Exam 1 Study Slides PDF

Psychological Science Study of the mind, brain, and behavior ○ Mind: mental activity; thoughts and feeling ○ Brain: biological processes that produce mental activity ○ Behavior: observable human actions Structuralism Structuralism: School of psychology that...

Psychological Science Study of the mind, brain, and behavior ○ Mind: mental activity; thoughts and feeling ○ Brain: biological processes that produce mental activity ○ Behavior: observable human actions Structuralism Structuralism: School of psychology that argues that the mind consists of three basic elements Sensations Feelings Images Functionalism Founded by William James Focused on behavior in addition to the mind or consciousness Used direct observations to supplement introspection Influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution Adaptive behavior: patterns are learned and maintained Behaviorism Founded by John Broadus Watson Focus is on learning observable behaviors Observable behaviors – behaviors measured by specialized instruments B. F. Skinner believed that learned behavior is behavior that is reinforced Reinforcement: Stimulus that follows a response and increases the frequency of the response Gestalt Psychology Founded by Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler Focuses on perception and its influence on thinking and problem solving Perceptions are more than the sum of their parts Learning is active and purposeful Accomplished by insight and not mechanical repetition Gestalt Approach Gestalt theory: the whole of personal experience is different from the sum of its constituent elements Noted the perception of objects is subjective and depends on the context This foundation has influenced the study of vision and personality in psychology Psychoanalysis Founded by Sigmund Freud Theory of personality Proposes that people’s lives are influenced by unconscious ideas Method of psychotherapy Helps patients gain insight Seeks socially acceptable ways to express wishes and gratify needs Psychoanalytic Approach Unconscious forces mental forces produce psychological discomfort ○ Conflicts arise from troubling childhood experiences Psychoanalysis: therapist and patient work to bring the unconscious into conscious awareness ○ Free association Modern Perspectives (1 of 8) Psychodynamic Perspective –Modern version of psychoanalysis –More focused on development of a sense of self and discovery of motivations behind a person’s behavior other than sexual motivations –Link between neurobiology and psychodynamic concepts should be explored further Modern Perspectives Behavioral Perspective B.F. Skinner developed theory of operant conditioning Explains how voluntary behavior is learned Introduces concept of reinforcement Behaviorism became a major force in the twentieth century 1.3 Modern Perspectives (4 of 8) Humanistic Perspective “Third force” in psychology; reaction to both psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism. People have free will: the freedom to choose their own destiny Self-actualization: achieving one’s full potential or actual self Early founders: Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers Humanistic Founded by Carl Rogers Focus on the basic goodness of people Happiness, fulfillment Promotes working on personal goals and living up to your full potential The Humanistic-Existential Perspective Humanism – Stresses on human capacity for self- fulfillment, roles of consciousness, self-awareness, and decision making Existentialism – Stresses on free choice and holds people responsible for the choices made Based on the works of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow The Cognitive Perspective Looks at mental processes to understand human nature Studies those things that are referred to as the mind Rooted in: Socrates’s advice Structuralism Functionalism Gestalt psychology Cognitivism Behaviorism can’t explain everything Study of mental functions Focus on neural mechanisms underlying thought, learning, perception, language, and memory Worked to develop an integrated view of the mind Modern Perspectives Sociocultural Perspective Focuses on the relationship between social behavior and culture, combining two areas of study: Social Psychology: study of groups, social roles, and rules of social actions and relationships Cultural Psychology: study of cultural norms, values, and expectations Includes cross-cultural research The Biological Perspective Seeks relationships between: Brain, hormones, heredity, and evolution Behavior and mental processes Charles Darwin Most adaptive organism manages to mature and reproduce Table 1.1: The Seven Modern Perspectives in Psychology (1 of 2) Perspective Major Focus and Concepts Major Theorists Psychodynamic Development of sense of self, Sigmund Freud, Carl motivation for social/interpersonal Gustav