Psychology of Individual Differences Exam Review PDF

1 Psychology of individual differences - Exam review Basic terms Interindividual differences the variations between individuals in one or more traits, behaviors, or c...

1 Psychology of individual differences - Exam review Basic terms Interindividual differences the variations between individuals in one or more traits, behaviors, or characteristics Intraindividual differences differences that are observed within the same person when they are assessed at different times or in different situations Trait enduring patterns of behavior and thought that are relatively consistent over time and across various situations An internal psychological disposition that remains largely unchanged throughout the lifespan and determines differences between individuals Descriptive traits - the sum of variables that describe the observable consistency of behavior that has occurred in the past Latent traits - features that cannot be directly observed  2 Trait State Long-term Short-term conditions conditions Revealed in Manifests response to a itself stimulus or in continuously specific Specific situations Depends on Abstract the situation Depends on Has the the person nature of an Has the event nature of a Codetermined disposition by the trait Manifests Observed itself in states Measured Not observed directly Measured indirectly Factor the more-or-less enduring psychological characteristic that distinguishes one person from another and thus helps to define each person's individuality Dimension a term used to describe a continuum from minimum to maximum intensity of a given feature Disposition a construct used to describe the stability of human behavior over time Type the dominant quality or qualities distinguishing a person or a group  3 Behavioral genetics Study of the biological basis of individual differences Phenotype – expression of an individual’s genes in behavioral traits that can be measured Heritability estimate – a statistical indicator of the influence of genetic factors on individual differences in behavioral traits, showing what proportion of the total variance is attributable to genetic variation Phenotypic variance Heritability estimate the portion of the phenotypic (total) variance that is attributable to genetic variance  4 family studies, adoption studies, twin studies, shared environment, non-shared environment Nature vs Nurture B = f(GxE) B – behavior G – genetical influences E – environmental influences  5 Studies on temperament Temperament Temperament manifests itself in formal characteristics of behavior. Formal features of behavior are independent of the direction and content of the behavior Formal features of behavior can be described in terms of energetic and temporal aspects of behavior In terms of formal characteristics of behavior, there are relatively stable individual differences (temperamental traits) Temperamental traits are primarily biologically determined Basic names X Basic approaches Range of the term ‘temperament’ narrow approach limiting the concept of (Goldsmith) temperament to the dynamics of emotions a broad approach covering the dynamics (Strelau, Eliasz) of behavior in broad sense [emotional, cognitive, motor]  6 Transsituational stability A necessary condition (Hagekull) Transsituational differences in the (Strelau); dynamics of behavior are temporary, unstable [they are processual in nature] Relative approach to (James-Roberts i Wolke); temperament Coherent stability [persistent (Eliasz); trans-situational inconsistencies in behavioral dynamics stable over time] Situational approach to (Gerstmann; extreme, outdated temperament apprach) Important names Pavlov’s types of nervous system IMPORTANT NAME Nervism pronciple – humans and animals behavior depends primarily on the activity of the central nervous system (CNS) Fundamental properties of the CNS are responsible for individual differences in conditioning (canine studies) and more generally in animal and human behavior Differences between individuals result from a combination of a limited number of CNS properties  7 Pavlov's concept (strenght of nervous processes; body's efficiency interpreted in terms of cortical stimulation and the phenomenon of protective inhibition) Reactivity - rooted in the concept of strength of excitation a dimension revealed in sensitivity (sensory and emotional) at one pole, and efficiency (resistance to intensive stimulation) at the other high-reactive individuals (Pavlovian weak CNS type) high sensitivity and low endurance low-reactive individuals (Pavlovian strong types) low levels of sensitivity and a high levels of endurance more or less stable relationship between the sensitivity and endurance thresholds The source of Inhibition theory Hippocrates-Galen typology Historical sources of the Eysenck's biological PEN theory The Hippocrates-Galen typology is an early framework that links bodily fluids (humors) to temperament. Hippocrates proposed that an imbalance of the four humors—blood, bile, black bile, and phlegm—results in distinct personality types: sanguine (optimistic), choleric (irritable), melancholic (depressed), and phlegmatic (calm). Galen expanded on this, suggesting that these humors influence both physical health and temperament Strelau a broad approach - covering the dynamics of behavior in broad sense [emotional, cognitive,  8 motor] (Strelau, Eliasz) Jan Strelau developed the Regulative Theory of Temperament (RTT), which focuses on the energetic and temporal characteristics of behavior. Strelau's research has demonstrated that temperamental traits are observable from early infancy and are primarily biologically determined. His work emphasizes the importance of these traits in extreme situations and their genetic basis, evidenced by studies on twins Eysenck Hans Eysenck is known for the PEN model of personality, which includes three major dimensions: Psychoticism, Extraversion, and Neuroticism. Eysenck’s work is grounded in a biological basis of personality, suggesting these traits are universally present across cultures. His theory also borrows from the Hippocrates-Galen typology and Jung’s concepts of extraversion and introversion Thomas & Chess Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess are famous for their work on child temperament. Their New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS) identified three types of children based on temperament: easy, difficult, and slow to warm up. Their research highlighted the interaction between a child’s temperament and environmental demands, emphasizing the concept of "goodness of fit" for optimal development Zuckerman Marvin Zuckerman developed the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) to measure individual differences in the need for varied, novel, and complex sensations and experiences. Sensation seeking is linked to risk-taking behaviors and is considered a biologically-based trait associated with the level of activation in the nervous system. Zuckerman's work suggests that high sensation seekers are more prone to engage in risky activities to achieve optimal arousal levels​  9 Basic approaches Constitutional theories of temperament the principle of grouping individuals based on specific biological features (structures and physiological functions of the body), which were assigned to behavioral properties conditioned by these biological features connection between temperamental traits (inherited, innate) and body constitution Sigaud’s typology  10 Kretschmer’s typology Sheldon’s typology illnesses; Box typology NOTHING IN THE PRESENTATION The box typology refers to a categorical approach where individuals are classified into distinct types or categories, often based on a combination of traits or characteristics. This approach is less common in contemporary psychology, which tends to favor dimensional models that capture a continuum of traits rather than discrete categories. Dimensional approach The dimensional approach in psychology of individual differences involves assessing