Exam 3 Psychology Review PDF

1 Chapter 10: Human Development How does conception occur? How long do sperm or ovum live? Can conception occur if a woman ovulates on Monday and then has intercourse on Wed. – how so? What test(s) can be used to detect pregnancy? When should such a test be done - why? Conception occurs when a sp...

1 Chapter 10: Human Development How does conception occur? How long do sperm or ovum live? Can conception occur if a woman ovulates on Monday and then has intercourse on Wed. – how so? What test(s) can be used to detect pregnancy? When should such a test be done - why? Conception occurs when a sperm cell fertilizes an egg, or ovum, after it has been released from an ovary; this is the combination of 23 chromosomes from the father and 23 chromosomes from the mother- giving us 46 chromosomes in the fertilized egg. Sperm can live in a woman's reproductive system for up to 5 days while an ovum can only live up to 12-24 hours. If a woman ovulated on Monday and then had intercourse on Wednesday, conception would not occur as the viability of the ovum would be gone as it would have died, at the lastest, on Tuesday as it only lives for 12-24 hours. There are two forms of pregnancy test: in clinic and at home. At home pregnancy tests detect the human chorionic gonadotropic hormone (HCG) through urine and can detect pregnancy after conception at a rate of 69% as early as 8 days afterwards. In clinic tests also detect human chorionic gonadotropic hormone (HCG) through blood and are more sensitive being able to detect pregnancy 6-8 after conception has occurred. For the most accurate and early testing one should do an in-clinic test as it is more accurate. A woman should get tested after she is one week late from her period What are the different stages of prenatal development and what sorts of things characterize these stages (e.g. when is the most vulnerable period—and why is it considered to be the “most vulnerable period?”, when is the “age of viability” and what does this mean? ETC.). What is morning sickness and what does it indicate when someone has it (answer: normal morning sickness is correlated with decreased risk of miscarriage. any thoughts on why this might be?)? Do most pregnant women experience this? Why would it be advantageous to experience morning sickness? The different stages of prenatal development are: - The Germinal Stage: last from 0-2 weeks long at this stage the child is a zygote - Within 36 hours, proliferation occurs: rapid cell division - The mass of cells then migrates from the fallopian tubes to the uterine wall within 6 days of the mass being created - Entire process takes around a week - During this stage the placenta begin to form which will give nutrients to pass onto the fetus from the mothers bloodstream, with waste being passed through the mother - The Embryonic Stage: second stage of prenatal development which lasts from week 2 until the end of the second month - During this stage the vital organs and bodily systems are formed and the child is called an embryo - Cell division now becomes more specialized  2 - The Embryonic stage is the stage with the greatest amount of vulnerability as most miscarriages occur during this time and most major structural birth defects are the result from problems that occur during this stage of pregnancy - The Fetal Stage: This is the third stage of prenatal development, lasting from 2 months until birth - The child is referred to as a fetus and is capable of physical movement - The first 2 months of this stage includes rapid cell growth - Final 3 months the brain cells multiply - At 23-24 weeks the fetus reaches the stage or age of viability meaning that if it were born prematurely it would have chance of survival - Those born on the cusp of this threshold oftentimes experience wide range of developmental issues Morning sickness is a phenomenon that occurs when a woman is in her first trimester where she experiences onset nausea and vomiting, usually within the early weeks of pregnancy. When someone has morning sickness it is a good indication that the woman is pregnant. Morning sickness is caused by the increase of the human chorionic gonadotropic hormone (HCG), which is needed to sustain pregnancy. It may be correlated with a decreased risk of miscarriage as it was likely an evolutionary method used to avoid certain foods to protect the growing fetus. The majority of women do experience morning sickness with 70-80% of women experiencing the symptoms, though the severity may drastically change depending on the person. The advantage of experiencing morning sickness may be to alert the woman that she is pregnant and deter her from eating anything that may harm the fetus. Additionally it may let them know that the pregnancy is progressing as normal since they have healthy hormone levels (what's causing the nausea). What is the “cephalocaudal” vs. “proximodistal” principle and what do they have to do with prenatal development? The cephalocaudal principle refers to the development of motor control from a child’s head to toe, meaning that a child will develop their upper limb movement before their lower limb movement. It also refers to the overall development of the child with their head developing first, and eventually their torso and extremities. The proximodistal principle refers to the control that a child gains over their muscles starting from their torso outward to their limbs and their overall development focuses on the center of their body and then outward. Both of these principles have to do with prenatal development as they refer to the order of not only their physical development but also their motor control development as they grow. Give examples of teratogens. Why might airline attendants be at particular risk for miscarriage? Do disease symptoms in a pregnant woman reflect the amount of damage which may occur in the developing fetus? Is it OK to drink alcohol during pregnancy? How does the brain of an infant with FetalAlcohol Syndrome differ from the brain of a normal infant? Is it OK for an obese person to diet when they are pregnant? Why or why not?  3 Teratogens are environmental factors that may negatively impact a pregnancy as they can affect fetal development. Examples of teratogens would be things such as chemicals, diet, drugs, infections, etc. Airline attendants may be at a particular risk for miscarriage as they spend a lot of time in the air and experience more radiation than most pregnant women. Additionally when they are in the cabin of the aircraft they are most likely at a higher risk of catching a sickness since they are in close quarters with many passengers from across the country and globe. No, the disease symptoms that are present in pregnant women does not reflect the amount of damage that may occur in the developing fetus. Simple viruses that may not fully affect the mother may cause irreparable damage to the fetus and result in birth defects. Additionally, the fetus may experience varying levels of damage depending on what stage of pregnancy the mother is in and the medication or treatment she endures. Overall the severity of the mothers symptoms cannot translate to what the damage on the fetus is. During no stage in pregnancy is it okay to drink alcohol. Drinking alcohol during your pregnancy may result in various forms of developmental issues in the child later on in their life and additional issues during their fetal development which can result in birth defects such as organ development issues, weight issues, and overall brain development. The brain of an infant with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome differs from a normal infant