Jung, Alfred Adler, relationships Karen Horney, Erik Erikson, Anna Freud Behavioral Classical and operant conditioning, Ivan Pavlov, John B. concept of reinforcement, focus on Watson, Edward L. observable behavior Thorndike, B. F. Skinner Humanistic The ability of the individual to Abraham Maslow, Carl direct and control his or her own Rogers, Natalie Rogers life, free will, self-actualization Table 1.1: The Seven Modern Perspectives in Psychology (2 of 2) Perspective Major Focus and Concepts Major Theorists Cognitive Perception, memory, intelligence, Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky, thought processes, problem Elizabeth Loftus, Howard solving, language, learning, the Gardner, Fergus I. M. Craik, role of the brain and nervous Raymond Cattell, Eleanor system Rosch Sociocultural Relationship between social Lev Vygotsky, John Darley, behavior and the contexts of Bibb Latané, Albert Bandura, family, social groups, and culture Leon Festinger, Henri Tajfel, Philip Zimbardo, Stanley Milgram Biopsychologica Influences of genetics, Paul Broca, Charles Darwin, Michael Gazzaniga, Roger l hormones, and the activity Sperry, Carl Wernicke, S. of the nervous Marc Breedlove, Lisa system on human and Feldman Barrett animal behavior Evolutionary The biological bases for universal David Buss, Richard mental characteristics that are Dawkins, Leda Cosmides, shared by all humans Robert Trivers, David C. Geary, Todd K. Shackelford, Daved F. Bjorklund, Anne Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization (1 of 3) Psychologist – Professional with an academic degree and specialized training in one or more areas of psychology – May specialize in any one of a large number of areas ▪ Clinical, counseling, developmental, social, and personality, among others – May conduct basic research, applied research, or both Click on the link to return to the Learning Objectives. Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization (2 of 3) Psychiatrist Medical doctor who has specialized in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders Psychiatric social worker Social worker with some training in therapy methods who focuses on environmental conditions that can have an impact on mental disorders, such as poverty, overcrowding, stress, and drug abuse Steps in the Scientific Method Formulate a research question State the hypothesis Test the hypothesis Draw conclusions based on findings Apply critical thinking Do not confuse correlation with cause and effect Consider the selection factor in correlations Naturalistic Observation Naturalistic observation: Observe subjects in their natural environment Unobtrusive measure Descriptive Methods Laboratory Observation Watching animals or humans behave in a laboratory setting Advantages Control over environment Allows use of specialized equipment Disadvantage Artificial situation may result in artificial behavior Descriptive methods lead to formation of testable hypotheses Descriptive Methods Case Studies Study of one individual in great detail Advantage: tremendous amount of detail Disadvantage: cannot apply to others Famous case study: Phineas Gage Descriptive Methods ( Surveys Researchers ask a series of questions about the topic under study Given to representative sample of population Population: entire group of people or animals in which researcher is interested Advantages: data from large numbers of people; able to study covert behaviors Disadvantages: must ensure representative sample or results not meaningful; courtesy bias Correlation Follows observation Correlation allows psychologist to investigate relationship between learned behavior or measured traits Correlation coefficient Expresses strength and direction of the relationship between variables Suggests, but does not prove, cause and effect Five Scatterplots These scatterplots show direction and strength of correlation. It should be noted that perfect correlations, whether positive or negative, rarely occur in the real world. The Experiment Experiment – A deliberate manipulation of a variable to see whether corresponding changes in behavior result, allowing the determination of cause-and-effect relationships Operationalization: specific definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be directly measured – Example: definition of aggressive play Click on the link to return to the Learning Objectives. The Experiment Independent variable (IV) Variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter Example of IV: violent TV Dependent variable (DV) Variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of subjects in the experiment Example of DV: aggressive play The Experiment Experimental group Subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable Experimental group: watch violent cartoon Control group Subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the