personality traits along continuous dimensions rather than discrete categories. Key models include: The Big Five Model: This model assesses personality across five broad dimensions: Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (OCEAN). These dimensions are considered to capture the most significant variations in human personality​  11 Objections Ignoring the role of the environment and social conditions in shaping mental characteristics; Treating traits such as tolerance or eating culture as hereditary traits; Unjustified claim that healthy people harbor the seeds of mental It is false to say that the difference between health and disease is only quantitative; There is no empirical evidence that there is a correspondence between body structure and specific temperament traits; Methodological errors in the conducted research; Social costs – these typologies became the scientific basis of racism Studies results (via chatgpt by putting all the slides in) Studies on Pavlovian Typology (Pavlov’s Types of Nervous System) Pavlov’s studies on the nervous system emphasize the fundamental properties of the central nervous system (CNS) responsible for individual differences in conditioning and behavior. These properties include the strength of excitation, strength of inhibition, mobility of nervous  12 processes, and balance of nervous processes. Pavlov identified four types of nervous systems based on these properties: - Strong, balanced, mobile (sanguine) - Strong, balanced, slow (phlegmatic) - Strong, unbalanced, with domination of strength of excitation (choleric) - Weak (melancholic) These types are considered innate and form the physiological basis of temperament【6:0†source】. Studies on Regulative Theory of Temperament The Regulative Theory of Temperament (RTT) describes temperament in terms of independent traits: sensory sensitivity, emotional reactivity, endurance, activity, briskness, and perseverance. Research, including studies on Polish and German twins, suggests that about 40% of the phenotypic variance in these traits is attributable to genetic factors. RTT posits that temperament characteristics are particularly significant under extreme demands and are observable from early infancy in both humans and animals【6:2†source】【6:7†source】. Studies on PEN Theory Eysenck's PEN theory identifies three major dimensions of personality: Psychoticism, Extraversion, and Neuroticism (PEN). The theory has roots in Hippocrates-Galen typology and Jung’s extraversion-introversion concepts. Eysenck proposed that these dimensions have a biological basis and are universal across cultures. Studies have shown that these traits are relatively stable over time and across different cultures. The theory also suggests a physiological basis for these traits, such as the role of the ARAS in regulating cortical arousal linked to extraversion and introversion【6:3†source】【6:6†source】【6:12†source】.  13 Child’s Temperament Thomas and Chess’s approach to child temperament, derived from the New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS), categorized children’s temperament into three types: easy, difficult, and slow to warm up. They highlighted the importance of the goodness of fit between a child's temperament and the demands of the environment. This interactionist approach suggests that a mismatch can lead to maladaptive behavior, while a good fit promotes optimal development. The study emphasizes the role of individual differences from early infancy and the influence of both biological and environmental factors【6:14†source】. Sensation Seeking Sensation seeking is a trait characterized by the need for varied, novel, and complex sensations and experiences, and the willingness to take physical and social risks for such experiences. Zuckerman’s studies on sensation seeking describe it as a dimension related to extraversion and linked to the level of activation in the nervous system. Individuals high in sensation seeking tend to seek out new experiences and are more prone to risk-taking behaviors, while those low in sensation seeking prefer routine and are less inclined to take risks【6:6†source】. --- Pavlovian typology Written in Important names Properties of the Nervous System Pavlov identified four key properties of the CNS that determine temperament:  14 - Strength of Excitation: - This property refers to the ability of nervous cells to respond to stimuli. It is crucial for the formation and generalization of conditioned responses. Strong excitation indicates a robust capacity for neural activity. - Protective Inhibition: An innate mechanism that protects nerve cells from the harmful effects of strong or prolonged stimuli, preventing wear and exhaustion - Strength of Inhibition: - This involves the nervous system's ability to suppress or control responses. It is important for conditioned inhibition, including extinction, differentiation, and delay. Strong inhibition is necessary for managing prohibitions and refraining from specific actions - Mobility of Nervous Processes: - Mobility refers to the nervous system's capacity to prioritize one impulse over another and adapt behavior according to changing stimuli. High mobility allows for flexible and adaptive responses to varying situations - Balance of Nervous Processes: - Balance is the ratio between the strength of excitation and inhibition. A balanced nervous system indicates a well-regulated interaction between these processes, leading to stable behavior. An imbalance can result in either excitable or inhibited temperaments depending on which process is dominant Typology of Temperament Based on these properties, Pavlov categorized temperaments into four types: - Strong, Balanced, Mobile (Sanguine): Characterized by high strength of excitation and inhibition, with high mobility. Individuals are typically sociable, lively, and adaptable. - Strong, Balanced, Slow (Phlegmatic): High strength of excitation and inhibition, but low mobility. Individuals tend to be calm, reliable, and persistent.  15 - Strong, Unbalanced (Choleric): High strength of excitation but low strength of inhibition. These individuals are often excitable, restless, and quick-tempered. - Weak (Melancholic): Low strength of both excitation and inhibition. Individuals are usually sensitive, introverted, and prone to anxiety Regulative Theory of Temperament Features/Factors Briskness (BR): the tendency to react quickly, keep a high tempo in performing activities, and shift easily in response to changes in the surroundings from one behavior (reaction) to another Perseveration (PE): the tendency to continue and repeat behavior and  16 experience emotional states after cessation of stimuli (situations) evoking this behavior or states Sensory sensitivity (SS): the ability to react to sensory stimuli whose stimulating value is low Emotional reactivity (ER): the tendency to react intensively to emotion- generating stimuli, expressed in high emotional sensitivity and low emotional endurance Endurance (EN): the ability to react adequately in situations requiring prolonged or highly stimulating activity or under conditions of intensive external stimulation Activity (AC): the tendency to undertake highly stimulating behaviors or behaviors providing intensive external (environmental) stimulation Reactivity & Activity Reactivity rooted in the concept of strength of excitation a dimension revealed in sensitivity (sensory and emotional) at one pole, and efficiency (resistance to intensive stimulation) at the other high-reactive individuals (Pavlovian weak CNS type) high sensitivity and low endurance low-reactive individuals (Pavlovian strong types) low levels of sensitivity and a high levels of endurance more or less stable relationship between the sensitivity and endurance thresholds Activity  17 temperamental trait that refers to the frequency and intensity of actions individuals engage in responsible for regulation of the stimulative value of behavior, situations, or both and satisfying indvdual’s need for stimulation “one of the sources and regulators