Psychology Final Exam Review PDF

Final exam review 2.2 Psychology as a Science: The Scientific Method Psychology uses experience-driven approaches to understand behavior. researchers methodologically answer questions in the scientific method. steps: 1. Identify the problem The first step in the process...

Final exam review 2.2 Psychology as a Science: The Scientific Method Psychology uses experience-driven approaches to understand behavior. researchers methodologically answer questions in the scientific method. steps: 1. Identify the problem The first step in the process is to identify the problem of interest, which may be based on observation, previous research, established theory, or intuition. 2. Gather information Once the topic of interest is identified, it is important to review the scientific literature and examine existing theories of behavior. 3. Generate a hypothesis After evaluating available information about the area of investigation, researchers develop a hypothesis, or an educated prediction, about the outcome of the experiment. 4. Design and conduct experiments The next step is to develop an experiment to test the hypothesis and collect data. 5. Analyze data and formulate conclusions This step involves determining whether the findings support the experimenter’s predictions. 6. Restart the process The process starts over again at the point where the researcher reconsiders the original question/problem and may choose to either replicate (or redo) the same experiment, conduct a similar experiment with some modifications (replication with extension), or move on to an entirely new research topic 2.3.1 Naturalistic Observation Observational research (or field research) is a type of non-experimental research of behavior. Naturalistic observation is an observation of behavior as it happens in a natural environment, without an attempt to manipulate or control the conditions of the observation. The lack of manipulation is a key distinction between other approaches in natural settings (field experiments: researchers manipulates and control conditions of behavior under observation) Observations can be captured either qualitatively (by collecting opinions, notes, or general observations of behavior) or quantitatively (any attempt to measure or count specific behaviors). The benefit: help us generate new ideas about an observed phenomenon. better understand behavior exactly as it happens in the real world. V behavior is said to be ecologically valid because the observations are a product of genuine reactions. important to stay as unobtrusive ( people don't realize they are being watched) V Animals change their behavior when’s they know they are being watched 2.3.1.1 Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observation researchers lack control over the environment and the many different factors that can affect behavior not always sure : what is affecting behaviour weaken the conclusions we can draw and make it difficult for another researcher to repeat the exact same experiment. Researchers’ perspectives and bias may also influence the interpretation of behaviors they find relevant. train researchers to count their observations and compare results with other rates. share results to ensure the validity of the data they collect and ensure interrater reliability. researchers should be as unobtrusive as possible to avoid influencing the findings. 2.3.4 Surveys A method using questions to collect information on how people think or act. quick way of collecting lots of information about the current state of people’s opinions, perspectives, and experiences many forms: online surveys, mailed questionnaires, person-to-person interviews, and phone interviews population: serving every single member of a group. Sample: smaller subset of the population (vital that the sample selected is representative of the broader population you wish to study). Surveys are prone to potential disadvantages: should be carefully worded to avoid outcome being influenced positively or negatively response bias: tendency for people to answer the question the way they feel they are expected to answer or in systematic ways that are otherwise inaccurate. acquiescent respond bias: tendency for participants to agree or respond "yes" to all questions regardless of their actual opinions. socially desirable bias: Participants respond to questions in ways that would be seen as acceptable by others. Bias is not indiscriminate illusory superiority: The tendency to describe our own behavior as better than average. Alfred Kinsey revolutionized understanding of people’s sexual attitudes and behaviors by collecting surveys from more than 18,000 people. Survey subjected to bias: who was willing to participate in this survey, and were those who did representative of the rest of the population? Volunteer bias: A bias whereby only a motivated fraction of a population respond to a survey or participate in research. even though people don't respond accurately still does not affect survey 2.4.1 The Tuskegee Syphilis Study The Tuskegee syphilis study aimed to track the progression of syphilis, a contagious disease. Over 600 African-American men, including 400 with syphilis, were recruited. The study promised free meals, medical treatment for "bad blood," and burial insurance. Despite advances in syphilis treatment, the study's purpose was to follow the disease's progression. Misleading participants about the study's purpose and denial of medical treatment led to preventable deaths and syphilis spread. The New York Times' 1972 story sparked public outrage, leading to the establishment of federal ethical guidelines for research studies. 2.4.2.1 Principle A: Beneficence and Non-maleficence 2.4.3.3 Principle C: Integrity Advocates for accurate, honest, and non-biased Aim for beneficence in research. practices. Avoid intentionally harmful experiments. Advocates for accurate communication of results. Psychologists weigh benefits against costs. Suggests avoiding fabrication or manipulation of Implement safeguards for participant's mental and physical well-being. research data.  2.5 Correlational Research After collecting data, researchers decide how to analyze it based on study design and research questions. Observations, case studies, and surveys often aim to identify relationships between variables. Correlation is used to quantify relationships, showing how one variable changes with another. Scatterplots visually represent relationships, plotting one variable on the x-axis and the other on the y-axis. Strong relationships in scatterplots appear as tightly clustered points around a straight line. The strength and direction of the relationship can be described using a correlation coefficient (r) 2.5.2 Strength of Correlation Positive and negative values show the direction of a correlation but not its strength. The strength of a correlation is measured with the correlation coefficient, a number between –1 and +1. Positive (+) and negative (–) signs indicate direction, while the absolute value shows the strength. The closer the coefficient is to +1 or –1, the stronger the relationship. A perfect correlation (r = +1.0 or r = –1.0) means all points fall on a straight line. No correlation (r = 0) means no connection between variables. Stronger relationships have data points closer to the line of best fit. 2.6.2 Experimental Variables Independent Variable (IV): ◦ The variable the experimenter manipulates, with at least two levels (e.g., violent vs. non-violent video games). ◦ Comes before measurement and is thought to cause a change in the experiment. ◦ Example: The type of video game played (violent or non-violent). Dependent Variable (DV): ◦ The outcome measured in the experiment. ◦ It is the effect caused by the independent variable. ◦ Example: Aggressive behavior measured after playing video games. Extraneous Variables (Confounding Variables): ◦ Variables not being studied but may influence results if not controlled. ◦ Example: Gender differences (males may naturally show more aggression than females). ◦ Control measures: Distribute males and females equally between groups to avoid bias. Controlling extraneous variables ensures that changes in the dependent variable are due to the independent variable. 2.6.4 Experimental and Control Groups Experimental Design: Compare behavior between two groups to measure changes. ◦ Independent Variable (IV): The treatment being tested (e.g., memory-enhancing drug). ◦ Experimental Group: Receives the treatment (memory drug). ◦ Control Group: Does not receive the treatment but is treated similarly otherwise. Dependent Variable (DV): ◦ The outcome measured for comparison (e.g., memory test scores). Placebo Effect: ◦ Psychological effects from believing a treatment will work, influencing behavior or performance. ◦ Mind influencing our feelings and behavior ◦ Controlled by introducing a Placebo Group: Given a "dummy" treatment (e.g., sugar pill or saline injection) to account for expectations. 2.7.1 Describing Data: Central Tendency Statistics in Research: ◦ Used to explain, describe, and analyze data. ◦ Two types: Descriptive Statistics (summarize data) and Inferential Statistics (draw conclusions about relationships). Descriptive Statistics: ◦ Summarize data using quantitative values. ◦ Key measures of central tendency: Mean: Average score; commonly used but affected by outliers. Median: Middle score in an ordered data set; less affected by outliers. Mode: Most frequently occurring value; useful for categorical data. Example: ◦ Household incomes: Mean ($73,444) is skewed by a high outlier; median ($54,000) better represents the group. ◦ Car colors: Mode identifies the most common category (e.g., white). Use of Central Tendency: ◦ Provides objective summaries of large data sets. ◦ Helps represent typical values or patterns in the data. ◦ Insert image for the example  3.1 Introduction: The Smart Conduit Key Tool for Learning: Imagination is essential to understand concepts about the brain and nervous system. Unlike familiar experiences (e.g., babysitting), we lack direct reference points for neurons or brain lobes Human Nervous System: Interprets events in the body and the external world. Composed of neurons (transmit electrical impulses) and glial cells (support functions). Specialized networks of these cells perform specific tasks. Purpose: Create behavior, process information, and make decisions. Examples of the Nervous System in Action: Steph Curry’s precise shooting: Shaped by experience, genetics, and nervous system functions. Kendrick Lamar’s vivid wordplay and scientists’ discoveries: Enabled by neural networks. Neural Communication: Enables movement, sound, and cultural expression. Personal experiences make each individual’s nervous system unique, influencing behaviors like speech, gestures, and dance styles. 