independent variable and who may receive a placebo treatment (controls for confounding variables). Control group: watch nonviolent cartoon The Experiment Importance of Randomization Random assignment: process of assigning subjects to experimental or control groups randomly, so that each subject has an equal chance of being in either group Controls for confounding (extraneous, interfering) variables Experimental Hazards and Controlling for Effects (1 of 3) Placebo effect – Phenomenon in which the expectations of participants in a study can influence their behavior Experimenter effect – Tendency of experimenter’s expectations for a study to unintentionally influence results of the study Click on the link to return to the Learning Objectives. Experimental Hazards and Controlling for Effects Single-blind study Subjects do not know whether they are in experimental or control group Reduces placebo effect Double-blind study Neither the experimenter nor the subjects know which subjects are in the experimental or control group Reduces placebo effect and experimenter effect  A Sample Experiment Hypothesis Knowing that other people might think one’s success in school is due to athletic ability rather than intelligence can make an athlete perform poorly on an academic test Independent variable Timing of “high threat” question Dependent variable Test scores  A Sample Experiment Experimental group Answered “high threat” question before taking the test Control group Answered “high threat” question after taking the test Results-supported hypothesis Those asked the “high threat” question before the intellectual test scored significantly lower on that test Ethics of Research With Humans (1 of 2) According to the APA’s ethical standards, psychologists may use deception when: They believe the benefits of the research outweigh its harm They believe the individuals might have been willing to participate if they had understood the benefits of the research Participants are debriefed later …& even more The Peripheral Nervous System: The Body’s Peripheral Devices Somatic nervous system Messages received from the brain and spinal cord control purposeful body movements Autonomic nervous system Regulates the glands and muscles of internal organs Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions have largely opposing effects Effects can be averaged out to some degree when stimulated simultaneously 2.1 Structure of the Neuron: The Nervous System's Building Block (1 of 3) Learning Objective 2.1 Identify the parts of a neuron and the function of each. Neuron – The basic cell that makes up the nervous system and receives and sends messages within that system 2.1 Structure of the Neuron: The Nervous System's Building Block (2 of 3) Parts of a neuron Dendrites: branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons Soma: the cell body of the neuron, responsible for maintaining the life of the cell Axon: long, tube-like structure that carries the neural message to other cells Axon terminals: rounded areas at the end of the branches at the end of the axon Responsible for communicating with other nerve cells  Synapse structure Neurons: Into The Fabulous Forest (1 of 2) Neurons: Specialized cells of the nervous system that receive and pass messages Vary according to function and location Glial cells Remove dead neurons and waste products Neurons: Into The Fabulous Forest (2 of 2) Myelin Fat that insulates the axon from electrically charged atoms, or ions Minimizes leakage of the electrical current Afferent neurons Neurons that transmit messages from sensory receptors to the spinal cord and brain. Also called sensory neurons When you touch a hot stove these neurons tell your brain “this hurts” Efferent neurons Neurons that transmit messages from the brain or spinal cord to muscles or glands, also called motor neurons When this hurts, you move your hand from the hot stove 2.2 Generating the Message Within the Neuron: The Neural Impulse (1 of 2) Learning Objective 2.2 Explain the action potential. Ions: charged particles – Balance of ions in and outside of the neuron determines relative charge ▪Inside neuron: negatively charged ▪Outside neuron: positively charged Diffusion: the process of ions moving from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration Resting potential: the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse 2.2 Generating the Message Within the Neuron: The Neural Impulse (2 of 2) Action potential: the release of the neural impulse consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge within the axon Allows positive sodium ions to enter the cell All-or-none: a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all 2.3 Neurotransmission (1 of 6) Sending The Message To Other Cells: The Synapse – Synaptic vesicles: sac-like structures found inside the axon terminal containing