as it is significantly smaller in size overall, is asymmetric, and its function will very likely have a harder time retrieving information, problem solving, memory issues, issues with motor control, balance, and more. During pregnancy, the developing fetus needs nutrients in order to grow and develop properly. Due to this obese women could likely eat a balanced diet and have additional nutrients for the developing fetus and gradually lose weight but it's not recommended for them to diet explicitly as they could possibly suffer from malnutrition. Describe postnatal physical development (e.g. during toddler years). How does the “growth spurt” relate to sexual development? Are there sex differences in terms of physical growth and sexual growth? Despite rapid growth during the first few years after birth, infants are always practicing their motor skills. When does rolling over, sitting up or walking without assistance occur? Why does it make better sense to give “median ages” at which these motor milestones occur instead of “mean ages”? After the child is born, it experiences rapid growth until the end of their toddler years. Physical growth is rapid but eventually slows down over time. By the time a child is one they are already 50% bigger than they were when they were firstborns, and by the time they are two they are 75% longer than they were when they were first born. In terms of physical and sexual development girls are likely to develop faster compared to boys. Girls tend to develop 1-2 years ahead of boys. Rolling over without assistance occurs 2.75 months into their life, sitting up occurs at around 5.5 months, walking occurs at around 12 months. It makes sense to give median ages at which these motor milestones occur instead of mean ages because it helps prevent outliers to skew results as they may pull towards results that are not very good representations of time as they are considered late or early. Considering the median is better as it gives a better picture as to what time frame would be considered average as motor milestones are very individualistic to each child and can be affected by a variety of factors such as culture, nutrition/diet, and health.  4 Describe sexual development. For example, what is the difference between primary vs. secondary sexual characteristics. Before an individual experiences a growth spurt, they begin to develop their secondary sexual characteristics which would include things such as their body shape and hair growth. For males, they would likely experience deepening of their voice, broader shoulders, and they will begin to grow darker and coarser hair in their pubic area, arms, legs, and face. For females, breast tissue may begin to develop around 10 years old, their hips will widen and they will grow darker coarser hair underneath their arms and pubic area. After their growth spurt, primary sexual characteristics begin to develop, which are changes to the reproductive organs themselves. For males this would include growth in the penis, testes, and scrotum as well as spermarche which is the first ejaculation that they experience. For females this would include the beginning of the release of an ovum and menarche, their first period. This is also referred to as puberty. For the developmental chapter, be very clear on which researchers proposed which theories. My recommendation is that you create a chart which looks like the following: (list researchers 1 sentence which What is this a What key terms or tools are down this column) describes the main theory associated point of how of? with this theory? personality develops Some theories were described more fully than other theories. When a theory is described fully, make sure you know all the stages and terms well. Erik Erikson Personality is shaped Personality This theory is associated with 8 by how an individual Development different stages spanning deals with throughout one's life. To enhance psychosocial crisis development one must be in favor of the healthier result to a crisis for example (stage one: trust or mistrust) - 1st: Trust vs Mistrust (1st year) - 2nd: Autonomy vs Shame/doubt (2-3 years) - 3rd: Initiative vs Guilt (4th-6th years) - 4th: Industry vs Inferiority (6-puberty) - 5th: Identity vs confusion (Adolescence) - 6th: Intimacy vs Isolation  5 (Early adulthood) - 7th: Generativity vs Self-absorption (Middle adulthood) - 8th: Integrity vs Despair (Late adulthood) Jean Piaget Development occurs Cognitive This theory is associated with a based on the Development stage theory as well with 4 major interaction with the stages. environment and - 1: Sensorimotor period: maturation Coordination of sensory input and motor responses; development of object permanence (Birth-2 years) - 2: Preoperational Period: Development of symbolic thought marked by irreversibility, centration, and egocentrism (2-7 years) - 3: Concrete operational period: Mental operations applied to concrete events, mastery of conservation, hierarchical classification (7-11 years) - 4: Formal operational period: mental operations, applied to abstract ideas, logical, systemic thinking (11-adulthood) Harry Harlow Refers to the close Emotional Monkeys and wire mothers, got emotional bonds of Development: attached with something that affection that develop Attachment seemed as a foundation for support between infants and giving stressors such as fear their caregivers Lev Vygotsky Cognitive Sociocultural This theory is similar to Jean Development is Theory - Piaget’s theory but rather focuses primarily fueled by Cognitive on the foundations that language social interactions Development lays through dialogues in with parents, interactions that children have teachers, and older forming their cognitive development children who can give them guidance - Dialogue and language Lawrence Kohlberg Focussed on moral Moral Another Stage Theory with three  6 reasoning rather than Reasoning different “levels” with 2 different overt behavior Development stages explaining how kids - Preconventional Level develop a sense of - Stage 1: right vs. wrong Punishment Orientation: R/W determined by what is punished - Stage2: Naive Reward Orientation: R/W determined by what is rewarded - Conventional Level - Stage 3: Good Boy/ Good Girl Orientation: R/W determined by approval or disapproval from others - Stage 4: Authority orientation: R/W determined by society’s rules and laws - need to be obeyed rigidly - Postconventional Level - Stage 5: Social contract orientation: R/W determined by society’s rules which are viewed as fallible rather than absolute - Stage 6: Individual Principles and conscience orientation: R/W determined by abstract ethical principles that emphasize equity and justice Jeffery Arnett Personality 18-29: new not adolescent/not adult, Development stage that is possibilities/optimism, self-focused different from time, other stages/ continued identity search emerging Finding yourself adulthood - May not be applicable to  7 certain socioeconomic areas because it largely would focus on individuals who are of higher education and financial stability What does it mean to be a “stage theory?” What’s the opposite of a stage theory? What are common problems of stage theories? A stage is described to be a developmental period in which characteristic patterns of behavior are exhibited and certain capacities become established. Stage theories assume that individuals must progress through specified stages in a particular order since each stage builds on the previous, progress through each stage is dependent on age, and that development is marked by discontinuities that usher in dramatic transitions of behavior. The opposite of a stage