3.2.1.2 The Soma and Axon Work Together to Send Messages Structure of a Neuron Dendrites: Extensions of the soma (cell body) that receive signals. Soma: Contains organelles and processes cell metabolism. Axon Hillock: Beginning of the axon. Axon: Transmits signals from the soma to axon terminals. Axon Terminals/Terminal Buttons: Release neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons. Neural Communication: Terminal buttons contain vesicles with neurotransmitters. Synapse: Connection between two neurons, including the synaptic cleft where neurotransmitters are released. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on dendrites of other neurons (postsynaptic receptors), are recycled, or broken down. Action Potential Process: Electrical impulses travel down the axon, triggering vesicles to release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. Communication occurs within 5 milliseconds and involves trillions of neurons daily. Role of Myelin: Fatty substance that insulates axons, speeding up signal transmission. Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in myelin that allow ions to enter and boost the electrical signal. Analogy: Neuron functions compared to Iron Man: Energy starts in the body (soma), travels down the arms (axon), and releases signals at the fingertips (axon terminals). Efficiency: Neurons are optimized to send electrical and chemical messages quickly and accurately. 3.2.2 How Neurons Transmit Messages: More Detail on the Action Potential Neurons and Information Sharing: Neurons transmit messages via bursts of electrical energy, known as action potentials, triggering neurotransmitter release. The process can either activate or inhibit the neuron. Electrical Activity in Neurons: Involves charged particles (ions), such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), and chloride (Cl–). A neuron at rest is polarized with a charge of around -70 mV (negative due to more negative ions inside). Depolarization: Occurs when positive ions (e.g., Na+) enter the neuron, making it less negative and closer to activation. Repolarization: Occurs when positive ions (e.g., K+) leave the neuron, returning it to the resting state. Ion Channels and Activation: ◦ Neurons have membrane barriers with specialized ion channels that open for specific triggers: Voltage-gated channels open based on electrical changes. Key-locked channels open when neurotransmitters bind to them. ◦ Movement of Na+ into the cell causes depolarization, leading to action potential when a threshold is reached. ◦ K+ exiting the cell causes repolarization, resetting the neuron to its resting state. Action Potential Process: Starts with a resting charge of -70 mV. Depolarization: Influx of Na+ raises charge to +40 mV (action potential). Repolarization: Efflux of K+ brings charge back to -70 mV. Propagation of Action Potential: Sequential opening of voltage-gated Na+ channels along the axon continues the electrical impulse to the axon terminal. At the axon terminal, the action potential triggers neurotransmitter release into the synapse. Resetting the Neuron: K+ channels open after Na+ channels, allowing the neuron to return to resting potential. This ensures neurons can fire again and prevents continuous activation. 3.2.3 How Neurotransmitters and Receptors Work Neurotransmitters: Chemicals released from axon terminals that bind to receptors on other neurons. Over 100 types exist, with some influencing mood, movement, memory, and other functions. They can be excitatory (increase the chance of neuron activation) or inhibitory (decrease the chance of neuron activation). Neurons receive inputs from both types of neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitter-Receptor Interaction: Neurotransmitters fit into receptors like a lock and key. The receptor is a gate (like a lock) that opens when the correct neurotransmitter (key) binds. Binding changes cellular activity and can trigger an action potential in the receiving neuron. After use, neurotransmitters are either reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron or broken down by enzymes.  Neurotransmitter Functions: Different neurotransmitters interact with different receptor proteins, producing specific responses in the neuron. GABA (inhibitory): Binds to chloride (Cl-) channels, making the cell more negative (hyperpolarized) and less likely to activate. Acetylcholine (Ach) (excitatory): Binds to sodium (Na+) channels, making the cell more positive (depolarized) and more likely to activate. Factors Affecting Behavior and Function: The effects of neurotransmitters depend on: Receptor types Location in the brain Timing of release Activity of surrounding neurons in the 3.3 Brain Anatomy: How to Build a Sophisticated Network Neural Networks and Nerves: Neural networks: Complex connections between dendrites and axons of many neurons; trillions of connections in the brain. around 80-90 billion neurons Nerves: Bundles of axons from multiple neurons, extending from the CNS (brain and spinal cord). Efferent axons: Carry impulses away from the CNS to organs/muscles for neurotransmitter or hormone release. Afferent axons: Carry impulses back to the CNS from organs/muscles. Neuroplasticity: The ability of neurons and networks to change and reorganize. At birth, there are excess neurons; as we grow, we lose inefficient or unnecessary neurons. The nervous system can grow new dendritic branches and change receptor and neurotransmitter amounts, aiding healing and adaptation. Automatic Neural Networks: Many functions (e.g., breathing, heart rate) occur automatically, without conscious effort. Neocortex: Controls conscious thought and decision-making. Medulla: Controls basic life functions (e.g., heartbeat, respiration, reflexes). Conscious Control over Automatic Functions: We can influence automatic functions like heart rate and breathing through thoughts and emotions. Stress or calming thoughts can modulate heart rate and breathing. Axons from the neocortex can modulate neural networks in the medulla and spinal cord. 3.4.1 The Peripheral Nervous System: Bridge between Brain, Body, and World Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Composed of nerves (bundles of axons) that leave the brain and spinal cord. It connects the brain to the body, enabling actions and communication with the environment. Split into somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (automatic) divisions. Vertebrae and Spinal Function: Vertebrae form the vertebral column, allowing flexibility (bending, extending, twisting). They also provide space for peripheral nerves to exit the spinal cord and connect to the body.  ▪ 3.4.1.2 The Autonomic Nervous System: Automatic Movement Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Regulates automatic functions (e.g., heart rate, digestion) that keep the body alive, functional, and healthy. Divided into sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest) systems. Sympathetic Nervous System: Activates "go" responses: Dilates pupils, inhibits saliva, increases heart rate, stimulates glucose release, inhibits digestion, and stimulates ejaculation. Prepares the body for stress or emergency situations (e.g., increases blood flow to muscles). Parasympathetic Nervous System: Activates "relax" responses: Constricts pupils, stimulates saliva, slows heart rate, promotes digestion, and stimulates urination and sexual arousal. Helps the body recover, rest, digest, and repair. Interaction of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Systems: Sympathetic activation: Increases heart rate, blood flow to muscles, and reduces digestive activity during stress. Parasympathetic activation: Slows heart rate, promotes digestion, and aids relaxation (e.g., through activities like yoga). Sexual Activity: Both systems are activated: Sympathetic: Increases heart rate and respiration. Parasympathetic: Increases blood flow to genitals, resulting in arousal. Chronic Stress: Constant stress can lead to frequent activation of the sympathetic system, which can lead to burnout over time. The workplace can become a source of chronic stress, shifting the autonomic system into a more activated state. 3.5.2.2 Coordinating Movement Basal Ganglia Location and Structure: Groups of interconnected neurons near the brain's base (telencephalon and diencephalon). Includes dorsal striatum (caudate nucleus, putamen), ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens), globus pallidus, substantia nigra, and subthalamic nucleus. Functions: Modulates movement commands before they reach the spinal cord. Assists in making movements automatic (e.g., sports or musical skills). Coordinates goal-directed movement. Direct pathway: Excites the thalamus to drive motor behavior. Indirect pathway: Inhibits inappropriate motor plans.  ▪ Learning and Emotion: Striatum integrates inputs from the cortex and limbic system, connecting emotion with movement learning. Parkinson’s Disease: Involves degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Symptoms include difficulty initiating and stopping movements ("cogwheel rigidity"). Cerebellum Location and Structure: Located at the caudal aspect of the brain, resembling a smaller brain. Organized into three divisions: Spinocerebellar: Matches sensory input with motor plans for fine-tuning movement. Vestibulocerebellar: Adjusts posture and balance using input from the inner ear. Cerebrocerebellar: Manages timing and planning of movements via connections to the pons and thalamus. Functions: Coordinates rhythm, timing, and balance. Integrates motor commands and sensory information for precise movements. Involved in cognitive tasks and emotional response regulation via connections with the neocortex and hypothalamus. Applications and Research: Expert athletes and musicians have more developed cerebellar connections. Damage leads to impaired balance, coordination, and movement timing but not paralysis. Examples: A baseball player timing a swing or a musician playing with precision demonstrates cerebellar function. Emotional and thought coordination has been linked to cerebellar activity. 3.5.3 Neocortex (New Brain): Higher-Level Processing Unique Human Traits: Humans have more neocortical connections and larger frontal lobes compared to other primates. The neocortex, known for its "wrinkled" appearance, supports personality, decision-making, and abstract thought. Anatomy and Structure: Sensory and Processing Roles: Divided into four lobes, each with specific functions Primary areas receive sensory information. but interconnected through axons. Adjacent association cortices integrate and process Features include gyri (ridges), sulci (valleys), and sensory input for complex understanding (e.g., fissures (lobe divisions) to optimize space in the skull. associating smells with memories). Composed of six layers.  3.5.3.1 Frontal Lobes: Executive Decisions Main Functions: Responsible for decision-making, movement, and aspects of personality. Executive functions arise from interactions between the frontal lobes and the central nervous system. Output is primarily inhibitory, helping regulate thoughts and behaviors. Notable Structures and Pathways: Motor Cortex: Controls voluntary movements via corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts. Prefrontal Cortex (PFC): Integrates information and coordinates complex decisions using "if, then" logic. Houses 14–17% of brain neurons. Includes inhibitory and excitatory connections for flexible decision-making. Specialized PFC Regions: Ventromedial PFC (vmPFC): Modulates behavior based on fear. Dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC): Handles working memory and task-specific adaptations. Developmental Aspects: The PFC is among the last regions to undergo myelination, contributing to impulsivity in adolescents. Historical Insight: Phineas Gage’s accident highlighted the role of the frontal cortex in personality and decision-making. Movement Mapping: Homunculus models represent the density of neurons for specific movements. Recent data suggest movement control is more complex than previously thought. Neuropsychology: Dysfunction in the PFC is linked to negative symptoms in schizophrenia, such as social withdrawal. 3.5.3.2 Parietal Lobes: Space, Time, and Numbers Key Functions: 1. Processes numbers, calculations, and spatial awareness. Integrates sensory input from the body, including touch, pain, and temperature. 2. Lateralization: Right Parietal Lobe: Injury can lead to issues with spatial relations and interpreting sensation on the left side of the body. Left Parietal Lobe: More focused on numerical and logical processing. 3. Sensory Cortex: Located in the anterior parietal lobe, it receives input from the opposite side of the body (contralateral processing). Sensory pathways involve relay systems (e.g., dorsal column for fine touch, spinothalamic tract for pain/temperature). 4. Cross-Lateral Movements: Coordination of both body sides through midline-crossing movements (e.g., throwing, dancing) depends on parietal lobe integration. 5. Spatial Awareness: Helps map the body in space and supports the formation of mental representations of numbers.  3.5.3.3 Temporal Lobes: Listen to the Memories Location and Role: Found above the ears, the temporal lobes are crucial for memory formation, auditory processing, and language comprehension. Memory Formation: The temporal lobes, especially in connection with the hippocampus, are essential for forming new memories. Damage can result in anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories), as depicted in the movie Memento. Auditory Processing: The primary auditory cortex, located in the caudal part of the temporal lobe, deciphers sound from the auditory nerves. Extensive damage here can result in the complete inability to perceive sound, even if the ears and nerves are intact. Language Comprehension: The left temporal lobe contains Wernicke’s area, which is critical for understanding language. Damage here can impair speech comprehe Olfactory and Gustatory Processing: The temporal lobe is also the cortical site for smell and taste. Unlike other sensory information, olfactory input bypasses the thalamus and goes directly to the temporal lobes. Smell and Memory: Smells are linked to memory and can serve as strong cues for recalling past events. Olfactory input has cultural and biological significance, such as bonding and attraction. Interesting Insights: Perfume design incorporates neuroscience to trigger specific emotional and social responses. Smell-related memory cues highlight the functional relationship between olfaction and memory. 3.5.3.4 Occipital Lobes: Visions of the Present 1. Occipital Lobes and Vision: The occipital lobes are dedicated to processing light stimuli and visual information. Visual processing involves decussation (crossing) of optic nerves at the optic chiasm, ensuring input from each visual field is processed in the opposite occipital lobe. 2. Visual Specialization: Neurons in the occipital cortex are highly specialized, responding to specific angles or positions of objects. Damage to the occipital lobe can cause total blindness or impair the recognition of specific elements like faces. The brain can adapt to vision loss by enhancing other senses, such as sound. 3. Brain Laterality: Laterality refers to functional differences between the left and right hemispheres, but the idea of being strictly "left- brained" or "right-brained" is a myth. Left hemisphere: Typically handles language, detail, and analytical tasks. Right hemisphere: Focuses on global perception and creativity. Both sides collaborate for most cognitive functions. Language processing, while predominantly left-sided, also involves the right hemisphere for a full understanding of meaning and context. 4. Complex Reality: No one is fully "right-brained" or "left-brained." Both hemispheres are engaged in tasks regardless of personality traits or career paths. Creativity and analytical thinking require contributions from both hemispheres, debunking stereotypes about brain dominance.  5.1 Introduction: Foundations of Perception 1. Brain Encapsulation and Information Processing: The brain is encased in bone, offering protection but also isolating it from the external environment. Despite this, it must process information from the world to help navigate and survive. 2. Nature's Adaptations: Different species use unique ways to perceive the world: Bees see ultraviolet light. Aquatic mammals communicate over long distances with low-frequency calls. Owls detect faint sounds to locate prey. Some animals (like turtles and birds) use magnetic fields for navigation, while ants rely on smell for orientation. 3. Human Sensory Development: Humans only detect a small fraction of the world's sensory information, but we use it to navigate our environment. Sensory experiences begin before birth, with babies learning their mother's voice, scent, and preferences while still in the womb. 4. Sensations and Perception: Sensations are the raw data from the environment (light, sound, etc.), which are translated into the brain's electrochemical signals through sensory systems. Perception is the brain's interpretation of these sensations, combining them with past experiences to make sense of the world. Example: Light reflecting from an object is transduced by the eyes, and the brain perceives this as the color red 5.1.1 Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processing 1. Learning to Perceive: Perception involves more than just sensory input; it requires prior knowledge and experiences to assign meaning to the information. Example: The scrambled sentences show how our brain uses prior language knowledge to interpret and understand information, even when it's distorted. 2. Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing: Bottom-up processing: The initial neural analysis of raw sensory information. Top-down processing: The brain uses prior knowledge and experiences to interpret this sensory information, giving it meaning and value. 3. Role of Experience in Perception: Personal experiences influence how we interpret sensory data. Differences in perception can arise from cultural backgrounds. For instance, individuals from individualistic cultures tend to focus on specific elements in a scene, while those from collectivist cultures focus on the overall context. 