chemicals – Neurotransmitter: chemical found in synaptic vesicles which, when released, has an effect on the next cell 2.3 Neurotransmission (2 of 6) Synapse/Synaptic Gap Microscopic fluid-filled space between the rounded areas on the end of the axon terminals of one cell and the dendrites or surface of the next cell Receptor Sites Three-dimensional proteins on the surface of dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and glands, which are shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters 2.3 Neurotransmission (3 of 6) Neurons must be turned ON and OFF Excitatory synapse: neurotransmitter that causes the receiving cell to fire Inhibitory synapse: neurotransmitter that causes the receiving cell to stop firing 2.3 Neurotransmission (4 of 6) Neurotransmitters: Messengers of the Network Agonists: mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell Antagonists: block or reduce a cell’s response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters Agonists, antagonists, & drugs Drugs can mimic neurotransmitters by binding with their receptors (like a lock and key) Addictive drugs have effects because they are chemically similar to naturally-occurring neurotransmitters Opiates stimulate the presynaptic neuron to release more dopamine than normal Amphetamines bind to dopamine receptors, initiating the same response as dopamine. Cocaine blocks the reuptake of dopamine and, as a result, keeping more dopamine active in the synaptic cleft where it continually stimulates dopamine receptors. 2.3 Neurotransmission (6 of 6) Cleaning Up the Synapse: Reuptake and Enzymes Reuptake: process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles Drugs like cocaine affect the nervous system by blocking the reuptake process Enzyme: complex protein that is manufactured by cells Enzymatic degradation: process by which the structure of a neurotransmitter is altered so it can no longer act on a receptor 2.4 Methods for Studying Specific Regions of the Brain (1 of 4) Lesioning Studies – Insertion of a thin, insulated wire into the brain through which an electrical current is sent that destroys the brain cells at the tip of the wire Brain Stimulation – Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB): milder electrical current that causes neurons to react as if they had received a message 2.5 Neuroimaging Techniques (1 of 6) Mapping Structure – Computed tomography (CT): brain-imaging method using computer-controlled X-rays of the brain – Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain ▪ From MRI, researchers have developed other techniques to study the brain Structures and Functions of the Brain Hindbrain: Where the spinal cord meets the brain. Includes three major structures 1. Medulla: Generates functions such as heart rate, blood pressures and respiration 2. Pons: Transmits information about body movement and functions related to attention, sleep and arousal, and respiration 3. Cerebellum: Maintains balance and control motor (muscle) behavior Reticular formation Lower part is within the hindbrain Sends messages to the cerebral cortex when stimulated Makes one alert to sensory information Structures and Functions of the Brain Cerebrum: Responsible for thinking and language Cerebral cortex: Surface of the cerebrum Wrinkled or convoluted with ridges and valleys (fissures) Connected with cognitive abilities Corpus callosum Connects the two hemispheres of the cerebrum created by fissures 2.8 The Cortex (3 of 9) Cerebral hemispheres: the two sections of the cortex on the left and right sides of the brain Corpus callosum: thick band of neurons that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres 4 lobes executive Frontal function Tempor auditory al touch, attention, Parietal spatial Occipita vision l 2.8 The Cortex (4 of 9) Occipital lobe: section of the brain located at the rear and bottom of each cerebral hemisphere containing the visual centers of the brain Primary visual cortex: processes visual information from the eyes Visual association cortex: identifies and makes sense of visual information 2.8 The Cortex (5 of 9) Parietal lobes Sections of the brain located at the top and back of each cerebral hemisphere containing the centers for touch, taste, and temperature sensations Somatosensory cortex: area of neurons running down the front of the parietal lobes Responsible for processing information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, and body position 2.8 The Cortex (6 of 9) Temporal lobes: areas of the cortex along the sides of the brain, starting just behind the temples, containing the neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech Primary auditory cortex: processes auditory information from the ears Auditory association cortex: identifies and makes sense of auditory information 2.8 The Cortex (7 of 9) Frontal lobes: areas of