of arousal level; owing to the inflow of appropriate stimuli it renders possible the maintenance of this excitation at an optimum level” Activity and reactivity A high level of activity goes hand in hand with a low reactivity The role of activity is regulation of arousal level Highly reactive people show high sensitivity and low efficiency Low reactive people present low sensitivity and high efficiency Low reactive people have a high need for stimulation High reactive people present low need for stimulation Low vs high reactivity Highly reactive people: clearly defined situations, no additional tasks or responsibilities, a tendency to avoid failure , involvement in preparatory, measuring, control activities Low reactive people: need for strong stimuli, and need for stimulation, a tendency to engage in an additional tasks and responsibilities, a tendency for straightforward activty  18 Effectiveness of regulation of stimulation matching the incoming stimulation to individual processing capabilities Efficient regulation of stimulation – High endurance, low emotional reactivity and high activity – Low endurance, high emotional reactivity and low activity Non-efficient regulation of stimulation – High endurance, low emotional reactivity and low activity (a tendency for understimulation) – Low endurance, high emotional reactivity and high activity (a tendency for overstimulation) PEN theory Three supertaits Extraversion - positive affectivity, marked by pronounced engagement with the external world and characterized by high sociability, talkativeness, energy and assertiveness is caused by variability in cortical arousal Neuroticism - a dimension that ranges from normal, fairly calm and collected people to one's that tend to be quite “nervous”, characteristic for people suffering with neuroses Psychoticism - a dimension describing people that are prone to take risks, might engage in anti-social behaviors, impulsiveness, or non-conformist behavior  19 Conditioning Introverts – faster with unconditional stimuli of punitive nature Extroverts – faster with unconditional stimuli of rewarding nature Drug’s postulate Sedative drugs lead to the appearance of extroverted patterns of behavior because they increase the level of inhibition and lower the level of excitation Stimulant drugs that reduce the level of inhibition and increase the level of arousal cause the appearance of introverted patterns of behavior Thomas & Chess theory Temperamental properties Activity: level of motor activity and the amount of time baby spends being active Rhythmicity/regularity: how regular the patterns of eating, sleeping and other bodily functions are Response to new things: how baby will probably respond to new experiences, whether they are likely to accept new things or withdraw from them Adaptability: how baby responds to changes in their environment  20 Sensitivity: baby’s threshold for stimuli Types of temperament Categories of temperament Response: the energy levels and intensity of baby’s responses Disposition: whether baby generally seems happy or unhappy, friendly or unfriendly Distractability: how easily baby can be distracted from what they are doing Attention span: the span of time that baby will pay attention to one thing when left to their own devices, and their persistence with an activity Types of temperament Easy: children categorized as ‘easy’ generally have a positive attitude, are quick to fall into routines, and quick to adapt to new situations (40%) Difficult: children in the ‘difficult’ category cry more often, have a harder time adapting to new situations, and don't regularly follow routines (10%) Slow to warm up: children who are ‘slow to warm up’ adapt slowly and can react negatively, but also show a low intensity in their emotional reactions (15%) The goodess of fit Correspondence between capacities, temperament, and other individual characteristics and opportunities, demands, and expectations of the environment (parents, teachers, peers)  21 Optimal development Poorness of fit – maladaptive functioning and distorted development The importance of interactions Thrill and adventure seeking (risky sports and other potentially dangerous experiences that produce unique sensations related to speed or defying gravity) Experience seeking (novel sensations and experiences) Disinhibition (sensation seeking focused on social activities) Boredom susceptibility (tolerance for any kind of repetitive experience, including routine work and boring people) Studies Thomas and Chess conducted the New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS), which followed 133 children from early infancy into adulthood. The study found significant individual differences in temperament and highlighted the influence of these temperamental traits on later behavior and personality development. Key findings include: The stability of temperament traits over time, showing consistency in individual differences from infancy through later stages of life. The interaction between temperament and environment in shaping development, reinforcing the importance of the goodness of fit. Identification of temperament as a critical factor in understanding developmental outcomes, including behavior disorders when there is a poor fit between the child's temperament and their environment​  22 Studies on intelligence IQ IQ is a standard measure of an individual's intelligence level based on psychological tests. It is computed by dividing the mental age by the chronological age and multiplying by 100 to produce a ratio IQ. Another method, the deviation IQ, measures an individual's score relative to the average score of their age group, typically with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15 or 16 Number of intelligencies & Structure of intelligence Various theories propose different numbers of intelligences: Spearman: Proposed a two-factor theory consisting of general intelligence ("g") and specific abilities ("s"). Cattell: Identified two types of intelligence—fluid (Gf) and crystallized (Gc). Thurstone: Suggested seven primary mental abilities. Gardner: Proposed the theory of multiple intelligences, which includes eight distinct types: visual-spatial, linguistic-verbal, logical-mathematical, body-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic Studies on intelligence Studies on intelligence have explored its measurement, heritability, and impact on various life outcomes: Binet and Simon: Developed the first intelligence test focused on children’s abilities. Wechsler: Created the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). Flynn Effect: Observes the rise in average IQ scores over time across the world.  23 Impact of Intelligence: Research shows strong associations between general intelligence and academic achievement, job success, health outcomes, and income Terman’s studies Lewis Terman conducted longitudinal studies on gifted children, known as "Terman’s Termites": Participants: 1528 children with IQs over 135, predominantly white middle-class residents of California. Findings: High IQ in children was associated with better physical health, social skills, and educational achievements. However, not all high-IQ individuals achieved extraordinary success in life, emphasizing that factors beyond IQ contribute to life outcomes. Success and Longevity: Terman found that conscientiousness was a better predictor of longevity than IQ, and many Termites had successful academic and professional careers. Criticism: Some results suggested that high IQ alone does not guarantee exceptional achievements, highlighting the role of personality traits and environmental factors Studies on emotional intelligence Components of emotional intelligence Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to perceive, control, and evaluate emotions. It encompasses various skills and competencies, which can be categorized into several key components: Self-awareness: Recognizing and understanding one's own emotions. Self-regulation: Managing one's emotions and impulses. Motivation: Being driven to achieve for the sake of achievement.  