4. Cultural Differences in Perception: A study by Masuda and Nisbett (2001) showed that Americans focus more on central objects in a scene, while Japanese participants emphasize the broader environmental context. This reflects how cultural norms shape perceptual processes  5.2.1 The Eye The Eye's Role in Vision The human brain dedicates significant resources to interpreting visual information, with 20% of the cortex involved in this process. Light, a form of electromagnetic radiation, travels through the eye and is refracted by the cornea and lens, which adjust to help focus the image. The pupil regulates the amount of light entering the eye based on the environment. Lens and Vision Problems: The lens adjusts to focus on objects at varying distances (accommodation). Vision problems like nearsightedness (myopia) and farsightedness (hyperopia) occur when the eye's length causes misfocusing of light on the retina. Retina and Photoreceptors: The retina contains around 126 million photosensitive cells: rods and cones. Rods: Found in the retina’s periphery, they are sensitive to low light, aiding night vision. Cones: Concentrated in the fovea, they are responsible for color vision and visual acuity (fine detail) under bright light. Perception of Light and Color: The retina does not process the visual world as we see it. The image hitting the retina is upside down, and only the central area is in color and focused, while peripheral areas are less detailed and in black and white. The brain interprets this information, correcting the orientation and filling in the missing details to create a cohesive, colorful mental image. Dark Adaptation and Visual Processing: In low light, rods gradually adapt to enhance sensitivity over time, while cones react quickly but are less effective in dim conditions. This is why it’s harder to see in complete darkness without time to adapt. The brain’s processing helps us perceive a rich, detailed visual world, despite the simpler raw data coming from the eyes. 5.2.3 The Visual Cortex 1. Optic Nerve and Optic Chiasm: Visual information from the eyes travels via the optic nerve to the optic chiasm, where it crosses hemispheres. The right side of both eyes sends information to the left hemisphere, and the left side of both eyes to the right hemisphere of the brain. 2. Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN): After crossing at the optic chiasm, the information is processed in the LGN (6 layer portion of the thalamus) of the thalamus, which acts as a relay center. Here, sensory data is organized before being sent to the visual cortex.  ▪ 3. Visual Striate Cortex (VC): Located in the occipital lobe, the VC assembles visual information into identifiable features such as lines and edges. It uses retinotopic organization, maintaining spatial relationships between retina and cortical processing areas. 4. Feature Detectors: Specialized cells in the visual cortex (feature detectors) respond to specific stimuli. For instance, simple cells respond to stationary bars of light at particular angles, while complex cells are more sensitive to moving lines in specific directions. 5. Ventral and Dorsal Streams: After initial processing in the visual cortex, information follows two pathways: Ventral (What) Stream: Carries information to the temporal lobe for object identification (e.g., recognizing the dog). Dorsal (Where) Stream: Sends data to the parietal lobe for spatial understanding (e.g., knowing the dog's position). Visual information also reaches the limbic system, triggering emotional responses (e.g., affection when seeing the dog). This multi-step process enables the brain to interpret and understand complex visual stimuli, allowing you to recognize and emotionally respond to objects in your environments 5.2.5.1 Monocular Depth Cues pictorial cure or cure that can be represented on two dimension canvas Occlusion Relative height Relative size When one object partially blocks another, the Objects closer to the horizon seem farther blocked object is perceived as farther away. Objects of equal size appear smaller on the away. Example: A brown dog blocking a white dog retina when farther away. Example: A man lower in an image appears closer. than a bus appears closer. Example: A baby elephant looks closer : than larger adult elephants because it occupies more retinal space. Ames Room Illusion: Manipulates relative size perception using a trapezoidal room. Familiar Size: Atmospheric Perspective: Depth is judged using knowledge of an Distant objects appear hazy or bluish due Perspective convergence object’s size. to air particles and atmospheric distortion. Parallel lines appear to converge in the distance. Example: A lighthouse appearing far away because lighthouses are large. Example: Mountains in the distance seem Example: Stairs or roads hazy and faintly blue. narrowing as they stretch away.  5.3 Hearing and Sound Importance of Sound: While not as prominent as vision, hearing is a vital sense. In early mammals, sound was crucial for communication, especially in dark environments. Humans are born recognizing their mother's voice, and sound helps us localize objects in space, even in darkness. Some animals, like bats, use sound for navigation and obstacle avoidance, demonstrating the richness of sound as a source of information. Nature of Sound: Sound is mechanical energy that travels through a medium (like air or water) in the form of waves. These waves are made of vibrating air molecules that collide, transmitting pressure. The pressure of sound can be felt, especially at loud volumes, like near speakers at a concert. Frequency and Intensity: Frequency: Determines pitch. Humans hear frequencies between 20 and 20,000 Hz, with the best range being 1000– 5000 Hz, where speech occurs. Intensity: Related to loudness. Higher intensity means higher amplitude and louder sound, measured in decibels (dB). Sounds over 100 dB can damage hearing Ear Sensitivity: The ear also acts as a pressure sensor, which is why rapid changes in pressure, like on airplanes, cause discomfort. This sensitivity is essential for navigating in three-dimensional spaces, especially for marine mammals. 5.3.1 When Sound Enters the Ear Sound Pathway: Sound enters through the pinna, which funnels it into the ear canal towards the eardrum (tympanic membrane). The eardrum vibrates, transferring energy to the ossicles (the malleus, incus, and stapes) in the middle ear, which amplify the vibrations. The stapes is connected to the oval window, which transmits vibrations to the cochlea in the inner ear. Cochlea and Transduction: Inside the cochlea, vibrations cause fluid movement, which pushes against cilia (hair-like structures attached to sensory cells). The movement of the cilia generates neural signals that travel to the brain via the auditory nerve. Pitch Perception: The brain interprets sound frequencies based on where on the basilar membrane the cilia are activated. Higher frequencies excite cells near the oval window, while lower frequencies excite cells deeper in the cochlea. This is known as place theory. Frequency Theory: In addition to place theory, the brain also uses the rate of cell firing to help determine pitch. Faster firing rates are associated with higher-pitched sounds. Together, place theory and frequency theory explain how we perceive different pitches. 5.3.3 Sound Localization Binaural Cues: The brain uses binaural cues to localize sounds by comparing the information arriving at both ears. Interaural Time Differences: This cue involves comparing the arrival time of a sound at each ear. For example, if a sound comes from the right, it reaches the right ear first, allowing the brain to determine the sound's direction. Interaural Level Differences: This cue relies on the intensity of sound. The ear closer to the sound hears it louder, while the ear farther away hears it less intensely due to the head blocking some of the sound. Binaural Recordings: These recordings use two microphones placed in a mannequin’s ears to capture 3D sound, which, when played through headphones, gives the illusion of real-life spatial sound  5.4.2 Taste Role of Taste and Smell: Both senses help decide what substances we should ingest, acting as "gatekeepers" by analyzing food before consumption. Taste and Body Response: The perception of taste, such as sweetness, correlates with the nutritional value of food, prompting the body to prepare for ingestion. Conversely, unpleasant tastes (e.g., bitterness) signal something to avoid. Basic Tastes: There are five basic tastes: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami (savory), which work together with smell to evaluate food. Taste Buds and Papillae: Taste buds are located on the papillae (bumps) on the tongue. There are four types of papillae: filiform (no taste buds), fungiform, foliate, and circumvallate. Each taste bud contains 50-100 taste-sensitive cells that detect chemical signals, sending messages to the brain. Flavor Perception: Taste and smell combine in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), which is involved in flavor perception and receives information from both senses, helping determine sensations that occur together. Species-Specific Preferences: Infants tend to prefer sweet tastes, avoid bitter ones, and react negatively to sour flavors, showing survival-based preferences for certain tastes. Cultural and learned influences also shape taste preferences. 5.5 Skin and Body Senses Skin's Functions: The largest organ in the body, the skin helps with thermoregulation, environmental protection, and provides sensory information about texture, pressure, and spatial awareness. Mechanoreceptors: Four main types of skin receptors respond to touch: ◦ Merkel receptor: Detects fine details and fires continuously during contact. ◦ Meissner corpuscle: Responds to initial and removal contact. ◦ Ruffini cylinder: Senses skin stretching. ◦ Pacinian corpuscle: Detects vibration and texture. Processing Touch: Receptor cells send messages to the brain's somatosensory cortex via the spinal cord. Different fibers carry distinct information like temperature, pressure, and texture, which the brain integrates to form the perception of touch. Somatosensory Cortex: Organized spatially (somatotopic organization), it prioritizes areas like the hands and face, which are crucial for interacting with the world, while less emphasis is placed on the torso and limbs. Touch Sensitivity and Perception: Hands are highly sensitive, allowing detailed object recognition without visual input. Our perception of touch is influenced by expectations, which can enhance accuracy and even alter cortical blood flow in anticipation of touch.  