theory would be continuous development theories that claim development is gradual and doesn’t have any distinct shifts or stages. Common problems of stage theories would include things such as: - Universality: assuming that everyone goes through the same stages additionally with this eurocentrism may affect it as well with some theories as it may be modeled after one culture not including variations in behavior within others. Additionally may not take into account other things such as environmental or social interactions that may affect the progress of development - Rigidity: These theories may be considered to be to rigid given that they explain distinct shifts in actions, behavior, or thinking through different stages in a certain order but development could be considered to be a more fluid thing - Too Focussed: These stage theories may be too focussed on one aspect of development without taking into account other focuses of development that may hinder or accelerate other parts of development - Does Not fully take into account individuality and how development may be very different from person to person What theory did Jean Piaget propose? How did he come up with this theory? Know the different concepts included in his theory, e.g. object permanence, lack of conservation, egocentrism, animism, etc. In contrast to Piaget, in what ways did Vygotsky’s theory differ? Jean Piaget proposed the theory that cognitive development was determined by the interactions children have with their environment and maturation. He proposed that children go through four main stages of development. In order to compose this theory he would observe his own kid as well as many others. Object Permanence (Sensorimotor Stage): Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they’re out of sight. Egocentrism (Preoperational Stage): Difficulty in seeing things from perspectives other than one's own. Animism (Preoperational Stage): Attributing life-like qualities to inanimate objects. Lack of Conservation (Preoperational Stage): Inability to understand that certain properties (e.g., volume, number) remain constant despite changes in form or appearance. In contrast Vygotsky’s theory was not a stage theory meaning  8 that it was a continuous path of development and it was heavily determined based off of social interactions. How do emotions develop? Are babies born with emotional attachments to their parents? What types of early emotional attachments exist and how do we determine this? Is this universal (that is, does are these categories relevant for other countries/cultures? how so or how not?) How might these different types of emotional attachment styles come about (that is, develop)? Do early emotional attachments influence later relationships – how so or how not? Emotions in infancy are basic emotional responses to things such as pleasure, distress, and interest. These responses will continue to develop as they interact with their caregivers (mothers, fathers, etc). As children continue to develop their emotions will become more complex as they will be affected by social experiences and biological maturation. Emotions continue to change and develop throughout adulthood as well. Babies are not born with emotional attachments to their parents, they gradually form attachments as they spend more time with their caregivers as they gain a sense of security. The different types of early emotional attachments are - Secure Attachment, where children are easily comforted by their parents and feel safe around them - Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment, where children often display anxiety when being seperated from their caregivers. They are typically clingy with their caregivers and show difficulty being soothed when they distressed - Avoidant Attachment, children want more separation from their caregivers, even when they are experiencing distress These types of attachments are determined by the way that infants are treated by their caregivers during their development, nurturing vs non nurturing etc. Given research that has been done, the need or development of attachment is a universal trait, though the types of expressed attachment may vary based on culture as well as the certain interactions between infants and caregivers may show different cultural foundations. Each attachment styles are developed based on the attentiveness and responsiveness of caregivers to their infants. Certain types of responsiveness will result in the various types of attachments; consistency and nurturing = secure, non responsive/less consistent = anxious or avoidant. Yes, the attachments that we form when we are younger later influence how we approach relationships later in our lives. These early attachments act as a sort of blueprint that expresses how we feel about trust, security, and intimacy with another person. How does language develop? Know the concepts involved, e.g. overregularizations, overextensions, underextensions, telegraphic speech, ETC. Is language development about nature or nurture –explain your answer. 1- 5 mos.: reflexive communication; cooing - Babies engage in reflexive communication, such as crying, to express needs, and cooing begins as an early form of vocalization. 6-18 mos.: babbling  9 - Babies start producing repetitive consonant-vowel combinations like "ba-ba" or "da-da," which is an important precursor to speech. 10-13 mos. first words 12 – 18 mos.: one word sentences receptive vs. productive vocabulary - Receptive vocabulary refers to the words a child can understand, while productive vocabulary refers to the words a child can actually say. Overextension - calling all animals dog Underextension - When a child restricts a word to a narrower range than it actually represents (e.g., using "doll" to refer only to a single favorite doll). 18-24 mos.: vocabulary spurt & fast mapping - Around this age, children experience a vocabulary explosion, learning new words rapidly. Fast mapping allows them to connect new words with their meanings after only a brief exposure. towards end of 2 yrs: telegraphic speech (not universal) -Early sentence formation that includes only essential words, often resembling telegram style (e.g., "want cookie" instead of "I want a cookie"). towards end of 3 yrs.: over regularizations - Children apply regular grammatical rules to irregular words, leading to errors like saying "goed" instead of "went." 5 yrs.+: well-developed and complex grammar Environmental factors can influence, too! Describe Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. Why do we care about moral development? What are the problems of this theory? What are the things which are supported about his theory? Which things have NOT been supported about his theory? (When it comes to researcher’s theories, always consider which sections have been supported by later research and which sections have not been.) Kohlberg’s theory of moral development focuses on the idea of 3 major stages describes as preconventional, conventional, and postconventional. Within these major stages there are 2 stages within each section which cover the thought process in distinguishing what is considered right and what is considered wrong. We care about moral development as it explains the ethical decisions that an individual then makes with their contributions to society and their relationships. The theory is important for certain fields of psychology, ethics, and education since it speaks about moral reasoning and social responsibility. Things supported about his theory are the sequence that is associated with cognitive development, it accounts for continuity and change, and it was one of the first grand theories