24 Empathy: Recognizing and understanding the emotions of others. Social skills: Managing relationships to move people in desired directions​ Studies on emotional intelligence Several studies have been conducted to explore the significance and impact of emotional intelligence: Yale Research (1990s): Research at Yale in the early 1990s highlighted the importance of EI as a major indicator of personal and professional achievement, suggesting that EI contributes significantly to success in various life domains. Goleman's Studies: Daniel Goleman popularized the concept of EI and identified that competencies related to EI account for 80-90% of the competencies that differentiate top performers from average ones. Goleman’s work emphasizes that emotional competencies play a crucial role in leadership and job performance. TalentSmart Studies: These studies found that EI alone explains 58% of a leader’s job performance. Additionally, 90% of top performers have high EI, while only 20% of low performers possess high EI. This research underscores the correlation between EI and job performance across different levels and industries Goleman’s domains Knowing your emotions Managing your own emotions  25 Motivating yourself Recognizing and understanding other people's emotions Managing relationships  26 Studies on cognitive styles Current studies on cognitive styles Cognitive styles refer to the preferred way an individual processes information, which includes perception, thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making. Examples of cognitive styles include field dependence-independence, holist-serialist, visualizer-verbalizer, and reflectivity-impulsivity.  27 Cognitive styles are relatively stable over time but can be influenced by experiences and educational contexts. Decsion making styles Adaptors-Innovators Dimension: Adaptors prefer a structured, step-by-step approach, while innovators favor novel, creative solutions. Intuitive, Analytical, and Integrated Styles: Intuitive decision-makers rely on feelings, analytical decision-makers break problems into parts, and integrated decision-makers use both approaches interchangeably. Rowe and Mason’s Four Styles: Directive (practical, power-oriented), Analytic (logical, task-oriented), Conceptual (creative, intuitive), and Behavioral (people-oriented, supportive) Personal styles Explanatory (Attributional) Style: Differences in how people habitually explain uncontrollable events, whether attributed to internal or external circumstances. MBTI (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator): Identifies 16 psychological types based on preferences in four dichotomies: Extraversion-Introversion, Sensing-Intuition, Thinking-Feeling, and Judging-Perceiving. Learning styles Perception and Ordering: Concrete-sequential, abstract-sequential, abstract-random, and concrete-random. Kolb’s Learning Styles: Diverging (CE and RO), Assimilating (AC and RO), Converging (AC and AE), and Accommodating (CE and AE). Metastyle (Mobility-Fixity): Individuals can switch their style based on the situation, such as impulsivity-reflectivity and fast-accurate versus slow-inaccurate  28 Studies on creativity Definitions — Problems with measurement Measuring creativity is challenging due to its subjective nature and varying definitions. Common tests include the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking, Unusual Uses Test, and Product Improvement Test. Difficulties arise from the need to assess both divergent thinking (generating multiple solutions) and convergent thinking (arriving at the best solution). Creativity and mental health Creativity is linked to various mental health conditions, including affective disorders, anxiety, and substance abuse. While creative individuals often display high energy, risk-taking, and openness to experience, they may also be prone to mood swings and mental health challenges. Society benefits from a balance of creative and non-creative individuals, as excessive creativity can sometimes lead to impractical or socially disruptive ideas.  29 EXAM QUESTIONS Exam questions from previous year were conducted with other teacher so probably they are unuseful According to Carroll’s hierarchical model, the second-level manifestation of g factor is: a. fluid intelligence b. all of the answers c. crystallized intelligence d. processing speed (e.g., inspection time) Answer: b. all of the answers Explanation: Carroll's hierarchical model of intelligence includes a general intelligence factor (g) at the top, which influences various broad abilities at the second level, including fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, and processing speed. According to the alternative DSM-5 model, pathological factor for personality disorders is: a. all of the answers b. extreme intensity of agreeableness (dependence) c. extreme intensity of extraversion (mania/crazy) d. extreme intensity of not agreeableness (antagonism) Answer: a. all of the answers Explanation: The DSM-5 alternative model for personality disorders considers pathological traits across multiple domains, including extreme levels of agreeableness, extraversion, and antagonism.  30 According to Zimbardo’s theory, present and positive time orientation is described as: a. fatalistic b. enthusiastic c. hedonistic d. optimistic Answer: c. hedonistic Explanation: Zimbardo’s time perspective theory describes a hedonistic present time orientation as focusing on pleasure and immediate gratification. Agreeableness is a dimension characterized by: a. all of the answers b. self-discipline, good organization, and modesty c. cooperation, compassion, and trust d. assertiveness, sociability, and dominance Answer: c. cooperation, compassion, and trust Explanation: In the Big Five personality traits, agreeableness includes characteristics such as cooperation, compassion, and trust. The other options describe traits related to other dimensions like conscientiousness and extraversion. Correlation ratio between IQ and school performance: a. is similar at all stages of education b. is stronger for lower stages of education c. is stronger for higher stages of education d. is significant only for higher stages of education Answer: b. is stronger for lower stages of education Explanation: Research has shown that the correlation between IQ and school performance tends to be stronger in lower stages of education, as cognitive abilities play a more direct role in learning basic skills and knowledge.  31 Eveningness ("owl" chronotype) is related to: a. all of the answers b. neuroticism c. extraversion d. conscientiousness Answer: a. all of the answers Explanation: Eveningness has been associated with higher levels of neuroticism, extraversion, and lower levels of conscientiousness in various studies. People with an "owl" chronotype tend to be more prone to these personality traits. Explaining someone's behavior due to his/her individual characteristics is typical for: a. all of the answers b. situational approach c. dispositional approach d. normative approach Answer: c. dispositional approach Explanation: The dispositional approach focuses on an individual's inherent qualities and characteristics to explain behavior, rather than situational or external factors. Eysenck’s Big Three traits are: a. neuroticism, extraversion, psychopathy b. neuroticism, introversion, neuroticism c. extraversion, introversion, neuroticism d. narcissism, extraversion, psychopathy Answer: a. neuroticism, extraversion, psychopathy Explanation: Eysenck’s model of personality includes three major traits: neuroticism, extraversion, and psychoticism (not psychopathy, but related to impulsivity and aggression).  