5.6.2 The Vestibular Sense Kinesthetic Sense: Works in conjunction with the vestibular sense to monitor body movement, balance, posture, and acceleration. Vestibular System: ◦ Sensory Cells: Located in the cochlea, specifically in the semicircular canals and vestibular sacs. ◦ Semicircular Canals: Detect head acceleration and rotation through hair cells sensitive to gravity. ◦ Vestibular Sacs: Provide cues for balance and posture. Integration with Vision: The vestibular system interacts closely with visual input. For example, moving visual environments (like movable walls in David Lee's 1974 experiment) can create a sensation of imbalance, causing people to adjust posture involuntarily to maintain stability. 5.7.2 Diderence Threshold Difference Threshold: The smallest detectable difference in the magnitude of a stimulus, also known as the just noticeable difference (jnd). ◦ Example: Detecting weight changes in two hands—smaller changes are harder to perceive with heavier weights. Factors Influencing the jnd: 1. Individual Sensitivity: Some people are more perceptive to differences than others. 2. Stimulus Intensity: Larger initial stimuli require proportionally larger changes for differences to be noticeable Weber's Law: The ability to notice a difference is proportional to the original stimulus intensity. Simplified: Greater stimulus intensity requires a larger change to detect a difference. 6.1.1 Learning from People with Split-Brain Definition & Procedure: ◦Split-brain surgery severs the corpus callosum, disconnecting the two brain hemispheres. ◦Originally intended to reduce epilepsy-related seizures. Effects of Surgery Hemispheres cannot share information, isolating perception and language functions.f Patients may exhibit behaviors where one side of the body acts independently (e.g., the left hand acting without the individual's awareness). Hemispheric Specialization: Left Hemisphere: Dominant in language processing. Right Hemisphere: Nonverbal tasks like drawing and spatial reasoning. Experimental Findings: ◦ Stimuli presented to the right visual field (processed by the left hemisphere): Patients can name the object (e.g., a cat) or word seen. ◦ Stimuli presented to the left visual field (processed by the right hemisphere): Patients cannot name the object but can draw it with their left hand. When asked why they drew the object, they are unaware of the reason. Auditory Commands: Commands given to the left ear (processed by the right hemisphere) are followed, but patients cannot explain their actions. Insights from Studies: Demonstrates the role of hemispheric communication in conscious experience. Suggests consciousness is a product of brain functions and their integration.  ▪ 6.1.2 Components of Consciousness Dennett's Perspective on Consciousness: ◦ Consciousness is not singular but a collection of brain processes working together. ◦ Influenced by perception, suggestions, ambiguity, and mental state. ◦ Consciousness operates like perception—forming impressions of the world that are practical rather than fully accurate. Two Components of Consciousness: 1. Conscious Content: Refers to subjective experiences of the internal and external world. Includes self-awareness, thoughts, dreams, and perceptions. Consciousness results from brain processes; much of what influences decisions and perceptions happens outside conscious awareness. 2. States of Consciousness: Different levels of arousal and attention, e.g., alertness, sleepiness, or hyperfocus. States are influenced by external and internal factors beyond conscious control. Examples of States of Consciousness Low Attention: Struggling to stay awake in class despite the relevance of the topic. High Engagement: Losing track of time while engrossed in an activity (e.g., reading or gaming). Distracted States: Difficulty focusing during dull or unappealing tasks. Interdependence of Content and States Conscious content (what you experience) is shaped by your current state of consciousness (level of attention/arousal). 6.2.1 What Is Attention? Definition of Attention: The process of selecting and prioritizing information from internal and external environments for processing. Types of Attention: Passive Attention: 1. Involuntary and automatic, driven by external stimuli (bottom-up processing). Example: Reacting to a loud noise in a quiet room. 2. Active Attention: Goal-directed, influenced by internal motivations and expectations (top-down processing). Example: Searching for keys on a cluttered table. Selective Awareness in Attention: Visual processing prioritizes some features of the environment over others. Example: In a basketball stadium image, general features (team colors) are noted, but smaller details (fans in green shirts) may be overlooked until consciously attended to. Factors Influencing Attention: Goals: Attention aligns with what the individual is trying to achieve. Experiences: Past experiences shape what stands out in a scene. State of Mind: Current focus or distractions can influence attentional priorities. Challenges in Studying Attention: Controlled experiments rely on explicit instructions, which differ from real-world attention driven by personal goals and environmental demands. Key Insight: Attention is dynamic and context-dependent, shaped by both external cues and internal objectives. 6.2.2 Selective Attention Types of Attention: 1 Selective Attention: Focusing on one source of information while ignoring others. - Influenced by stimulus salience (bottom-up features like brightness or loudness) and expertise-driven top-down processing. - Attentional Capture: When salient stimuli (e.g., loud noise) automatically grab attention. (top down) 2 Divided Attention: Splitting focus across multiple tasks or stimuli. Role of Learning and Expertise: Expertise helps prioritize relevant features (e.g., a referee focuses on specific game elements). Attention is also guided by evolutionary relevance, such as threats that capture attention quickly. Cocktail Party Effect: Demonstrates selective attention's ability to focus on one conversation in a noisy environment while still processing unattended stimuli (e.g., reorienting when hearing your name). Dichotic Listening Task: Involves hearing different messages in each ear and focusing on one while ignoring the other. Findings suggest that unattended information is processed to some degree (e.g., detecting speaker gender or emotional significance). Corteen and Wood Experiment: Participants conditioned to associate city names with a mild shock later showed unconscious responses (measured by GSR) to these names even when presented to the unattended ear, indicating some level of processing for ignored stimuli. 6.3.1 Stages of Sleep Brain Activity During Sleep Neuroimaging has revealed distinct brainwave patterns throughout the night, with changes in wave amplitude and regularity as the night progresses. Wakefulness: Beta Waves: Occur when awake and engaged, characterized by irregular, low-amplitude waves (13–30 Hz). Alpha Waves: Seen when awake but relaxed, with regular, medium- frequency waves (8–12 Hz). Stage 1 Sleep: Transition from relaxation to early sleep, marked by theta waves (3.5–7.5 Hz). Very light sleep, with people easily waking and unaware of having slept. Stage 2 Sleep: ◦ Characterized by sleep spindles (12–14 Hz bursts) and K-complexes, which play a role in memory consolidation and help transition to deeper sleep. ◦ Brain activity becomes more synchronized, and sleep is sounder, but people may not feel like they were asleep if woken.  Slow Wave Sleep (SWS): Occurs after about 20 minutes, with delta waves (less than 4 Hz), high-amplitude, slow, and regular. Deepest stage of sleep, hard to wake from, and people feel groggy if disturbed. REM Sleep: Follows SWS, marked by desynchronized beta waves and eye movements beneath closed eyelids. Brain becomes highly active, resembling waking brain activity, but the body is paralyzed (REM atonia). Vivid dreams occur, with brain regions for movement being active as if the actions were happening in reality. Sleep Cycle: The cycle of stages repeats throughout the night, with decreasing time spent in slow-wave sleep and increasing time in REM. Naps of 20 minutes avoid slow-wave sleep, making people feel refreshed, while longer naps lead to grogginess due to slow-wave sleep. 6.3.4.1 Dyssomnias Insomnia: Common sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep. Affects 25-30% occasionally, and 9% regularly. Causes: environmental stress, substance abuse, mental disorders. Can often be managed by improving sleep hygiene (e.g., limiting caffeine, reducing screen time, relaxing before bed). Conditioned insomnia: association of bed with anxiety about sleep, making sleep harder. Idiopathic Insomnia: Caused by neurophysiological abnormalities, often beginning in childhood and more resistant to treatment. Hypersomnia: Excessive sleepiness, often linked to poor sleep quality. Sleep Apnea: Reduced oxygen intake during sleep, leading to frequent brief awakenings. Can increase the risk of dementia, diabetes, hypertension, and stroke. Treatment: CPAP machines or less invasive devices deliver pressurized air to help with breathing during sleep. Narcolepsy: Rare genetic disorder with extreme sleep attacks that can last a few seconds to minutes, often followed by feelings of refreshment. Symptoms include cataplexy (sudden muscle weakness or paralysis, often triggered by emotions) and hypnagogic/hypnopompic hallucinations (vivid sensory hallucinations during sleep onset or waking). Narcolepsy can cause paralysis and vivid hallucinations, leading to theories behind folklore like the succubus or alien abductions. 