of cognitive development. Things that were not supported by this theory  10 are its underestimated cultural factors, the lack of accountability for the individualistic experience, and underestimation of the ages of which abilities appear. Describe normal aging in terms of physical changes and cognitive changes (is it normal to be senile in later age? what physical changes occur)? The physical changes that one experiences in normal aging would include decline in sensory stimuli, meaning there would be a gradual loss of smell, hearing, taste, and vision. There would also be a reduction in bone mass leading to more brittle bones and a higher risk of certain diseases such as osteoporosis; there would also be a decline in muscle mass leading to less strength and mobility. There would also be differences to one's skin and hair, skin will become more wrinkled and looser over time and hair will likely turn gray and thinner overtime with the reduction of melanin and decrease of collagen. There is also a reduction in Cardiovascular and Respiratory Effectiveness resulting in lower stamina with the reduction of efficiency in the heart and lungs. The cognitive changes that one experiences that are thought to be normal would be a change in memory, as we age it is normal to experience delayed times in retrieving certain information or a slight decline in memory but there still should be retention of knowledge and recognition. Naturally as we age, our processing speed begins to decline as well with older adults processing and responding to information more slowly than before. Additionally there's a reduction in the fluidity of intelligence meaning that it may become more difficult to adapt to new situations and problem solve but their knowledge that's accumulated over time or crystalized intelligence tends to remain stable. It is not normal to be senile later in age as this would be associated with dementia which is not normal aging as it progressive memory failure over time. What are some major family life transitions? e.g., Is the adolescent period a period of turmoil? Why do some say it is? What do the rest of the researchers say? What do we know about the search for identity? What factors are involved with whether or not it is an easy transition into married life? How does parenthood affect individuals? Is there a such thing as empty nest syndrome? What do we know about the death process? What did Kubler-Ross say about the death process? What is a living will? (Answer: a document which indicates what sorts of life-prolonging tests/procedures you are willing to have done if you become incapacitated.) Right before COVID-19, do you know what some of the most common ways of dying were/are? How was this different from the most common ways of dying in the distant past? Major family life transitions would be: - Marriage/Lifetime partnership: must work as a collective effort to share goals, sharing responsibilities, and adjusting to having a commitment to someone else. Marriages may lead to a lot of new problems for individuals as they adjust to living with another person long term, with possible stressors being dynamic shifts and economic responsibilities - Parenthood: Majority of couples decide to have children, though a first child is a major transition as they disrupt previously established routines which lead to emotional draining and additional stress both emotionally, physically, and financially. Leads families to switch priorities and dynamics as children are major influences in routines  11 - Child-Rearing: During this time parents must focus on raising their children into adulthood once again shifting responsibilities to encompass educational and social factors that are incorporated into their child’s life leading to greater challenges in a work-life balance - Empty Nest: Adults are now alone in their homes for the first time since before they had children leading to another adjustment from chaos to freedom and emotional shifts to the new calm presented by the lack of children. May lead to reevaluation of dynamics in the household once again and reframing of life goals. - Retirement: Another major change that occurs in adulthood which may lead to a revelation of identity, social relationships, and financial planning. Routines are once again adjusted with partners as they are spending more time with one another and can split responsibilities differently - Movement to Being Grandparents: Another turning point in family dynamics, becoming a new role in the lives of their children to help them accommodate becoming parents, acting as mentors to them and additional help as families expand. - Aging & End of Life: Letting go of certain responsibilities and abilities through aging as competence and abilities begin to decline. Lots of emotional troubles with loss of capability, spouse loss, and loss of independence as they must depend on family members for help and eventual decisions about asset distribution and living/health circumstances The period of adolescence can be a period of turmoil as many young adults struggle with their personal identity, who they are, what they’re doing, and their life goals and purpose. Though it may be seen as a time of turmoil for some as they are experiencing major emotional/hormonal changes, I do not believe that everyone would describe this time period to be of turmoil. Someone may say that this time is a time of turmoil because of the trouble teenagers may have adjusting to the hormonal and emotional changes that occur during adolescence. The researchers say that although adolescence may cause some troubles to certain individuals, overall it is not considered a troublesome period for everyone, and can be described as a manageable growth period. The search of identity is a complicated path that people follow, considered a lifelong journey rather than just staying in adolescence. Marriage becomes an easy transition when individuals are not optimistic and have realistic expectations for themselves and their partners. Parenthood affects individuals as it may result in negative effects to marriages as responsibilities and focuses become shifted and more stressed even though it could also be considered a joyous time. Yes, empty nest syndrome is a thing though it’s not as common as previously thought, new studies have shown that parents are usually more relieved when their children move out. What we know about death is that it is a completely unique experience and seen as complicated and is a taboo topic so it's not spoken about that openly. Kubler Ross explained the 5 step process that occurs during the end of life period: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. Additionally when people are in their final stages of life in their last couple days they are typically happier. A living will is a formal document that allows you to indicate what tests and procedures you are okay with having performed if you are incapacitated. Before covid cardiovascular diseases and cancer were the  12 main killers this is different from those in the distant past as they were not controllable things like famine, war, and contagious diseases. Chapter 11: Personality What is personality? Does it even exist? (What do Mischel and Buss say?) Personality refers to an individual’s unique set of consistent behavioral traits, while personality itself is used to explain the stability in a pons behavior over time and across situations (consistency) and the behavioral differences among people who are reacting to the same situation (distinctiveness). Walter Mischel says that personality is a set of unique responses to any situations and isn’t entirely consistent while David Buss