal access to resources or groups being systematically disadvantaged through political action or armed conflict - In South Africa, race often has been used as an indicator of socio-economic status - Problematic because race is an arbitrary social construct - Hides underlying issues and useful understandings - Race and ethnicity have often been used interchangeably - These are not the same things in terms of social difference Ethnicity --------- Refers to shared cultural values and norms that distinguish members of a group from other groups. - Involves an expression of individual and group identity based on shared social features such as culture, language, religion, customs, traditions and history - **Culture:** set of shared meanings, perceptions and beliefs that human use to interact with each other - Ethnic differences are influenced by social and cultural phenomena - Meanings attached to ethnicity are shaped by their contexts - NOT A NATURAL SET PF CHARACTERISTICS WITH WHICH WE ALL BORN - Our experiences of ethnicity are dependent on, and influenced by the power relations, histories, levels of social conflict and inequalities operating in any society at a given point in time - Form of group othering - The process of defining the self as different and separate through the creation of an Other - Can result in entrenching group difference and inequality through the establishment of intergroup hierarchies Psychological processes related to expressions of ethnicity: 1. Attitudes a. A learnt, evaluative belief that's deduced from verbal and nonverbal behavior, has an affective component, and forms a stable part of an individual's character b. Always has a referent: a thing or person to which it applies *2-3: social phenomena: socially share, involved depersonalization and closely connected to intergroup relationships* 2. Stereotypes c. Quick, over-generalized, and often inaccurate assessments and beliefs are applied to entire perceived social categories d. Dependent on socio-historical context e. Shape how we interact with people from perceived ethnic groups f. Negative or positive, but can have harmful consequences 3. Prejudice g. Negative attitude that may be associated with stereotypes and prejudice h. Carries increased risk of discrimination and violence 4. Discrimination i. Action arising from attitudes, stereotypes and prejudice j. Results in privilege, status and power for one social group at the expense of another k. **Ethnic discrimination:** any social practice that may contribute to the unequal access to power or resources between different ethnic groups 5. Violence 6. Ethnocentrism l. The degree to which individuals perceive their own social group as being unique and superior to others, while simultaneously harbouring feelings of negativity towards out-groups m. Argued that all intergroup behaviour is ethnocentric i. Differs in form or extremity Ethnocentrism Attitudes Stereotypes Prejudice Discrimination [Ethnicity as both social and psychological:] - Relies on sociocultural symbols such as language, rituals, symbols - Intergroup differences could lead to hierarchies (ethnocentrism) - Leads to creation of Self and Other - May lead to conflict through social psychological process (1-4) - Ethnicity is contested - Expression is not fixed and can be different for different social groups - Ethnicity can sustain social inequality - Can be politicised through ideology - Can lead to structural hierarchies within the social system ### Ideology **Ideology:** system of beliefs that is reflected in all social practices, e.g. laws - Humans have capacity to act as active agents in the development of alternative and opposing ideologies - Racism and nationalism contribute to particular forms of ethnicity in specific societies - **Racism:** identities formed around physical features - **Nationalism:** identities structured around citizenship - These ideologies help create and maintain unequal social relationships - Influence the forms and expressions of attitudes, stereotypes and prejudices - Lead to discriminatory practices ### Racism **Racism:** system of beliefs about the superiority of some races over others - Use inherently unequal biological races to define ethnic in-groups and out-groups - As an ideology originated from the changing economic systems that reach back to European expansion, colonialism and slavery - Been used to justify continued social oppression and economic exploitation of one social group by another - Provides the oppressed and oppressor with frameworks through which to understand the racist social order - Influences the expression of ethnicity in several ways - Informs definition of ethnic groups - What's perceived as ethnic difference is then based on racism - Concept of race and ethnicity are being used interchangeably - Ethnic labels are used to refer to groups which have racial differences imposed on them - Ethnic labels are used as euphemisms for racial categories - Ethnic groups start to take on the same meanings that are attributed to racial groups - Ethnic hierarchies and oppression are racial hierarchies and oppression - Ethnicity is socially determined and used to identify, differentiate and unevenly structure groups in relation to each other - Meanings attached to ethnicity are determined by the ideologies operating within the social context - Ethnicity can act as a unifying force, however throughout history, it has been used to recreate unequal social relations which leads to further social divisions GENDER ====== Psychology reproduces a gender-as-difference discourse - Gender is constructed/understood as a set of immutable differences between men and women - Gender is sociocultural, while sex is biological - Psychology has reinforced the notion that men and women are fundamentally different [How does psychology produce gender-as-difference?] - Production of knowledge in psychology essentialises gender difference - **Essentialism:** an approach to understanding people or identity as embodying a set of natural and essential characteristics which are innate, inherent and unchanging - Relies on a unitary sexual character to conceptualise gender - **Unitary sexual character:** gender is treated as a collection of traits, characteristics, roles, abilities, temperaments specific to each sex - ties gender to biological sex - e.g. the discourse that men are to culture as women are to nature +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **MEN ARE TO CULTURE:** | **WOMEN ARE TO NATURE:** | +===================================+===================================+ | - Public | - Private | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Career-driven | - Domestic | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Tough | - Sensitive | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Straightforward | - Complex | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Breadwinning | - Nurturing | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ [What is problematic about gender-as-difference?] 1. Gender is set up as a binary system, which: a. Prohibits a fluid, less fixed and open-ended view of gender identity b. Prohibits rigid and 1D conceptions of what constitutes a man, masculinity and manhood versus a woman, femininity and womanhood c. Implicitly justifies and reinforces opposite sex attractions as the norm d. Silences, others, and marginalises sexualities outside of heteronormativity 2. The differences between men and women are normalized as an individual essential feature, with less emphasis on the social context that promotes masculine and feminine behaviours 3. Perpetuates offensive and negative gendered stereotypes 4. Obscures long-standing histories of unequal gendered power relations 5. Perpetuates an androcentric view of psychology [Why does the gender-as-difference discourse persist in psychology?] - The view about gender as an essence is taken for granted. - An implicit assumption that gender is an individual essence that is innate - The essentialism of gender differences appeals to a romanticism of gender - Romanticism invokes cultural ideas we internalize and aspire towards - These cultural ideas are related to masculinity and femininity - They go unquestioned and unchallenged for the most part - Culturally valued masculine and feminine ideals are recycled and rehashed, especially through popular culture such as music, film, social media, fashion etc. [Challenging gender-as-difference in psychology] Poststructural feminism: - Gender is socially constructed - Not an essence that is fixed, God-given, biological and natural - Performed by people in relation to themselves and others - Constantly reinterpreted, reimagined, reworked Gender identity, i.e., masculinity and femininity become a site of contestation Gender is a repetition of socially appropriate, desirable and acceptable masculine and feminine behaviours Judith Butler: we perform gender, by doing it through a stylized repetition of actions Gender is a performance and is achieved through repetition of bodily gestures, enactments, movements and forms of dress