6.3.5 Biological Clocks Biological Clocks: Influence sleep, wakefulness, body temperature, blood pressure, hormones, and pain tolerance. Humans are diurnal (active during the day), and biological processes are influenced by environmental cues like light and dark. Circadian Rhythms: Internal clocks that govern daily cycles, typically a little longer than 24 hours. In the absence of external cues, the "free-running" cycle is around 25 hours. Zeitgebers (time-givers): Environmental cues, such as light, help reset the internal clock each day. Impact of Light: Morning sunlight helps reset the biological clock and improve wakefulness. In extreme environments like the Arctic, abnormal light conditions can cause sleep and mood disturbances. Disruptions like jet lag and shift work misalign circadian rhythms with external cues, leading to sleep and mood disturbances. Daylight Savings Time: Time changes, particularly the spring shift, can disrupt sleep patterns and lead to increased accidents and sleep deprivation. Adjusting Biological Clocks: For shift work or jet lag: Exposure to bright light at the beginning of the shift and minimizing light before sleep helps reset the internal clock. Melatonin: A hormone released by the pineal gland in response to darkness, signaling sleep. Melatonin supplements can aid in adjusting to time changes or shift work.  ▪ 6.4.1 Depressants Depressants: Slow down the central nervous system's arousal, leading to relaxation and drowsiness. Alcohol is a common and widely abused depressant, often due to its availability. Alcohol: Low doses: Causes relaxation, improved mood, and increased self-confidence. Higher doses: Impairs judgment, slows reaction times, and causes motor coordination issues. Large doses: Can lead to alcohol poisoning, causing disorientation, irregular heartbeat, and even coma or death. ◦ Neurotransmitter Effects: Inhibits glutamate (involved in learning and memory), leading to memory issues. Increases GABA (promotes relaxation) and dopamine (associated with reward and reinforcement). Barbiturates and Benzodiazepines: Prescribed for disorders like anxiety, OCD, and epilepsy. Both drugs act on GABA, producing relaxation. Barbiturates: Highly addictive, with a risk of overdose and fatality due to tolerance and slowing metabolism. Benzodiazepines (e.g., Xanax, Valium): Safer alternatives to barbiturates, but still pose risks with long-term use. 6.4.2 Stimulants Stimulants: Increase nervous system activity. Common stimulants: caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines. Caffeine: Most widely used psychoactive drug. Low doses: Increases energy, creativity, and focus. Mechanism: Blocks adenosine (an inhibitory neurotransmitter), potentially increasing excitatory neurotransmitters in the brain. Nicotine: Highly addictive, responsible for nearly half a million deaths annually in the U.S. Effects: Stimulates acetylcholine and dopamine release, enhancing cognitive performance and causing pleasurable effects. Addiction: The rapid absorption through inhalation increases addiction likelihood. Long-term use: Can reduce acetylcholine levels and impair brain functioning. Cocaine and Amphetamines: Similar Effects: Both enhance dopamine effects, combat hunger and fatigue, and create euphoria and heightened alertness. Mechanisms: Cocaine: Inhibits dopamine reuptake, prolonging its effects. Amphetamines: Inhibit dopamine reuptake and stimulate its release. Long-term Use: Leads to dopamine dysfunction, causing hallucinations, paranoia, and psychotic behavior similar to conditions like schizophrenia. 7.1 Introduction: The Scientific Study of Learning Definition of Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior not Reflexes vs. Learning: due to drugs, maturation, injury, or disease Reflexes: Automatic, innate responses aiding survival. Learning Mechanism: Interaction between environmental events and behavior Examples: Knee-jerk reaction., Sucking reflex in babies. produces new outcomes, influencing future actions. 2. Operant Conditioning: 3. Social (Vicarious) Learning: Types of Learning: Behavior influenced by its consequences. Learning by observing others. 1. Pavlovian (Classical) Conditioning: Association between two events (e.g., ringtone Examples: A cat learning to escape a puzzle box. Examples: A cat learns to open doors by signals a caller). watching its owner. 4. Latent learning 5. Biological Constraints: Knowledge that is not displayed until needed. Innate limitations or predispositions affecting what can be learned. Example: Finding the fuse box during a power outage. Example: Fear responses to dangerous stimuli are more easily learned than to neutral ones.  7.2 Pavlovian Conditioning Overview: Discovery: Ivan Pavlov observed that dogs salivated not just to food but also to unrelated stimuli (e.g., a laboratory coat) associated with food. Core Principle: Pavlovian conditioning is learning by associating two events to make the environment more predictable. Stimuli and Responses: Unconditional Stimulus (US): Naturally triggers an innate reflex (e.g., food → salivation). Unconditional Response (UR): Reflexive behavior triggered by a US. Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially irrelevant, does not evoke a response (e.g., bell, lab coat). Conditional Stimulus (CS): Formerly neutral, becomes associated with US (e.g., bell → salivation). Conditional Response (CR): Learned behavior triggered by the CS (e.g., salivating to bell). Learning Process: Initial Reflex: US (food) naturally produces UR (salivation). Pairing: NS (e.g., bell) is repeatedly presented before the US. Association: NS becomes a CS, evoking a CR (e.g., salivating to bell) without the US. 7.2.6.1 Stimulus Generalization Stimulus Generalization: Responding similarly to stimuli that are conceptually or physically similar to the original conditional stimulus (CS), even if they were never paired with the unconditional stimulus (US). 7.2.6.2 Stimulus Discrimination Stimulus Discrimination: Learning to respond differently to distinct stimuli, with conditional responses (CR) occurring only to the original conditional stimulus (CS). 7.3.7 Scheduling Consequences 7.3.3 Reinforcement Contingencies Schedules of reinforcement define rules for when behaviors are reinforced Key Concept: 1. Continuous Reinforcement: Every response is reinforced. Reinforcement: Increases the probability of a behavior. Produces the highest response rate initially. Punishment: Decreases the probability of a behavior. 2. Intermittent Reinforcement: Positive: Adds a consequence. Only some responses are reinforced. Negative: Removes a consequence.: Includes four main types: 1. Positive Reinforcement: a. Fixed Ratio (FR): Definition: Behavior adds a stimulus, increasing the likelihood of the behavior in ◦ Reinforcement after a set number of responses. the future. ◦ Example: A rat receives food after every 10 lever presses. Example: Enjoying flavorful meals encourages frequent cooking. 2. Negative Reinforcement: b. Variable Ratio (VR): Definition: Behavior removes an aversive stimulus, increasing the likelihood of the behavior in the future. ◦ Reinforcement after a variable number of responses. Example: Avoiding an unpleasant situation by performing a behavior. ◦ Example: Slot machines in casinos. 3. Positive Punishment: c. Fixed Interval (FI): Definition: Behavior adds a stimulus, decreasing the likelihood of the behavior ◦ Reinforcement after a fixed amount of time has passed and a response in the future. Example: Teething child gets reprimanded for biting, reducing the biting occurs. behavior. ◦ Example: Paychecks on a biweekly schedule. 4. Negative Punishment (Response Cost): d. Variable Interval (VI): Definition: Behavior removes a stimulus, decreasing the likelihood of the behavior in the future. ◦ Reinforcement after a variable amount of time and a response occurs. Example: Losing access to a privilege after misbehavior reduces the unwanted ◦ Example: Checking for a random email response. behavior. Ratio Schedules: Generate higher response rates because reinforcement depends on the number of responses. Interval Schedules: Typically produce fewer responses since reinforcement depends on time. Fixed Schedules: Result in predictable behavior patterns (e.g., bursts of activity near reinforcement). Variable Schedules: Encourage steady and persistent responding due to unpredictability. 7.5.2 Bandura and Social Learning 7.6 Biological Constraints on Learning and Learned Helplessness some events serve as better signals or conditional stimuli Biological Preparedness than others due to evolution. Albert Bandura introduced social learning (or observational learning) in Concept: Some stimuli, such as snakes and spiders, are more easily the 1950s and 1960s, emphasizing learning through observing others associated with fear due to evolutionary predispositions. This is called without the need for direct reinforcement. This expanded traditional biological preparedness or cue-consequence learning (Seligman, 1971). behavioral theories by incorporating cognitive processes. Characteristics of Phobias: Learned in a single trial. Key Features of Social Learning: Persist even when the object is known to be harmless. Often involve ancestral threats, not modern dangers. 1 Observation and Imitation: Resistant to extinction. Examples: ◦ Observers learn by watching a model's actions. Monkeys conditioned to fear snakes after observing wild-reared monkeys’ ◦ Imitation may occur immediately or later in a relevant fearful responses. situation. Preparedness shows that not all stimuli can be conditioned equally, as seen 2 Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment: in the failure to condition monkeys to fear non-threatening objects like wooden blocks. ◦ Children exposed to an adult behaving aggressively toward Learned Helplessness Concept: When attempts to escape or avoid an aversive stimulus fail a Bobo doll exhibited increased aggression. repeatedly, individuals stop trying, even when escape becomes possible. ◦ Observing non-aggressive or no interactions reduced such Key Experiment (Seligman, 1972): behaviors. - Phases: ◦ Emphasized that learning can influence potential behavior 1. Dogs exposed to inescapable shocks stopped attempting to avoid shocks. without immediate action. 