says that our evolutionary qualities help us navigate certain citations, for examples agreeableness can lead to better chances of survival For the personality chapter, it is also important to know which researchers proposed which theories. What was Freud’s theory of personality development? Frued’s theory of personality development revolved around how children deal with their sexual urges (just how he described urges for physical pleasure), claiming that one’s personality would be laid out by the time they are five years old Phycosexual stages are developmental periods with a characteristic sexual focus that leave their mark on adult personality - Oral Stage - 0-1 years old - Mouth, sucking and biting - Considerable importance to the manner in which the child is weaned from the breast to the bottle - These fixations at the oral stage could then form the basis for obsessive eating or smoking (and more) later in life - Anal Stage - 2-3 years old - Children get their erotic pleasure from their bowel movements through expulsion or retention of feces - Significant event is potty training - Based on this training may result in concerns or anxiety about sexual activities later in life given that this process was frustrating or was the cause of punishment or stress - Phallic Stage - 3-5 years old - Genitals become the focus of erotic energy through self-stimulation (masturbation) - Oedipal complex emerges  13 - Boys will feel an eroticalled tinged preference for their mother and hostility towards their father who they see as a competitor for their mothers attention - Girls feel special attachment to their fathers - Learn that boys have different genitals and have penis envy and because of that girls feel hostile towards their mothers - The oedipal complex is where children manifest erotically tinged desires for their opposite-sex parent, accompanied by feelings of hostility towards their same sex parent - Must resolve this dilemma to develop properly - Latency - 6-12 - None (sexually repressed) - Continue to expand social contacts beyond immediate family - Genital Stage - Puberty and beyond - Sexual urges reappear and once again focus on the genitals, sexual energy typically geared towards peers of the other sex rather than oneself - Establishing intimate relationships; contributing to society through working What did he believe was the structure of personality? Freud believed that personality was divided into three components: the ID, the ego, and the superego - The ID: - Is the primitive, instinctive component of personality that operates according to the pleasure principles - Houses the raw biological urges we have - Eat, Sleep, Defecation, etc - Operates according to the pleasure principles, which demands immediate gratification of its urges - Primary process thinking - Primitive, illogical, irrational, and fantasy oriented - The Ego: - Decision-making component of personality that operates according to the reality principle - Ego mediates the id - Immediate satisfaction and External social world - Suitable behavior - Considers social realities - Norms, etiquette, rules, and customs in deciding how to behave - The reality principle, which seeks to delay gratification of the id’s urges until appropriate outlets and situations can be found - Works to tame the unbridled desires of the ID  14 - Strives to avoid negative consequences by engaging in the secondary process thinking - May sometimes require putting off gratification for long-range goals - The Superego: - The moral component of personality that incorporates social standards about what represents right and wrong - Many social norms regarding morality are eventually internalized - Emerges out of the go at around 3-5 years of age - Becomes irrationally demanding in its striving for moral perfection - Excessive feelings of guilt Why did he believe there was an “unconscious?” How does the “unconscious” relate to the structure of our personality? How does the “unconscious” relate to treatment when our personalities do not develop properly? Frued believed that there was an unconsciousness after doing many observations with his patients. Said that patients' dreams revealed their true and hidden desires and mentioned that slips of tongue were a person’s true thoughts. Using psychoanalysis he helped patients discover feelings and conflicts they had been previously aware of. The unconscious relates to the structure of our personality as we have concluded through research that our unconscious thoughts shape quite a few of our actions and our decision-making processes. Since most of our unconscious is developed at an early age, improper development may lead people to have hidden conflicts and similar things regarding this. How did he believe personality developed? Freud believed ones personality was developed through psycosexual urges throughout their childhood and how they chose to manage these urges. What were the criticisms of his theory? Any benefits? The criticism that revolved around Frued’s theory concerned the overemphasis on sexuality and the lack of personality development that occurs later on; there are also skeptics that focus on his emphasis to the unconscious mind. What are “defense mechanisms” and what do they do? Did Freud believe them to be “healthy” or “unhealthy?” Defense mechanisms are largely unconscious reactions that protect a person from unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and guilt, which Frued believed to be completely normal.  15 Be able to differentiate between the different types of defense mechanisms. - Repression: Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious - Traumatized soldier has no recollection of the details regarding a close call with death - Projection: Attributing one’s own thoughts, feelings, or motives to another - Woman who dislikes her boss thinks she likes her boss but feels that the boss doesn’t like her - Displacement: Diverting emotional feelings (usually anger) from their original source to a substitute target - After a scolding girl takes out her anger on her little brother - Reaction formation: Behaving in a way that is exactly the opposite of one's true feelings - A parent who unconsciously resents a child spoils the child with outlandish gifts - Regression: A reversion to immature patterns of behavior - An adult has a temper tantrum when he doesn’t get his way - Rationalization: Creating false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior - A student watches TV instead of studying, saying that additional study wouldn’t do any good anyways - Identification: Bolstering self-esteem by formation an imaginary or real alliance with some person or group - An insecure young man joins a fraternity to boost his self-esteem How did Freud’s theory of personality development differ from other neo-psychodynamic perspectives such as: What did Adler believe were the critical factors involved with personality development? (so how did his theory differ from Freud’s?) The foremost source of human motivation is a striving for superiority. Believing in compensation or efforts to overcome imagined or real inferiority by developing one’s abilities What did Jung contribute with regards to personality development? Jung was a believer in the collective unconscious describing various archetypes each human had. Archetypes are emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning, though this had little influence in mainstream psychology. What did Erik Erikson (remember that his theory was in the chapter about development, Chapter 10)believe were the critical factors involved with personality development? Can you give a couple of examples? How did Erikson’s theory of personality development differ from that of Freud’s?  16 Erikson believed that childhood had a major influence in crafting personality. He also believed that there were 8 stages that highlighted major psychological crises (like Freud's idea of psychosexual stages). Unlike Frued, Erikson argued that personality develops throughout one's entire life and placed particular emphasis on the importance of social and cultural influences over biological ones. What do the humanists believe about personality development? Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs/motivations. What did Maslow believe was the pinnacle of healthy personality development? A need for personal growth, need for self actualization How did he believe personality developed? He believed that we needed to meet the lower standards of the pyramid in order to get to the top which were the most important parts What do you know about higher vs. lower needs—which, for example, are more motivating? Lower needs are more motivating because without them we cannot thrive, once these are met we are then motivated by the higher points on the pyramid Would Maslow’s theory be able to explain a “starving artist?” Why or why not? A starving artist would contradict maslow's theory as it would seem that they skipped the steps on the pyramid (didn’ pay attention to the bottom)  17 Fully describe/explain the behavioral perspective of personality development. The behavioral perspective of personality development presents the idea that personality is shaped by external environments and learning that the individual goes through. According to the perspective, personality is not fixed or innate but rather the result of learning behaviors over time. Behaviorists believe that our actions, fractions, and patterns of behavior are shaped by punishment, observation, and reinforcement. Heavily relies on empirical evidence and focuses on observable behaviors rather than internal processes like thoughts and emotions. According to the Big Five, what are the major components of personality? How does Eysenck’s theory differ from the Big Five? O: Openness C: Conscientiousness E: Extroversion A: Agreeableness N: Neuroticism Eysenck’s theory showed that personalities start at the top and then trickle down to become more complex  18 Chapter 12: Social Psychology What is social psychology? The branch of psychology concerned with the way individuals thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others. What sorts of factors make it more likely that one would make a favorable impression? (i.e. person perception?) How does physical appearance/attractiveness influence person perception? Does it matter for things like getting a job? salary? being judged in court? a mother’s love? Factors that make it more likely that one would make a favorable impression are: - Physical Attractiveness: - often judged to be more favorable due to the “halo effect” where positive traits are attributed to them based on their appearance - Similarity: - People are more likely to form favorable impressions of those who share similar attitudes, interests, or values - Expressiveness: - Nonverbal cues, like smiling, eye contact, and a confident demeanor, contribute positively to impression - Competence: - Showing knowledge, skill, or intelligence tends to foster a favorable perception - Warmth and Friendliness: - A warm, approachable personality is generally perceived positively  19 Physical appearance influences perception as the more attractive someone is the better qualities that are associated with them. In getting a job, attractive people are seen as more competent, confident, and sociable so their likelihood of being hired is higher especially for roles that require customer interaction. Salary may be affected as more attractive individuals tend to earn higher salaries because of favorable bias from employers. In court, more attractive individuals are judged more leniently and jurors may associate attractiveness with positive traits. In regards to mothers love, more attractive children may get more preferential treatment from mother unconsciously since they associate attractiveness with well-being and health. What is a cognitive schema? Why have humans been designed to use cognitive schemas? Explain how stereotypes are a type of a cognitive schema. How are “confirmation bias” and “illusory correlation” involved with cognitive schemas? What do those terms mean? What is “outgroup homogeneity?” Why do you think humans have evolved to exhibit “outgroup homogeneity?” Define and differentiate between the following terms: stereotype, attitudes or biases, explicit vs. implicit biases, prejudice, discrimination, racism, systemic and/or structural racism and diversity vs. equality vs. inclusion. Does the fact that our brains have evolved to use cognitive schemas/stereotypes mean that “we are all racist?” A cognitive schema is a mental framework or organized cluster of knowledge that individuals use to process and interpret information. This helps us understand and predict the world by providing expectations about people, objects, and events based on previous experiences. Humans have been designed to use cognitive schemas because they originally allowed our ancestors to make quick judgements about potential threats based on past experiences. Simple information processing reduces cognitive load by organizing knowledge into predictable patterns, enabling us to make sense of the world without analyzing every detail. Aid Decision making, by providing expectations and association helping us make faster decisions based on our previous decisions. They facilitate learning as they allow us to integrate new information into existing frameworks, making learning more effective. They enhance survival as they help us quickly identify threats, recognize our allies, and navigate social environments which increases our chances of survival. Stereotypes are a type of cognitive schema as they are assumptions made about an individual based on an entire population, simplifying information processing and aid in decision making. Confirmation bias helps aid in keeping the schema after it is formed, illusory correlation is similar but generally forms connections that weren't originally there. Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek, interpret, and remember information that confirms pre-existing beliefs or schemas while ignoring contradictory evidence. Illusory correlation is the perception of a relationship between two variables when no such relationship exists, often based on vivid or rare examples. Outgroup homogeneity refers to members of an outgroup all being similar and worse than those in the ingroup. Things that were not in the ingroup could potentially be a threat, thus not trusting those in an outgroup was the safest option. - Stereotype - A cognitive schema or generalized belief about the traits, behaviors, or characteristics of a group. - Attitudes/biases - Tendencies to evaluate something (a person, group, idea, etc.) positively or negatively. - Explicit bias - Conscious attitudes or preferences you are aware of and can report.  