32 Individual differences concerning personality and intelligence: a. ID both in personality and intelligence are more quantitative b. ID both in personality and intelligence are more qualitative c. ID in personality are more quantitative and ID in intelligence are more qualitative d. ID in personality are more qualitative and ID in intelligence are more quantitative Answer: d. ID in personality are more qualitative and ID in intelligence are more quantitative Explanation: Personality differences are often described in qualitative terms (e.g., type, style), whereas intelligence differences are typically measured quantitatively (e.g., IQ scores). Intelligence is: a. all of the answers b. reality existing ability c. measured ability d. potential ability Answer: a. all of the answers Explanation: Intelligence can be viewed as a real, existing ability, a measurable capacity through tests, and potential ability that can develop over time. Neuroticism is a dimension characterized by: a. anxiety, sadness, and shyness b. aggression, antisocial tendencies, and dominance c. sensation seeking, activity, and explosiveness d. all of the answers Answer: a. anxiety, sadness, and shyness Explanation: Neuroticism is associated with a tendency towards anxiety, sadness, shyness, and emotional instability.  33 One’s accumulated knowledge and verbal skills tend to increase with age: a. all of the answers b. fluid intelligence c. crystallized intelligence d. emotional intelligence Answer: c. crystallized intelligence Explanation: Crystallized intelligence refers to accumulated knowledge and verbal skills, which tend to increase with age as individuals acquire more experience and education. Personality (compared to temperament) is defined as: a. mostly biologically determined b. all of the answers c. fully developed in adulthood d. attribute of humans and animals (mammals) Answer: c. fully developed in adulthood Explanation: Personality, unlike temperament which is more biologically determined and present from early life, is shaped by both biological factors and life experiences and is typically considered to be fully developed in adulthood. Practical problems, related to practical intelligence concept, are characterized as: a. all of the answers b. with many possible correct solutions c. embedded in a cultural context d. related to personal motivation Answer: a. all of the answers Explanation: Practical intelligence involves the ability to solve everyday problems that are often context-specific, culturally embedded, and may have multiple correct solutions. Personal motivation also plays a role in practical problem-solving.  34 Situation characterized as highly stimulated is: a. related to intensive stimuli b. repeatable c. predictable d. all of the answers Answer: a. related to intensive stimuli Explanation: A highly stimulated situation is one that involves intensive stimuli, which can provoke strong responses or heightened levels of engagement. Social intelligence is defined as: a. social behavior b. social perception c. social knowledge d. all of the answers Answer: d. all of the answers Explanation: Social intelligence encompasses social behavior, social perception, and social knowledge, involving the ability to understand and navigate social interactions effectively. Theory of multiple intelligences is criticized for: a. fatalistic approach b. assumption of dominance of g factor c. lack of empirical evidences d. all of the answers Answer: c. lack of empirical evidences Explanation: The theory of multiple intelligences, proposed by Howard Gardner, has faced criticism primarily for its lack of empirical evidence supporting the distinct categories of intelligence it proposes.  35 Trait (compared to type) is: a. ordinal b. discontinuous c. qualitative d. all of the answers Answer: a. ordinal Explanation: Traits are often considered ordinal because they can be measured on a continuum or scale, whereas types are more categorical and discontinuous. Which of the following are main dimensions of Gray’s theory? a. all of the answers b. extraversion and neuroticism c. disinhibition and antagonism d. anxiety and impulsivity Answer: d. anxiety and impulsivity Explanation: Jeffrey Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) primarily focuses on the dimensions of anxiety (related to the Behavioral Inhibition System) and impulsivity (related to the Behavioral Activation System). Which of the following can be assumed as a common factor of the Dark Triad? a. all of the answers b. agreeableness (reversed) c. extraversion d. suspiciousness Answer: b. agreeableness (reversed) Explanation: The Dark Triad traits (narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy) are commonly associated with low levels of agreeableness.  36 Which of the following is considered as an aspect of flexibility of divergent thinking? a. ability to produce the most original (untypical) solutions b. ability to produce many different solutions c. ability to produce solutions concerning different categories d. all of the answers Answer: d. all of the answers Explanation: Flexibility in divergent thinking involves producing a variety of solutions that span different categories, generating many different ideas, and creating original and untypical solutions. Which of the following is the candidate for the sixth factor (concerning Big Five personality model)? a. wisdom and knowledge b. honesty/humility c. sensation seeking d. all of the answers Answer: b. honesty/humility Explanation: Honesty/humility has been proposed as a potential sixth factor in personality models, such as the HEXACO model, which extends the Big Five. Which of the following is a typical personality research process that is related to lexical hypothesis? a. analysis of specific "language" of an individual in order to diagnose his/her personality b. analysis of language impact on personality development processes c. analysis of all words concerning personality characteristics that exist in language d. all of the answers are different stages of lexical researches Answer: c. analysis of all words concerning personality characteristics that exist in language Explanation: The lexical hypothesis involves studying the language used to describe personality traits, under the assumption that significant traits will be encoded in natural language.  37 Which of the following trait is related to creativity? a. agreeableness b. conscientiousness c. psychoticism d. all of the answers Answer: c. psychoticism Explanation: Research has shown that individuals who score higher on psychoticism (characterized by impulsivity and nonconformity) may have a greater propensity for creativity. This is because such traits can encourage divergent thinking and originality, important components of creative thought. Which trait correlates with higher risk of substance use problems? a. sensation seeking b. present temporal orientation c. discounting rate d. all of the answers Answer: d. all of the answers Explanation: Sensation seeking, a focus on immediate rewards (present temporal orientation), and a tendency to discount future consequences (high discounting rate) are all traits associated with a higher risk of substance use problems. Eysenck’s three superfactors are not: 4. universal 5. independent 6. cognitive 7. biologically conditioned Answer: 3. cognitive Explanation: Eysenck’s three superfactors (neuroticism, extraversion, and psychoticism) are considered to be universal, independent, and biologically conditioned, but they are not inherently cognitive in nature.  38 People high in psychoticism are: 4. less likely to exhibit antisocial behaviors 5. not prone to develop psychotic disorders 6. more creative 7. empathetic Answer: 3. more creative Explanation: Individuals with high levels of psychoticism tend to be more creative, as the trait is associated with unconventional thinking and nonconformity. However, they are more likely to exhibit antisocial behaviors and are less empathetic. Neuroticism as a personality trait has six primary facets, among which is not: 4. self-consciousness 5. excitement-seeking 6. impulsiveness 7. anxiety Answer: 2. excitement-seeking Explanation: Neuroticism is characterized by facets such as self-consciousness, impulsiveness, and anxiety. Excitement-seeking is more closely associated with extraversion. Cattell’s theory of individual traits. Which is false? 