the cortex located in the front and top of the brain; responsible for higher mental processes and decision making as well as the production of fluent speech Motor cortex: rear section of the frontal lobe; responsible for sending motor commands to the muscles of the somatic nervous system 2.9 The Association Areas of the Cortex (1 of 3) Association areas: areas within each lobe of the cortex responsible for the coordination and interpretation of information, as well as higher mental processing Broca’s aphasia: condition resulting from damage to Broca’s area (usually in left frontal lobe) – Causes the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly 2.10 The Cerebral Hemispheres (1 of 2) Cerebrum: the upper part of the brain consisting of the two hemispheres and the structures that connect them Split-Brain Research – Study of patients with severed corpus callosum – Involves sending messages to only one side of the brain – Demonstrates right and left brain specialization 2.11 The Central Nervous System: The “Central Processing Unit” (2 of 5) Sensory neuron: a neuron that carries information from the senses to the central nervous system Also called an afferent neuron Motor neuron: a neuron that carries messages from central nervous system to muscles of body Also called an efferent neuron 2.11 The Central Nervous System: The “Central Processing Unit” (5 of 5) Damage to the Central Nervous System Damage once thought to be permanent Depending on severity and extent of damage, and age at time of insult, some level of recovery may be possible Neuroplasticity: ability to constantly change both the structure and function of cells in response to experience or trauma Neurogenesis: formation of new neurons Sensation Vs. Perception Sensation Stimulation of sensory receptors located in the sense organs. Transmission of sensory information to the central nervous system Perception Active process by which sensations are organized and interpreted into an inner representation of the world What is Transduction Sensation: activation of receptors in the various sense organs Sense organs: – Eyes – Ears – Nose – Skin – Taste buds  Perception Transductio - putting it Sensation- all Stimuli- getting n- when What your sensations together, those based on senses signals to are changed detect to neural what we the brain know and messages experienc es How we understand stimuli Transduction: turning outside stimuli into neural activity Sensory receptors: specialized forms of neurons Stimulated by different kinds of energy rather than by neurotransmitters Sensory THRESHOLDS WHAT GETS OUR ATTENTION? Absolute threshold: the minimum intensity of stimulation that must occur before you experience a sensation Difference threshold: the minimum amount of change required for a person to detect a difference between two stimuli Examples of Absolute Thresholds Sense Threshold Sight A candle flame at 30 miles on a clear, dark night Hearin The tick of a mechanical watch 20 feet away in a quiet room g Smell One drop of perfume diffused throughout a three-room apartment Taste 1 teaspoon of sugar in 2 gallons of water Touch A bee’s wing falling on the cheek from 1 centimeter above Signal-Detection Theory Signal-Detection Perception of sensory stimuli involves interaction of physical, biological, and psychological factors Sensory Adaptation Sensitization (positive adaptation) One becomes more sensitive to stimuli of low magnitude Desensitization (Negative adaptation) One becomes less sensitive to stimuli of the same intensity Sensory Thresholds Subliminal stimuli: stimuli that are below the level of conscious awareness Just strong enough to activate sensory receptors, but not strong enough for consciously awareness Limin: “threshold”; sublimin: “below the threshold” Subliminal perception: the process by which subliminal stimuli act upon the unconscious mind, possibly influencing behavior The Eye Light enters through a narrow opening Cornea: Transparent eye cover Iris: Muscular, colored part of the eye Pupil: Opening in the iris Sensitive to light and emotion Lens Changes thickness to adjust or accommodate an image Image is projected onto the retina Rods And Cones Cones Densely packed at the center of the retina (fovea) Provide color vision Rods Provide vision in black and white More sensitive to dim light than cones Visual Accuity Connected to the shape of the eye Nearsighted: must be close to object Farsighted: difficulty focusing on nearby objects Presbyopia Affects the lens and makes it difficult to perceive nearby visual stimuli Rods And Cones Blindspot Part of the retina where axons converge to form the optic nerve Provide color vision Light adaptation Clarity of vision improves and allows us to discriminate features Dark adaptation The amount of light needed for detection As time in the dark increases, we can see more Rods