2. Later, when escape was possible (jumping a barrier), dogs in the Learned 3 Transferred Association: Helplessness group failed to try, unlike control and escape-trained groups. - Demonstrated that inescapable adversity conditions passivity. ◦ Observers are more likely to imitate behaviors they see Real-World Examples: Specific helplessness: A student failing in math may stop trying to improve rewarded, reinforcing the connection between modeled success and but remain motivated in other subjects. action. Generalized helplessness: Lack of motivation and coping mechanisms Applications of Social Learning: affecting multiple life domains, including work and relationships. Treatment and Impact Teaching new skills, such as daily living tasks for individuals with Learned helplessness can be treated through interventions, which restore special needs. motivation and coping skills. Enhancing understanding of placebo effects in pain reduction. Seligman’s research inspired the emergence of positive psychology, focusing The Four Stages of Observational Learning (Bandura, 1977): on resilience and happiness. 1 Attention: ◦ Observer notices the model’s behavior. ◦ Likelihood of imitation increases if the model is respected or liked. 2 Retention: ◦ Observer mentally rehearses the model’s actions. 3 Production: ◦ Observer performs the modeled behavior. 4 Motivation: ◦ Observer repeats the behavior if it leads to expected rewards  ▪ 8.2 Encoding Memories: Prolonging the Present Memory involves three primary processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Each process addresses unique challenges in how information is handled and retained. 1 Encoding Problem ◦ Encoding is the first step, where the brain processes and commits an event to memory. ◦ The challenge lies in how the brain captures and transforms information from experiences for later use. ◦ Effective encoding involves extending attention and engagement with the present moment to facilitate retention. 2 Storage Problem ◦ After encoding, memories must be stored within the brain's physical structure of interconnected neurons. ◦ This process is not a simple storage like shelving a book but resembles reconstructing elements, akin to reassembling a dinosaur skeleton. 3 Framework for Understanding ◦ Scientists use information-processing models, comparing memory to computer systems, to conceptualize how memories are formed, stored, and retrieved (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968). 8.2.1 Sensory Memory: Icons and Echoes Sensory memory serves as the initial stage of memory encoding, temporarily holding information in its original sensory form after the senses translate it into the brain's electrochemical language. Allows us to perceive a continuous experience by stitching moments together and provides input to immediate memory, which actively processes limited information. Key Concepts: 1 Types of Sensory Memory: ◦ Iconic Memory: Visual afterimages lasting tenths of a second. ◦ Echoic Memory: Auditory traces lasting up to three to four seconds, enabling recall of recent sounds or words even when distracted. 2 Evidence for Sensory Memory: ◦ Everyday phenomena like sparkler trails, fleeting retinal afterimages, and the ability to recall recent auditory input demonstrate its presence. 3 Sperling's Experiments (1960): ◦ Whole Report Technique: Participants struggled to recall all letters from a briefly presented block because the visual icon faded too quickly. ◦ Partial Report Technique: Using a tone to cue specific rows after the display improved recall accuracy, as participants could focus on a single row while the icon persisted briefly. 8.2.2.2 The Working Memory Model Immediate Memory Characteristics: / Short-term Actively holds on to limmited amount of info to be manipulated & processed ◦ Cognitive psychologists agree on its characteristics but differ on its mechanisms and organization. ◦ Debate exists between it being similar to long-term memory processes or governed by the working memory model. Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch): ◦ Immediate memory is primarily for manipulating information, not just storage. ◦ Components of the model: Phonological Loop: Manages auditory and verbal information (inner voice). Visuospatial Sketchpad: Handles visual and spatial information (inner eye). Central Executive: ◦ Directs information flow between the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory. ◦ Facilitates the retrieval and manipulation of stored memories (e.g., imagining a familiar room).  8.3.1 Kinds of Long-Term Memory Episodic Memory: ◦ Relates to autobiographical events or specific experiences. ◦ Includes vivid memories like birthdays, weddings, or funerals. ◦ Features mental time travel, allowing us to recall moments with rich details (e.g., emotions, attendees, actions). ◦ Studied through big events or controlled tasks like remembering word lists. Semantic Memory: ◦ Concerns general knowledge and facts, independent of specific experiences. ◦ Examples: Recognizing a dog by its traits, knowing fire is hot, or understanding language. ◦ Lacks the contextual detail present in episodic memories. Procedural Memory: ◦ Focuses on recalling how to perform tasks or processes. ◦ Examples: Tying a shoe, making a free-throw, or hitting a golf ball. ◦ Difficult to verbalize but often demonstrated physically. ◦ Procedural memories are resistant to amnesia and operate differently from episodic and semantic memory. ◦ Crucial for skill acquisition and coaching effectiveness. 8.3.2 The Transfer to Long-Term Memory Encoding and Elaborative Rehearsal: ◦ Encoding involves actively relating new information to existing knowledge. ◦ Elaborative rehearsal enhances encoding by making meaningful connections between new and stored information. ↳ Immediate a long term memory memory ◦ This approach addresses the encoding problem by fostering deeper integration of knowledge. Levels of Processing Experiment (Craik & Tulving, 1975): ◦ Two types of processing: Deep Processing: Encodes information based on meaning (e.g., determining if "CHIPMUNK" is a living thing). Shallow Processing: Encodes based on surface characteristics (e.g., checking if "CHIPMUNK" is in capital letters). ◦ Deep processing results in better memory retention than shallow processing. Effective Strategies for Elaborative Encoding: ◦ Imagery: Visualizing the information. Not exact representation of an object in real world more an abstract ◦ Self-relevance: Relating the information to personal experiences. Difficult with more detailed material ◦ Organization: Structuring information meaningfully. lead to mistakes within the category ◦ Distinctiveness: Highlighting unique features of the information. I hard to remember large consuming amounts of info Practical Example (Word List Encoding): ◦ Techniques like imagery or organizing the list meaningfully (e.g., COMPUTER, PENCIL, TEA, etc.) improve recall. ◦ Such strategies can be applied to studying, learning terms, or remembering tasks. 8.4.1.1 The Encoding Specificity Principle the ↳ lues only usefull when they match original context are Encoding-Retrieval Match: ◦ Memory retrieval depends on the match between encoding and retrieval cues (Tulving & Thomson, 1973). ◦ Cues are most effective when they replicate the context or meaning from the original encoding.  ▪▪ 8.5.1.1 Errors of Omission Illustration with Ambiguous Words: Transience (Forgetting Over Time): ◦ Words with multiple meanings highlight the principle. ◦ Effective cues (e.g., "INCH" for "FOOT" as a measurement) match the original ◦ Memory fades due to lack of effective retrieval cues, not simply the passage of time. encoded context. ◦ Interference affects memory: ◦ Ineffective cues (e.g., "TOE" for "FOOT") relate to alternate meanings not Retroactive Interference: New information disrupts recall of older information. originally encoded Context Matters: Proactive Interference: Old information disrupts learning of new information. ◦ Example: Mixing up details about a character from two plays due to conflicting memories ◦ Environmental, emotional, and mental states during encoding affect retrieval. Absent-Mindedness (Encoding Failure): ◦ Examples: Mood: Happy memories are easier to retrieve when happy. ◦ Forgetting occurs when information is not properly encoded due to inattention State: Events from being drunk are recalled better when drunk. or lack of elaborative rehearsal. ◦ Example: Misplacing keys due to not paying attention when setting them down. Location: Studying and testing in the same location improves recall Blocking (Retrieval Failure): (Smith & Vella, 2001). Underwater Study Example (Godden & Baddeley, 1975): ◦ Occurs when retrieval cues are insufficient to access stored information. ◦ Participants studying a word list underwater recalled better underwater. ◦ Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) State: Feeling of knowing but unable to recall; often ◦ Similarly, studying on land improved recall on land, demonstrating context- resolves with better cues. ◦ Example: Struggling to recall an actor’s name but feeling certain you know it. dependent memory. 8.5.1.2 Errors of Commission Errors of commission involve remembering information inaccurately or incompletely. These include misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and persistence. 1 Misattribution: ◦ Misremembering the source of information. ◦ Examples: Calling someone by the wrong name. Déjà vu: Failing to recognize the source of a familiar feeling. Flashbulb Memories: Highly emotional memories (e.g., 9/11) that are vivid but often inaccurate, as seen in studies of the Challenger explosion. ) Memories events of that suprising significant & are 2 Suggestibility: ◦ Misremembering due to external suggestions. ◦ Example: Misinformation Effect: Witnesses misrecall details (e.g., confusing "yield" and "stop" signs) when questioned with leading language. Entire false memories, such as being lost in a mall, can be implanted. 