4. Cattell’s theory of individual traits is based on factor analyses. 5. Initial assumption of Cattell’s theory of individual traits is lexical hypotheses. 6. Cattell’s personality traits are independent. 7. Cattell’s theory of individual traits contains 16 Personality Factors. Answer: 3. Cattell’s personality traits are independent. Explanation: Cattell’s 16 Personality Factors are not independent; they are interrelated traits identified through factor analysis.  39 The Trait Theory is: 4. the direction of personality psychology that is dominant in contemporary research 5. a major trend that emphasizes the study of individual differences 6. an approach to describe personality in terms of traits 7. all of the above Answer: 4. all of the above Explanation: Trait theory encompasses all of these aspects, being a dominant direction in contemporary research, emphasizing individual differences, and describing personality in terms of traits. Divergent thinking: 4. is crucial for creativity 5. always leads to one correct solution 6. is otherwise associative thinking 7. consists in creating loose associations and speculations detached from reality Answer: 1. is crucial for creativity Explanation: Divergent thinking is a key component of creativity, as it involves generating multiple, diverse ideas or solutions to a problem, rather than converging on a single correct answer. The determinants of individual differences in humans are related to (choose the most accurate answer): 4. interaction with the environment 5. differences in their heredity 6. differences in both heredity and environment  40 7. interaction between heredity and environment Answer: 4. interaction between heredity and environment Explanation: Individual differences in humans are influenced by the complex interaction between genetic (heredity) and environmental factors. In personality and intelligence, heredity plays: 4. insignificant role 5. crucial role 6. nominal role 7. unknown role Answer: 2. crucial role Explanation: Heredity plays a crucial role in both personality and intelligence, contributing significantly to individual differences through genetic inheritance. The issue in developmental psychology that addresses both the contributions of heredity and the environment is known as the: 4. nature vs. nurture debate 5. early experience vs. later experience debate 6. sensitive vs. critical period debate 7. continuity vs. discontinuity debate Answer: 1. nature vs. nurture debate Explanation: The nature vs. nurture debate addresses the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to human development and individual differences. All of the following statements about the role of genetics in determining personality are true, except: 4. There is a genetic component to our personalities. 5. Environmental influences and genetic components do not influence one another. 6. The genetic framework for our personalities can be manipulated by our experiences. 7. Manner in which genetic variation affects psychological phenotypes is extremely complicated.  41 Answer: 2. Environmental influences and genetic components do not influence one another. Explanation: This statement is incorrect because environmental influences and genetic components interact with each other to shape personality. The other statements correctly describe the role of genetics in personality. Who created the first intelligence test? 4. David Wechsler 5. John C. Raven 6. Alfred Binet 7. Charles Spearman Answer: 3. Alfred Binet Explanation: Alfred Binet, along with his colleague Théodore Simon, created the first practical intelligence test, known as the Binet-Simon scale, in the early 20th century. Which is false? Both personality and intelligence: 4. occupy a central position in the history of differential psychology 5. are not largely genetically determined 6. show relatively little variability over the life span 7. are predictors of individual differences in a wide range of outcomes including performance in educational and occupational settings Answer: 2. are not largely genetically determined Explanation: Both personality and intelligence are significantly influenced by genetic factors. The statement "are not largely genetically determined" is false. According to Two-Factor Theory of intelligence: 4. g is responsible for success in life 5. g is universal and inborn ability 6. g is the only source for correlations between different intelligence tests 7. all of the above Answer: 4. all of the above Explanation: The Two-Factor Theory, proposed by Charles Spearman, posits that a general intelligence factor  42 (g) underlies all intelligent behavior and is responsible for success in various life domains, is an inborn ability, and is the source of correlations between different intelligence tests. Creative person: 4. is more likely to have low openness to experience 5. is more likely to have high psychoticism 6. is more likely to have high agreeableness 7. is less likely to be intrinsically motivated Answer: 2. is more likely to have high psychoticism Explanation: Creative individuals often display traits associated with high psychoticism, such as nonconformity and unconventional thinking. They also tend to have high openness to experience and are often intrinsically motivated. A statistical procedure that identifies clusters of test items that seem to tap a common ability is called: 4. correlational measurement 5. standardization 6. factor analysis 7. reliability assessment Answer: 3. factor analysis Explanation: Factor analysis is a statistical method used to identify clusters or groups of related items (factors) on a test, which are believed to measure common underlying abilities or constructs. Which of the following is an advantage of autocratic leadership? 4. It is an innovative style of leadership. 5. Decisions are made quickly. 6. Employees' ideas and creativity are not usually considered. 7. Job satisfaction is higher in organizations dominated by autocratic leadership style. Answer: 2. Decisions are made quickly. Explanation: One advantage of autocratic leadership is that decisions can be made quickly because the leader has the authority to make decisions without consulting others.  43 Nairon is not consistent concerning values, ethics, and actions. He can alienate others and negatively affect morale. Which of the following traits does he lack? 4. vision 5. assertiveness 6. humility 7. integrity Answer: 4. integrity Explanation: Integrity involves being consistent in values, ethics, and actions, and it fosters trust and positive relationships. Lacking integrity can lead to alienating others and negatively impacting morale. Select one example of intrinsic motivation: 4. money 5. trophies 6. praise 7. feel good factor Answer: 4. feel good factor Explanation: Intrinsic motivation refers to doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable. The "feel good factor" represents internal satisfaction and enjoyment, making it an example of intrinsic motivation. The other options (money, trophies, praise) are examples of extrinsic motivation. Five Factor Model: 4. is a trait theory of personality 5. in this model five traits are meant to be related 6. in this model neuroticism and extraversion are very different traits than those described in PEN theory 7. none of the above Answer: 1. is a trait theory of personality Explanation: The Five Factor Model, also known as the Big Five personality traits, is a trait theory of personality that includes openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.  