20 - Implicit bias - Unconscious attitudes or preferences that influence behavior without awareness. - Prejudice - A negative attitude or feeling toward a person or group based on stereotypes or biases. - Discrimination - Unequal treatment of individuals based on group membership, translating prejudice into behavior. - Racism - Prejudice, discrimination, or stereotyping based on race. - Systemic and/or structural racism - Racism embedded in policies, laws, and societal structures that perpetuate inequalities. - Diversity - The presence of differences within a group, such as race, gender, or background. - Equality - Ensuring everyone has the same opportunities and resources. - Inclusion - Actively creating environments where all individuals feel valued and involved. No we are not all necessarily racist, though because of these schemas we can be set to a higher potential to be racist. What does it mean to make an attribution? Why have humans evolved to do this? How might attributions vary, as according to Heider (for example, e.g. check the chapter)? Are we good at making attributions? What sorts of errors do we tend to make when making attributions? How do cultures vary with regards to making attributions? Attribution refers to the process of explaining the causes of events, behaviors, or outcomes, particularly in social context, involving assigning reasons for why something happened often distinguishing between internal (dispositional) and external (situational) factors. Humans have evolved to do this because it's similar to how we have biases, attributions allow us to navigate our social environments by aiding in reasoning, problem-solving, and social interaction. According to Heider, attributions can be both internal and external. Internal refers to one attributing success or failure based on internal reasons. External refers to attributing success or failure based on external reasons. We are not generally good at making attributions. The errors we make when making attributions. - Fundamental Attribution Error - Tendency to overestimate internal (dispositional) factors and underestimate external (situational) factors when explaining others' behavior. - Self-Serving Bias - Attributing personal successes to internal factors (e.g., skill) and failures to external factors (e.g., bad luck). - Actor-Observer Bias - Tendency to attribute one’s own actions to situational factors, while attributing others’ actions to their dispositions. Cultures tend to be either individualistic or collectivists. Individualistic - NA & Western Europe. Putting individual goals above that of the community Collectivism - Asian, African, and Latin American. Putting communal goals above that of the individual What does “interpersonal attraction” mean? What sorts of factors influence this? Which of the following is more true: “birds of a feather flock together” or “opposites attract”? What research support do you have for your conclusion? What does “attitude alignment” mean? What are “reciprocity effects?” What factors tend to increase “liking?”  21 Interpersonal attraction is a positive feeling toward another person. Factors that influence interpersonal attraction are physical attraction (we like attractive people), similarity (we like people who are similar to us) and reciprocity (we like people who like us). Given research, the idea that birds of a feather flock together is more true. One study found that people sit closer to others who are similar to them on simple physical traits, such as hair length, hair color, and whether they wear glasses. Married and dating couples tend to be similar in age, race, religion, social class, education, intelligence, physical attractiveness, and attitudes. Attitude alignment refers to the process by which individuals in a close relationship or interaction adjust their attitudes, beliefs, or opinions to become more similar to each other. This alignment often occurs unconsciously and helps strengthen social bonds by reducing conflict and increasing a sense of compatibility. Reciprocity effects mean that we like people who like us and because of this bonding and breeding are promoted. Factors that tend to increase “liking” are: - Similarity - People are more likely to like others who share their attitudes, values, interests, and background. - Example: Two people with a shared love for music or sports are more likely to bond. - Proximity - Physical closeness increases opportunities for interaction and familiarity, which promotes liking. - Example: Coworkers or neighbors often form friendships due to frequent contact. - Reciprocity - People tend to like those who express liking for them. Mutual admiration creates a positive feedback loop. - Example: Compliments and supportive behavior increase affection. - Physical Attractiveness - Attractive individuals are often perceived as more likable due to the halo effect, where positive traits are attributed to them based on appearance. - Familiarity - Repeated exposure to someone (the mere exposure effect) often leads to increased liking. - Example: Seeing someone regularly at the gym can make them seem more approachable. - Shared Experiences - Going through meaningful or challenging situations together fosters bonding. - Example: Completing a group project or attending an intense training camp. - Complementarity - While similarity is important, differences that complement each other can also increase liking. - Example: An outgoing person may appreciate a partner’s calm and reflective nature.  22 - Positive Interactions - Warmth, humor, kindness, and understanding in interactions build rapport and likability. What is “romantic love?” Is passion necessary for marriage? How so or not? What cultural differences exist with regards to marriage? Do Western/individualistic ideas of marriage result in the best marriages? How has the internet affected relationships? Can you have a “real relationship” via the internet? What are some of the advantages of online dating sites? According to the evolutionary perspective, why might men be interested in facial symmetry and women’s waist-to-hip ratio? According to the evolutionary perspective, why might women be interested in the resources potential mates may have? According to the evolutionary perspective, how – and why – might dating/mating strategies differ between men and women? Do we have any evidence for such assertions? Romantic love is an intense emotional state that is characterized by passion, affection, and a deep desire for closeness and connection with another person. It is a combination of emotional intimacy and physical attraction and is considered a key factor in forming and maintaining romantic relationships. Characterized by compassion and passion. In the case of marriage passion is not entirely necessary, in fact most marriages usually see a decline in passion, as you are with the person for so long that it eventually dulls the emotion. In regards to marriage cultural differences can be based on passion which are more common in western countries that tend to be more individualistic while arranged marriages are more common in the east. No, western marriages do not necessarily result in the best marriages, it would just be considered different. The internet has affected relationships as it made it easier to meet new people though it can be difficult based on the ability to easily portray yourself as something that you are not but through dating apps loneliness has become less apparent. You can't necessarily have a real relationship with just the internet as you need to interact and communicate in person to have an effective relationship. Some advantages of online dating sites are that you can meet a lot of people and algorithms are designed to pair you with someone of similar interests to you. Someone with these traits could be considered someone who is optimal to breed with (women to men). Women may be interested in particular resources a potential mate has as it gives them a sense of comfort of what they can be provided when they may be incapable of doing so during pregnancy. Men may be more interested in youthfulness and attractiveness. Women place a greater premium on prospective mates’ ambition, social