3 Bias: ◦ Memory distortion due to pre-existing knowledge or beliefs (schemas). ◦ Examples: Schemas influence memory recall, as seen in studies of car accidents where "smashed" led to higher speed estimates than "contacted." Overgeneralization or ignoring exceptions can lead to inaccurate recollections. 4 Persistence: ◦ Inability to forget unwanted memories, often traumatic. ◦ Examples: PTSD: Intrusive memories triggered by cues (e.g., fireworks for veterans). Illustrates why forgetting can sometimes be beneficial.  11.2.1 What Are Emotions? How Do We Define Them? Anxiety and emotions evolved for specific purposes, like avoiding predators, but now serve modern functions (e.g., test anxiety). Emotions are short-term feelings triggered by specific events (e.g., happiness from adopting a puppy, anger from misbehavior). Moods are longer-lasting, less intense states not tied to a specific event (e.g., feeling cheerful without reason). 11.2.1.1 The Role of Rewards and Punishers Emotions and Behavior: Emotions are evoked by rewards (reinforcers) and punishers. Rewards tend to induce happiness, while punishers cause negative emotions like sadness or fear. Example of Emotions: ◦ Rewards: For instance, receiving a scholarship results in happiness and gratitude. ◦ Punishers: Accidentally microwaving metal trim causes fear and surprise, but relief follows when the problem is fixed. Conditioning of Emotions: Emotions can be conditioned to antecedent stimuli (events that signal rewards or punishers) and behaviors. ◦ Example: Feeling frustration as you approach a yellow traffic light, anxiety while waiting, and relief when the light turns green. Role of Emotions in Behavior: ◦ Emotions keep us motivated to continue behaviors until rewards are achieved. ◦ Anticipating a reward (like a concert) can drive you to finish tasks efficiently. Function of Emotions: ◦ Emotions are part of the reinforcement contingency (stimulus → behavior → consequence). ◦ They help us learn, store, and remember information, and persist in tasks until goals are met. 11.2.1.2 The Evolution of Emotion Understanding Emotions’ Evolutionary Purpose: ◦ Each emotion evolved to address specific evolutionary problems. Key questions: 1 Under what conditions does the emotion arise? 2 How does the emotion affect us? 3 How does the emotion-driven behavior solve an evolutionary problem? Examples of Specific Emotions: ◦ Jealousy: Protects a woman from losing resources provided by a mate when another competes for attention. ◦ Disgust: Prevents contact with potential infectious diseases, like avoiding an open wound. Emotional Changes: ◦ Hormonal/Physiological changes: Emotions impact hormones and physical responses (e.g., heart rate and blood flow). ◦ Behavioral Changes: Includes thinking, feeling, and actions based on the emotion. ◦ Facial Expression: Emotions trigger specific facial expressions. ◦ Sense Perception: Emotions affect how we perceive the environment. Fear and Disgust Example: ◦ Fear: Increases visual field and scent detection (wide eyes and flaring nostrils) to identify threats. ◦ Disgust: Restricts perception (narrowed eyes and nostrils) to avoid harmful substances or smells. Variation in Bodily Responses: ◦ Not all emotional expressions will trigger every physiological change (e.g., you don’t always experience a rush of adrenaline when fearful).  11.2.2.1 How Do We Identify Emotion in Others? Basic Emotion Theory: ◦ Derived from Darwin's work, suggesting distinct emotions have predictable cognitive, physiological, and motor responses. ◦ Emotions unfold without intention (as affect programs), leading to consistent facial expressions. James-Lange Theory of Emotion: ◦ Emotion sequence: 1 Perceive a physical stimulus. 2 Experience physiological changes. 3 Recognize the emotion based on those changes (e.g., pain leads to anger). ◦ Theories challenge common perception that we feel an emotion first, then express it. Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion: ◦ Proposed that the thalamus plays a central role in emotion processing. ◦ Emotion sequence: 1 Perceive a physical stimulus. 2 Simultaneously experience emotion and express it. ◦ Emotions are processed simultaneously, not sequentially as per James-Lange. Critiques of James-Lange: ◦ Internal organs’ role in emotion questioned, as severing connections doesn’t eliminate emotional acknowledgment. ◦ Similar physiological responses can occur during emotions or neutral states (e.g., increased heart rate in fear or exercise). Emotions and Facial Expressions: ◦ Emotions are tied to universal facial expressions, such as sadness at a loss or happiness at seeing a friend (even in isolated cultures like New Guinea). disgust suprise happiness ↳ Anxious , , , ◦ Emotional "Leakage": People can mask true emotions, like smiling to appear happy while feeling sad. Limitations: ◦ Emotional facial expressions can be faked, and people may not be able to distinguish concealed emotions (e.g., airport security training). ◦ Certain facial expressions of emotions are uncontrollable and may reveal the true emotion unintentionally. 11.2.3 What Specific Emotions Influence Our Behavior? 11.3.1.1 Hunger and Interoceptive Stimuli as Occasion Setters for Behavior Hunger's Impact on Behavior: Social Responses to Emotions: ◦ People’s emotional expressions affect how others ◦ Hunger influences priorities, perception, attention, problem-solving, and memory. respond: ◦ In extreme hunger, people might prioritize food over other activities, such as sex, and focus only on food- Pride: Increases social status. related tasks. Stress and Hunger: Anger: Triggers reciprocal anger or avoidance. ◦ Stress affects how people choose food, leading to less focus on taste during decision-making (Reichenberger et Fear/Anxiety: Leads to comforting, al., 2018). defending, or escaping. Occasion Setters and Hunger: Emotional Contagion: ↳ Internal & external stimulus that signals relationship between response & outcome ◦ People can "catch" emotions from others through ◦ Hunger acts as an occasion setter, signaling that eating will restore balance (Davidson, 2000). satiated I full ↳ & no longer hungry facial expressions. ◦ A conditional stimulus (e.g., the taste of food) becomes associated with an unconditional stimulus (e.g., feeling ◦ Example: Seeing someone angry may trigger the full after eating). observer's own anger. ◦ Learning to eat when hungry helps us avoid discomfort, as seen in the example of eating dessert when overly ◦ Study by Kelly et al. (2016): Participants watching full. videos of faces expressing happiness or anger felt the same Interoceptive Stimuli: emotions. Anger: More contagious than happiness due ◦ Interoceptive stimuli come from within the body, such as hunger cues. to its association with danger, making it harder to ignore. ◦ Baby birds chirp when hungry, signaling for food, and stop once satiated. ◦ Studies with rats showed that they learn to associate hunger cues with external events (e.g., receiving shocks when hungry), indicating that internal hunger signals guide eating behavior. 11.3.2.3 Organisms That Change Sex for Better Reproductive Success Hermaphroditism in Animals: Some animals, like sea slugs, shrimp, and fish, are hermaphrodites, meaning they can both contribute and receive sperm during mating. Sea Slugs: ◦ The gender ratio hypothesis explains how sea slugs decide when to be male or female in mating. ◦ Typically, one mate assumes the female role first, and the male role is favored in subsequent encounters. ◦ Sexual role choice also depends on size (larger sea slugs lay more eggs) and the number of potential mates. Shrimp: ◦ Shrimp begin as males and become hermaphrodites with maturity. ◦ Hermaphrodites in the female role prefer smaller males for mating, while smaller hermaphrodites tend to mate as males. ◦ Group size and composition affect the timing of maturation, with males postponing maturity in the presence of multiple hermaphrodites. Fish: ◦ Hermaphroditic fish prefer larger, more colorful males for mating. ◦ Some fish, like the mangrove rivulus, can self-fertilize their eggs without needing a mate. 11.3.2.4 How Pheromones Adect Sexual Behavior: Olfactory Processing Pheromones and Reproductive Status: ◦ Pheromones are chemical signals that indicate the reproductive status of a potential partner. ◦ Mammals, including humans, show increased sensitivity to pheromones during the estrus phase of the menstrual cycle (around ovulation). ◦ Female rats and humans prefer the scent of men with good genetic markers (e.g., body symmetry) during this time. ◦ Estradiol, a female sex hormone, enhances sensitivity to pheromones. Chemical Basis of Love: ◦ Attraction: Involves dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, resulting in loss of appetite, sleep, and increased heart rate. ◦ Lust: Driven by testosterone and estrogen. ◦ Attachment: Involves oxytocin and vasopressin. Effects of Pheromones: ◦ Breastmilk Pheromones: Women exposed to breastmilk pheromones experience increased sexual desire, particularly for their partners if they are in a relationship. ◦ Male Pheromones: Men exposed to female pheromones (copulins) during the woman’s fertile phase rate themselves as more sexually desirable and find women more attractive. Rat Behavior: ◦ Male rats use pheromones to identify fertile females and avoid mating with pregnant ones. ◦ The Bruce Effect occurs when exposure to a new male’s scent can terminate a female’s pregnancy. ◦ The Whitten Effect can trigger synchronized ovulation in female rats when exposed to a male’s scent. 11.3.2.6 Mate Poaching Mate Poaching: Attempts by an outsider to engage with someone already in a monogamous relationship. ◦ Particularly costly for men due to paternal uncertainty (uncertainty about the biological father of the child). ◦ Men are more likely to invest in child-reari