44 Crystallized intelligence is: 4. related to a person’s inherent capacity to learn and solve problems 5. used in adapting to new situations 6. highly culturally dependent 7. none of the above Answer: 3. highly culturally dependent Explanation: Crystallized intelligence involves knowledge that comes from prior learning and past experiences, making it highly dependent on cultural and educational contexts. Humanist theories emphasize the concept of __________ in personality development: 4. wish fulfillment 5. self-actualization 6. ego-ideal 7. the unconscious mind Answer: 2. self-actualization Explanation: Humanist theories, such as those proposed by Maslow and Rogers, emphasize self-actualization, which is the process of realizing and fulfilling one’s potential and capabilities. Personality traits are usually conceived of as being: 4. relatively stable over time 5. continuous characteristics rather than discrete categories 6. descriptive labels rather than explanations 7. all of the above Answer: 4. all of the above Explanation: Personality traits are generally considered stable over time, viewed as continuous dimensions rather than discrete categories, and used as descriptive labels to summarize patterns of behavior.  45 The _________ approach to studying personality is a method of interpreting data that is person-centered and focuses on how the unique parts of a person’s personality form a consistent whole: 4. idiographic 5. nomothetic 6. idiosyncratic 7. individualistic Answer: 1. idiographic Explanation: The idiographic approach to studying personality focuses on understanding the unique aspects of an individual, looking at how the various parts of a person’s personality form a consistent whole. The Great Man Theory of leadership assumes that: 4. great leaders are born and not made 5. what an individual actually does when acting as a leader is in large part dependent upon characteristics of the situation in which he functions 6. leadership effectiveness is determined by the interaction between the leader's personal characteristics and the characteristics of the situation 7. leadership effectiveness depends on the leader's ability to tailor his or her behavior to the demands of the situation Answer: 1. great leaders are born and not made Explanation: The Great Man Theory posits that leadership qualities are inherent and that great leaders are born with these traits, rather than developed through experience or training.  46 Characteristics of personality disorders is/are not: 4. extreme or significant deviations from the culture’s standard ways of behaving 5. rapid development 6. rigid reactions to changing personal and social situations 7. early onset of symptoms in the course of development Answer: 2. rapid development Explanation: Personality disorders are characterized by enduring patterns of behavior that deviate significantly from cultural expectations, rigid reactions to personal and social situations, and early onset. They do not typically develop rapidly but rather emerge gradually and persist over time. According to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the id operates based on the: 4. reality principle 5. pleasure principle 6. secondary process 7. ego ideal Answer: 2. pleasure principle Explanation: According to Freud, the id operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs. Eysenck’s three superfactors are: 4. universal 5. independent 6. biologically conditioned 7. all of the above Answer: 4. all of the above Explanation: Eysenck proposed three major personality dimensions (neuroticism, extraversion, and psychoticism), which he considered to be universal, independent, and influenced by biological factors. Neuroticism as a personality trait has six primary facets, among which is not: 4. self-consciousness  47 5. sensation-seeking 6. impulsiveness 7. anxiety Answer: 2. sensation-seeking Explanation: Sensation-seeking is more associated with extraversion or psychoticism, not neuroticism. Neuroticism includes traits such as self-consciousness, impulsiveness, and anxiety. Cattell’s theory of individual traits. Which is true? 4. Cattell’s theory of individual traits is based not on factor analysis 5. main assumption of Cattell’s theory of individual traits is lexical hypothesis 6. Cattell’s personality traits are independent 7. Cattell’s theory of individual traits contains 5 Personality Factors Answer: 2. main assumption of Cattell’s theory of individual traits is lexical hypothesis Explanation: Cattell's theory, which includes 16 personality factors, is based on the lexical hypothesis and factor analysis. The correct answer focuses on the lexical hypothesis, the main assumption behind identifying trait descriptors in language. The Trait Theory is: 4. the direction of personality psychology that is dominant in contemporary research 5. a major that emphasizes the study of individual differences 6. an approach to describe personality in terms of traits 7. all of the above Answer: 4. all of the above Explanation: Trait theory is a dominant approach in contemporary personality psychology that emphasizes the study of individual differences and describes personality in terms of traits. Divergent thinking widely regarded as an aspect of creativity refers to:  48 4. generating response to a problem that requires a single correct answer 5. generating ideas in a group setting that involves individuals saying everything that comes to mind 6. finding only one solution 7. generating multiple answers to a problem Answer: 4. generating multiple answers to a problem Explanation: Divergent thinking involves generating multiple solutions to a problem, which is a key component of creativity. The determinants of individual differences in humans are related to (choose the most accurate answer): 4. interaction with the environment 5. differences in their heredity 6. differences in both heredity and environment 7. interaction between heredity and environment Answer: 4. interaction between heredity and environment Explanation: Individual differences are influenced by the complex interaction between genetic (heredity) and environmental factors. In personality and intelligence, heredity plays: 4. insignificant role 5. crucial role 6. unpredictable role 7. unknown role Answer: 2. crucial role Explanation: Heredity plays a crucial role in both personality and intelligence, contributing significantly to individual differences through genetic inheritance. The main issue in developmental psychology that involves debate over the contributions of heredity and the environment is known as the: 4. nature vs. nurture debate 5. early experience vs. later experience debate 6. sensitive vs. critical period debate 7. continuity vs. discontinuity debate  49 Answer: 1. nature vs. nurture debate Explanation: The nature vs. nurture debate addresses the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to human development and individual differences. All of the following statements about the role of genetics in determining personality differences are true, except: 4. There is a genetic component to our personalities. 5. Environmental influences and genetic components do not influence one another. 6. The genetic framework for our personalities can be manipulated by our experiences. 7. Manner in which genetic variation affects psychological phenotypes is extremely complicated. Answer: 2. Environmental influences and genetic components do not influence one another. Explanation: This statement is incorrect because environmental influences and genetic components interact with each other to shape personality. The other statements correctly describe the role of genetics in personality. Which of the following researchers created the first intelligence test? 4. David Wechsler 5. John C. Raven 6. Alfred Binet 7. Charles Spearman Answer: 3. Alfred Binet Explanation: Alfred Binet, along with his colleague Théodore Simon, created the first practical intelligence test, known as the Binet-Simon scale, in the early 20th century. Select one example of intrinsic motivation: 4. money 5. trophies 6. praise 7. feel good factor  50 Answer: 4. feel good factor Explanation: Intrinsic motivation is driven by internal rewards, such as the satisfaction and enjoyment one feels while engaging in an activity, commonly referred to as the "feel good factor." Five Factor Model: 4. is a trait theory of personality 5. in this model five traits are meant to be related 6. in this model neuroticism and extraversion are very different traits than those described in