status, and financial potential because these traits should be associated with the ability to invest material resources in children; Research shows that this may be true. For example rich men with high status can be more selective with their mates. What is an attitude and what dimensions do attitudes have? How are attitudes formed? Why are we interested in knowing people’s attitudes? Why might attitudes be a mediocre predictor of actual future behavior? What are implicit (vs. explicit) attitudes? Why should we care about implicit attitudes? How can we assess implicit attitudes? If we wanted to change someone’s attitude about something (that is, persuade them), what sorts of factors matter and how so?  23 Explain Festinger’s cognitive dissonance and Petty & Cacioppo’s Elaboration Likelihood Model – and how these theories explain attitude change. Attitudes are positive or negative evaluations of objects of thought. “Objects of thought” may include social issues (capital punishment or gun control, for example); groups (liberals, farmers); institutions (the Lutheran church, the Supreme Court); consumer products (yogurt, computers); and people (the president, your next-door neighbor). The 3 dimensions are strength, accessibility, and ambivalence. Attitudes are formed as they can be learned, socially influenced, and come through personal experiences. We are interested in knowing people's attitudes as it may give additional insight to their behaviors. Though there are several other factors that can influence behavior outside of an attitude. Explicit is one the someone can identify and explain. Implicit attitudes are covert attitudes that are expressed in subtle automatic responses over which one has little conscious control. We should care about implicit attitudes as they can impact how we treat other people. We can assess implicit attitudes though the implicit association test. The source is the person who sends a communication, and the receiver is the person to whom the message is sent. Thus, if you watch a presidential news conference on TV, the president is the source, and you and millions of other viewers are the receivers. The message is the information transmitted by the source, and the channel is the medium through which the message is sent. Although the research on communication channels is interesting, we’ll confine our discussion to source, message, and receiver variables. - Dissonance theory - Due to the wide variety of inconsistency in attitudes, they must be changing. Dissonance is when attitudes or beliefs are related but inconsistent—that is, when they contradict each other - Elaboration Likelihood - The central route is taken when people carefully ponder the content and logic of persuasive messages. The peripheral route is taken when persuasion depends on non-message factors, such as the attractiveness and credibility of the source, or on conditioned emotional responses What is the difference between conformity and obedience? How do they differ from persuasion? Why have humans evolved to conform? What is a disadvantage to conforming? What factors influence how likely it is that someone would conform? For example, what is “normative influence?” What is “information influence?” Describe Asch’s studies and what it shows. Describe Milgram’s study and what the implications are. Has this study been replicated? When it comes to group behavior, which phenomena are thought to involve the diffusion of responsibility (e.g. bystander effect, social loafing, group polarization, groupthink)? Conformity is when people yield to real or imagined social pressures, obedience is a form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands like from someone in a position of authority. Obedience involves responding to authority, often without internalizing the change. Conformity involves aligning with group norms, which can lead to belief changes over time.  24 Persuasion involves deliberate efforts to change attitudes, which may or may not lead to behavior change. We have evolved to confirm as an effort to be a part of peoples' ingroup. In a world where working together benefits the individual, having your peers like you is quite advantageous. The biggest disadvantage to conforming is the suppression of individuality. When people yield to real or imagined social pressures they tend to conform. Information influence operates when people look to others for guidance about how to behave in ambiguous situations. Asch’s study showed how powerful conformity can be. The study had 6 people provide an incorrect answer to a very obvious problem. Even though the answer initially seemed blatant, the participant would typically conform to what the group had said. Milgram’s studies showed how willing people were to obey authority. In the experiment he had people get “shocked” by a subject. The experimenter told the subject to keep increasing the shock. Even though the subject knew that it was wrong to continue, they typically did b/c they were told to. Do to ethical reasons, this experiment has not been exactly recreated. Critics argue that in an experiment, the subject listens to the scientist regardless. Diffusion of responsibility: - Bystander Effect: - Individuals are less likely to help in emergencies when others are present, assuming someone else will take action. - Example: The murder of Kitty Genovese (1964), where reports suggested that multiple witnesses did not intervene. - Social Loafing: - People put in less effort in group tasks, assuming others will carry the workload. - Example: Studies like Latane et al. (1979) where participants clapped louder alone than in groups. When it comes to group behavior, which phenomena are thought to involve emphasis on group cohesion (e.g. bystander effect, social loafing, group polarization, groupthink)? Give an example of the cases or studies which exemplify these group effects (i.e. bystander effect, social loafing, group polarization, groupthink). What sorts of things could you do to decrease chances of social loafing? What sorts of things could you do to decrease chances of groupthink? Groupthink: - A desire for harmony leads to poor decision-making, as dissent is suppressed to maintain unity. -. Example: The Challenger space shuttle disaster, where engineers’ warnings were overlooked due to group consensus pressures. Group Polarization: - Group discussions amplify members’ initial attitudes, leading to more extreme positions. - Example: Moscovici and Zavalloni's (1969) study on group attitudes toward de Gaulle or Americans became more extreme after discussion. Decrease Social Loafing: - Increase accountability - Set clear expectations - Enhance group cohesion  25 - Make the task intrinsically motivating - Reduce group size - Provide feedback and recognition - Encourage interdependence Decrease Groupthink: - Encourage open and critical discussion - Appoint a “devil’s advocate” to challenge idea - Invite external opinions or experts - Avoid isolating the group from outside input - Break the group into smaller, independent teams - Encourage leaders to remain impartial during discussions - Promote a culture that values dissent and diverse viewpoints - Allow for anonymous feedback or voting Chapter 10 theorists: Sigmund Freud - Psychodynamic (id,ego,superego) Erik Erikson - 8 stages, each with a crisis Jean Piaget - 4 stages of cognitive development (sen. Pre. con. formal.) Lawrence Kohlberg - moral development (punishment vs reward, etc. Carl Rogers Abraham Maslow Chapter 11 theorists: Jean Piaget Lev Vygotsky Erik Erikson Lawrence Kohlberg Sigmund Freud Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers B.F. Skinner Albert Bandura John Bowlby