and cones adjust at different rates Adaptation to brighter light happens much more quickly Hearing Audition: hearing; the sense of sound perception Sound wave: a pattern of changes in air pressure during a period of time, which produces the perception of a sound Amplitude determines loudness Frequency determines pitch The Ear Outer ear Funnels sound waves to the eardrum, Middle ear Acts as an amplifier The Chemical Senses: Smell And Taste Smell Contributes to the flavor of foods Odors are sample molecules of substances in the air Trigger firing of receptor neurons in the olfactory membrane Sensory information about odors is sent to the brain through the olfactory nerve The Chemical Senses: Smell And Taste Taste Sensed through taste cells Taste cells: Receptor neurons on taste buds Flavor of food depends on odor, texture, temperature, and taste Some people have superior taste sensitivity than others Gustation: How We Taste the World Five basic tastes Sweet Sour Salty Bitter “Brothy,” or umami Proposed sixth taste: oleogustus, the taste of fatty acids in the food we eat Gustation: How We Taste the World Taste buds – Taste receptor cells in mouth; responsible for sense of taste Gustation – The sensation of a taste The Other Senses Somesthetic senses: the body senses consisting of the skin senses, the kinesthetic sense, and the vestibular senses “Soma”: body “Esthetic”: feeling  Perception Transductio - putting it Sensation- all Stimuli- getting n- when What your sensations together, those based on senses signals to are changed detect to neural what we the brain know and messages experienc es Somesthetic Senses Different types of pain Visceral pain: Detects pain and pressure in the organs Somatic pain: Pain sensations in the skin, muscles, tendons, and joints Gate-control theory: pain signals must pass through a “gate” located in the spinal cord Substance P Endorphins The Skin Senses Phantom Limb Pain Perception of pain apparently “in” limbs that have been amputated, often because of activation of nerves in the stump of the missing limb Gate Theory of Pain Malzack’s view that neurons in the spine can simultaneously transmit only limited amount of information Acupuncture Use of pins to diminish pain, possible because of stimulation of release of endorphins and cortisol Kinesthesis and Vestibular Sense Kinesthesis Informs one about the position and motion of parts of the body Sensory information is sent to the brain from sensory organs in joints, tendons, and muscles Vestibular Sense Informs the brain as to whether one is physically upright Sensory organs in the semicircular canals and other parts of ears monitor motion and position of the body in relation to gravity The Sense of Scents: Olfaction Olfaction (olfactory sense) – Sense of smell Olfactory bulbs – Areas of brain located just above sinus cavity and just below frontal lobes that receive information from the olfactory receptor cells – Information is sent from bulbs to piriform cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and amgydala Culture Influences Taste People prefer tastes from their cultures Mother’s diet influences taste preferences In the womb and through breastfeeding Body Movement and Position Kinesthesia: the awareness of body movement Proprioception: awareness of where the body and body parts are located in relation to each other in space and to the ground  Body Movement and Position Vestibular sense: the awareness of the balance, position, and movement of the head and body through space in relation to gravity’s pull Sensory conflict theory: an explanation of motion sickness in which the information from the eyes conflicts with the information from the vestibular senses Results in dizziness, nausea, and other physical discomforts Perception Perception: The method by which the sensations experienced at any given moment are interpreted and organized in some meaningful fashion Example: Two people looking at a cloud; both see the cloud, but perceive it differently Gestalt Principles of Grouping Proximity-perceive objects that are close to each other as part of the same grouping; physical or geographical nearness Similarity-perceive things that look similar to each other as being part of the same group Closure-complete figures that are incomplete Continuity-perceive things as simply as possible with a continuous pattern rather than with a complex, broken-up pattern Contiguity-perceive two things that happen close together in time as being related Common fate- The tendency to perceive elements that move together as belonging together Gestalt Principles of Grouping Proximity: The dots on the left can be seen as horizontal or vertical rows—neither organization dominates. But just by changing the proximity of certain dots, as in the other two examples, we experience the dots as vertical columns (middle) or horizontal rows (right). Similarity: The similarity of color here makes you perceive these dots as forming black squares and color squares rather than two rows of black and colored dots. Closure: Even though the lines are broken, we still see these figures as a circle and a square—an example of how we tend to “close” or “fill in” missing parts from what we know of the whole. Continuity: Because of continuity, we are much more likely to see the figure on the left as being made up of two lines, A to B and C to D, than we are to see it as a figure made up of lines A to D and C to B or A to C and B to D. Source: Based on Brooks (2015) and Palmer & Rock (1994) Definition of Consciousness Consciousness – A person’s awareness of everything that is going on around him or her at any given moment Altered States of Consciousness Waking consciousness – State in which thoughts, feelings, and sensations are clear and organized, and the person feels alert Altered state of consciousness – State in which there is a shift in the quality or pattern of mental activity as compared to waking consciousness ▪ Distracted ▪ Sleeping ▪ Drug/ alcohol use Two kinds of thought processes – Controlled – Automatic Biological And Circadian Rhythms Circadian rhythm: Internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) stimulates the pineal gland to decrease its output of melatonin once a person is awake Melatonin promotes sleep The Functions Of Sleep Rejuvenates the body Helps one recover from stress Helps consolidate learning May promote development of infants’ brain REM rebound: REM-sleep deprived people tend to show REM rebound, meaning they spend ore time in REM sleep during subsequent sleep periods. In other words, they “catch up.” Why We Sleep Adaptive theory: animals and humans evolved sleep patterns to avoid predators by sleeping when predators are most active Restorative theory: sleep is necessary to the physical health of the body and serves to replenish chemicals and repair cellular damage Why We Sleep Sleep is important to memory formation Sleep deprivation: any significant loss of sleep, resulting in problems in concentration and irritability  4 Sleep Stages Stage 1 Stage 2 Stages 3 & 4 ▸ (Theta waves) ▸ (Theta waves + ▸ (Delta waves) ▸ Light sleep Sleep spindles + ▸ Very hard to wake ▸ Easily awakened up K complexes) ▸ Sensations of ▸ Disoriented when ▸ Really asleep falling wake up ▸ Sensations of ▸ Regular breathing ▸ Less affected by limbs moving external stimuli happening around you Sleep Disorders Insomnia: Affects about 30% of American adults Increases risk of anxiety, depression, diabetes, hypertension, and Alzheimer disease Narcolepsy and sleep paralysis Can occur at any time, even when driving Thought to be a disorder of REM-sleep functioning Sleep apnea: Breathing repeatedly stops and starts Deep-sleep disorders Sleep terrors Bed-wetting Sleepwalking (somnambulism) Why Do We Dream? Freud – Dreams as unconscious wish fulfillment ▪ Manifest content: the dream itself ▪ Latent content: the true, hidden meaning of a dream Activation-synthesis hypothesis – dreams are the result of the some areas of the cortex interpreting, or attempting to piece together, random signals from lower brain areas What Do People Dream About? Typically about events that occur in everyday life Most dream in color Gender differences: – Girls and women dream about people they know, personal appearance concerns, issues related to family and home – Boys and men dream about outdoor or unfamiliar settings; may involve weapons, tools, cars, or sexual dreams with unknown partners Hypnosis Hypnosis: state of consciousness in which the person is especially susceptible to suggestion Stage hypnotists often make use of people’s willingness to believe that something ordinary is extraordinary. This woman was hypnotized and suspended between two chairs after the person supporting her middle stepped away. The hypnotist led the audience to believe that she could not do this unless hypnotized, but in reality anyone can do this while fully conscious. Source: Bettmann/Getty Images Psychoactive Substances Psychoactive substances: Drugs that distort perceptions and change moods DSM-5 defines substance use disorder in terms of behavioral, cognitive, and biological symptoms or factors DSM-5 notes changes in brain circuitry connected to impaired control over use of substance Depressants Drugs that lower the rate of activity of the nervous system Stimulants Drugs that increase activity of the nervous system Substance Use and Substance Use Disorders Repeated use of substances leads to impaired functioning Characterized by loss of control over the use of the substance Biological symptoms are suggestive of addiction Tolerance Abstinence syndrome: Characteristic group of withdrawal symptoms Craving occurs without a substance Causal Factors In Substance Use