PEN theory 7. none of the above Answer: 1. is a trait theory of personality Explanation: The Five Factor Model is a well-established trait theory of personality that includes five core traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Crystallized intelligence is: 4. related to a person’s inherent capacity to learn and solve problems 5. used in adapting to new situations 6. highly culturally dependent 7. none of the above Answer: 3. highly culturally dependent Explanation: Crystallized intelligence involves knowledge and skills acquired through experience and education, making it highly dependent on cultural context. Humanist theories emphasize the concept of __________ in personality development: 4. wish fulfillment 5. self-actualization 6. ego-ideal 7. the unconscious mind Answer: 2. self-actualization Explanation: Humanist theories, particularly those proposed by Maslow and Rogers, emphasize self-actualization, the process of realizing and fulfilling one's potential. Personality traits are usually conceived of as being:  51 4. relatively stable over time 5. continuous characteristics rather than discrete categories 6. descriptive labels rather than explanations 7. all of the above Answer: 4. all of the above Explanation: Personality traits are typically viewed as stable over time, continuous dimensions, and descriptive labels used to summarize behavior patterns. The _________ approach to studying personality is a method of interpreting data that is person-centered and focuses on how the unique parts of a person’s personality form a consistent whole: 4. idiographic 5. nomothetic 6. idiosyncratic 7. individualistic Answer: 1. idiographic Explanation: The idiographic approach focuses on the unique aspects of an individual's personality, considering how various parts of a person’s personality create a cohesive whole. According to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the id operates based on the: 4. reality principle 5. pleasure principle 6. secondary process 7. ego ideal Answer: 2. pleasure principle Explanation: The id operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of desires, regardless of the consequences. Eysenck’s three superfactors are: 4. universal 5. independent 6. biologically conditioned 7. all of the above  52 Answer: 4. all of the above Explanation: Eysenck’s three superfactors—neuroticism, extraversion, and psychoticism—are considered universal, independent, and biologically influenced. Neuroticism as a personality trait has six primary facets, among which is not: 4. self-consciousness 5. sensation-seeking 6. impulsiveness 7. anxiety Answer: 2. sensation-seeking Explanation: Sensation-seeking is typically associated with extraversion and psychoticism, not neuroticism. Neuroticism includes facets like anxiety, self-consciousness, and impulsiveness. Cattell’s theory of individual traits. Which is true? 4. Cattell’s theory of individual traits is based not on factor analysis 5. main assumption of Cattell’s theory of individual traits is lexical hypothesis 6. Cattell’s personality traits are independent 7. Cattell’s theory of individual traits contains 5 Personality Factors Answer: 2. main assumption of Cattell’s theory of individual traits is lexical hypothesis Explanation: Cattell’s theory is based on the lexical hypothesis and factor analysis, identifying 16 primary personality factors. The Trait Theory is: 4. the direction of personality psychology that is dominant in contemporary research 5. a major that emphasizes the study of individual differences 6. an approach to describe personality in terms of traits 7. all of the above Answer: 4. all of the above Explanation: The Trait Theory is a central approach in contemporary personality psychology, focusing on studying individual differences and describing personality in terms of traits.  53 Divergent thinking widely regarded as an aspect of creativity refers to: 4. generating responses to a problem that require a single correct answer 5. generating ideas in a group setting that involves individuals saying everything that comes to mind 6. finding only one solution 7. generating multiple answers to a problem Answer: 4. generating multiple answers to a problem Explanation: Divergent thinking involves producing a variety of possible solutions to a problem, which is a key aspect of creative thinking. The determinants of individual differences in humans are related to (choose the most accurate answer): 4. interaction with the environment 5. differences in their heredity 6. differences in both heredity and environment 7. interaction between heredity and environment Answer: 4. interaction between heredity and environment Explanation: Individual differences are shaped by the interaction between genetic (heredity) and environmental influences. In personality and intelligence, heredity plays: 4. insignificant role 5. crucial role 6. unpredictable role 7. unknown role Answer: 2. crucial role Explanation: Heredity plays a crucial role in determining personality traits and intelligence, contributing significantly to individual differences. The main issue in developmental psychology that involves debate over the contributions of heredity and the environment is known as the: 4. nature vs. nurture debate 5. early experience vs. later experience debate  54 6. sensitive vs. critical period debate 7. continuity vs. discontinuity debate Answer: 1. nature vs. nurture debate Explanation: The nature vs. nurture debate centers on the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental influences (nurture) to development. All of the following statements about the role of genetics in determining personality differences are true, except: 4. There is a genetic component to our personalities. 5. Environmental influences and genetic components do not influence one another. 6. The genetic framework for our personalities can be manipulated by our experiences. 7. Manner in which genetic variation affects psychological phenotypes is extremely complicated. Answer: 2. Environmental influences and genetic components do not influence one another. Explanation: Environmental influences and genetic components interact significantly in shaping personality. The other statements accurately reflect the complexity of genetic and environmental interactions. Which of the following researchers created the first intelligence test? 4. David Wechsler 5. John C. Raven 6. Alfred Binet 7. Charles Spearman Answer: 3. Alfred Binet Explanation: Alfred Binet, along with his colleague Théodore Simon, developed the first practical intelligence test, the Binet-Simon scale, to identify children needing special education. The Great Man Theory of leadership assumes that:  55 4. what an individual actually does when acting as a leader is in large part dependent upon characteristics of the situation in which he functions 5. leadership effectiveness is determined by the interaction between the leader’s personal characteristics and the characteristics of the situation 6. leadership effectiveness depends on the leader’s ability to tailor his or her behavior to the demands of the situation 7. none of the above Answer: 4. none of the above Explanation: The Great Man Theory of leadership assumes that great leaders are born with inherent traits and abilities that predispose them to be effective leaders, regardless of the situation. This theory does not consider situational factors or the interaction between personal characteristics and the situation. Characteristics of personality disorders is/are not: 4. extreme or significant deviations from the culture’s standard ways of behaving 5. rapid development 6. rigid reactions to changing personal and social situations 7. caused only by environment Answer: 2. rapid development Explanation: Personality disorders are characterized by long-term patterns of behavior and inner experience that deviate from cultural expectations, manifesting in rigid and pervasive patterns. They do not develop rapidly but typically emerge in adolescence or early adulthood and persist over time.