Disorders Experimentation Based on the recommendation or observation of others Reinforced by peers or the drug’s positive effects Self-medication Genetic predisposition toward physiological dependence Psychoactive drugs Imitating brain’s natural neurotransmitters (marijuana, opiates) Changing activity of particular neurotransmitter receptors (cocaine) Effects of a drug depends on which neurotransmitter systems it imitates or activates Psychoactive drugs: Mind-altering substances, typically taken for recreational purposes Change brain’s neurochemistry by activating neurotransmitter systems either by... Dependence Physical dependence: when a person’s body becomes unable to function normally without a particular drug – Drug tolerance: more and more of the drug is needed to achieve the same effect – Withdrawal: physical symptoms resulting from a lack of an addictive drug in the body systems ▪ Nausea, pain, tremors, crankiness, and high blood pressure Dependence Psychological dependence: feeling that a drug is needed to continue a feeling of emotional or psychological well-being Any drug can cause psychological dependence Stimulants: Up, Up, and Away (1 of 4) Stimulants: drugs that increase the functioning of the nervous system – Amphetamines: drugs that are synthesized (made in labs) rather than found in nature – Cocaine: natural drug; produces euphoria, energy, power, and pleasure – Nicotine: active ingredient in tobacco – Caffeine: stimulant found in coffee, tea, most sodas, chocolate, and even many over-the-counter drugs Down in the Valley: Depressants Depressants: drugs that decrease the functioning of the nervous system – Barbiturates: depressant drugs with sedative effect – Benzodiazepines: drugs that lower anxiety and reduce stress ▪ Example: Valium, Xanax, Halcion, Ativan, and Librium – Rohypnol: the “date rape” drug Down in the Valley: Depressants Alcohol: the chemical resulting from fermentation or distillation of various kinds of vegetable matter Often mistaken for a stimulant, alcohol is actually a CNS depressant Most commonly used and abused depressant Alcohol Linked to lowering productivity, loss of employment, and lowering social status Binge drinking is connected with aggressive behavior, poor grades, promiscuity, and accidents Effects Lowers inhibitions Induces feelings of euphoria and elation Impairs cognitive functioning and coordination Affects women more as they have less aldehyde dehydrogenase than men Can lead to physiological dependence Opiates And Opioids Group of narcotics derived from the opium poppy Narcotics are drugs used to relieve pain and induce sleep, term usually reserved for opiates Opioids are produced in a laboratory Include morphine, heroin, codeine, and Demerol Provide a strong euphoric rush Can lead to physiological dependence Barbiturates Depressants with medical uses Relieve anxiety, tension, and pain Treat epilepsy, high blood pressure, and insomnia Rapidly lead to physiological and psychological dependence Dangerous if mixed with alcohol Marijuana THC – Psychedelic substance involved Hashish is derived from resin and is more potent May alter time perception Increases one's awareness of bodily sensations and heightens sexual sensations Causes disorientation that may be pleasant or threatening Perceptual-motor coordination, short-term memory, and learning can be impaired Strong intoxication leads to nausea and vomiting Regular users may experience tolerance and withdrawal symptoms LSD And Other Hallucinogenics LSD Synthetic hallucinogen Produces vivid and colorful hallucinations Flashbacks Distorted perceptions that mimic the LSD trip Occur days, weeks, or longer after usage Experience is termed hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) Include mescaline and phencyclidine (PCP) How Drugs Affect Consciousness Drug Common Main Effect Adverse Effects Classification Names or Forms Stimulants Stimulation, excitement Amphetamines Methamphetamine, Risk of addiction, speed, Ritalin, stroke, fatal heart Dexedrine problems, psychosis Cocaine Cocaine, crack Risk of addiction, stroke, fatal heart problems, psychosis Nicotine Tobacco Addiction, cancer Caffeine Coffee, tea, energy Addiction, high drinks blood pressure How Drugs Affect Consciousness Drug Common Main Effect Adverse Effects Classification Names or Forms Depressants Relaxation Barbiturates (major Nembutal, Seconal Addiction, brain tranquilizers) damage Benzodiazepines Valium, Xanax, Lower risk of (minor tranquilizers) Halcion, Ativan, overdose and Rohypnol addiction when taken alone Alcohol Beer, wine, spirits Alcoholism, health problems, depression, increased risk of accidents, death Opiates Opium, morphine, Euphoria Addiction, death heroin Hallucinogens LSD, PCP, MDMA Distorted Memory problems, (ecstasy), marijuana consciousness, bad "trips," suicide, altered perception overdose, death