Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which of the following is NOT a basic element of the mind as proposed by structuralism?
Which of the following is NOT a basic element of the mind as proposed by structuralism?
Which school of psychology emphasizes the study of observable behaviors, particularly those measured by specialized instruments?
Which school of psychology emphasizes the study of observable behaviors, particularly those measured by specialized instruments?
Who established functionalism, a school of psychology that incorporated direct observations to supplement introspection?
Who established functionalism, a school of psychology that incorporated direct observations to supplement introspection?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of functionalism?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of functionalism?
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Which school of psychology investigates the relationship between observable behaviors and learning?
Which school of psychology investigates the relationship between observable behaviors and learning?
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Which of the following describes how cocaine affects neurotransmission?
Which of the following describes how cocaine affects neurotransmission?
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What is the primary function of reuptake in neurotransmission?
What is the primary function of reuptake in neurotransmission?
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Which brain imaging technique utilizes radio waves and magnetic fields to create detailed images of the brain?
Which brain imaging technique utilizes radio waves and magnetic fields to create detailed images of the brain?
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Lesioning studies involve which of the following?
Lesioning studies involve which of the following?
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Which of the following brain structures is responsible for functions related to respiration, attention, sleep, and arousal?
Which of the following brain structures is responsible for functions related to respiration, attention, sleep, and arousal?
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Which perspective emphasizes the impact of genetics, hormones, and nervous system activity on behavior?
Which perspective emphasizes the impact of genetics, hormones, and nervous system activity on behavior?
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Which of the following is NOT a major theorist associated with the Cognitive perspective?
Which of the following is NOT a major theorist associated with the Cognitive perspective?
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Which perspective emphasizes the influence of social contexts, such as family, social groups, and culture, on behavior?
Which perspective emphasizes the influence of social contexts, such as family, social groups, and culture, on behavior?
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Which perspective focuses on observable behavior and emphasizes learning through reinforcement?
Which perspective focuses on observable behavior and emphasizes learning through reinforcement?
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Which of the following is NOT a key concept associated with the Humanistic perspective?
Which of the following is NOT a key concept associated with the Humanistic perspective?
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Which perspective focuses on the role of the brain and nervous system in information processing, language, and learning?
Which perspective focuses on the role of the brain and nervous system in information processing, language, and learning?
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Which perspective examines the biological bases for universal mental characteristics shared by all humans?
Which perspective examines the biological bases for universal mental characteristics shared by all humans?
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The perspective that emphasizes the importance of free will, self-actualization, and personal growth is:
The perspective that emphasizes the importance of free will, self-actualization, and personal growth is:
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Which of the following describes the process of transduction in sensation?
Which of the following describes the process of transduction in sensation?
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What is the primary difference between sensation and perception?
What is the primary difference between sensation and perception?
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Which of these is NOT a sense organ?
Which of these is NOT a sense organ?
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How do sensory receptors differ from other neurons?
How do sensory receptors differ from other neurons?
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Which of the following is NOT a factor that influences our perception?
Which of the following is NOT a factor that influences our perception?
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What is the primary function of the somatosensory cortex?
What is the primary function of the somatosensory cortex?
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Which lobe of the brain is responsible for higher mental processes and decision making?
Which lobe of the brain is responsible for higher mental processes and decision making?
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What is the function of the corpus callosum?
What is the function of the corpus callosum?
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Which of the following is NOT a function of the temporal lobe?
Which of the following is NOT a function of the temporal lobe?
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What is the primary difference between sensory and motor neurons?
What is the primary difference between sensory and motor neurons?
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What is Broca's aphasia?
What is Broca's aphasia?
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What is the role of the reticular formation in maintaining alertness?
What is the role of the reticular formation in maintaining alertness?
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Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the cerebral cortex?
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the cerebral cortex?
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What is the significance of split-brain research?
What is the significance of split-brain research?
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Which of the following is an example of neuroplasticity?
Which of the following is an example of neuroplasticity?
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What is the function of synaptic vesicles?
What is the function of synaptic vesicles?
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What is the difference between agonists and antagonists?
What is the difference between agonists and antagonists?
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What is the role of receptor sites in the synaptic gap?
What is the role of receptor sites in the synaptic gap?
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What type of synapse causes the receiving cell to fire?
What type of synapse causes the receiving cell to fire?
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What happens to the electrical charge within the axon during an action potential?
What happens to the electrical charge within the axon during an action potential?
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How does the process of diffusion contribute to the resting potential of a neuron?
How does the process of diffusion contribute to the resting potential of a neuron?
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What is the key characteristic of the all-or-none principle of the neuron?
What is the key characteristic of the all-or-none principle of the neuron?
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How do addictive drugs, like opiates and amphetamines, exert their effects on the brain?
How do addictive drugs, like opiates and amphetamines, exert their effects on the brain?
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Flashcards
Psychological Science
Psychological Science
Study of the mind, brain, and behavior.
Structuralism
Structuralism
A psychology school that identifies three basic elements: sensations, feelings, and images.
Functionalism
Functionalism
A psychological perspective that studies behavior alongside the mind; founded by William James.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism
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Adaptive Behavior
Adaptive Behavior
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Observable behavior
Observable behavior
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Humanistic perspective
Humanistic perspective
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Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology
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Sociocultural perspective
Sociocultural perspective
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Biopsychological perspective
Biopsychological perspective
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Evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary psychology
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Major theorists of behaviorism
Major theorists of behaviorism
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Major theorists of cognitive psychology
Major theorists of cognitive psychology
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Ions
Ions
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Resting potential
Resting potential
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Action potential
Action potential
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All-or-none principle
All-or-none principle
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Synaptic vesicles
Synaptic vesicles
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Excitatory synapse
Excitatory synapse
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Agonists
Agonists
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Antagonists
Antagonists
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Cerebellum
Cerebellum
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Cerebrum
Cerebrum
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Cerebral cortex
Cerebral cortex
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Corpus callosum
Corpus callosum
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Frontal lobes
Frontal lobes
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Temporal lobes
Temporal lobes
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Parietal lobes
Parietal lobes
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Occipital lobe
Occipital lobe
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Somatosensory cortex
Somatosensory cortex
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Neuroplasticity
Neuroplasticity
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Cocaine's effect on neurotransmitters
Cocaine's effect on neurotransmitters
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Reuptake
Reuptake
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Enzymatic degradation
Enzymatic degradation
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Computed tomography (CT)
Computed tomography (CT)
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Hindbrain structures
Hindbrain structures
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Sensation
Sensation
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Perception
Perception
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Transduction
Transduction
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Sense Organs
Sense Organs
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Sensory Receptors
Sensory Receptors
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Study Notes
Psychological Science
- Study of the mind, brain and behavior
- Mind: mental activity, thoughts and feelings
- Brain: biological processes that produce mental activity
- Behavior: observable human actions
Structuralism
- School of psychology arguing the mind consists of three basic elements
- Sensations
- Feelings
- Images
- Founder: Wilhelm Wundt
- attempted to break down experience into sensations like sight, taste, emotions and mental imagery.
Functionalism
- Founded by William James
- Focused on behavior in addition to the mind or consciousness
- Used direct observation to supplement introspection
- Influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution
- Adaptive behavior: patterns learned and maintained
Behaviorism
- Founded by John Broadus Watson
- Focuses on learning observable behaviors
- Observable behaviors - measured by specialized instruments
- B.F. Skinner believed that learned behavior is reinforced
- Reinforcement: stimulus following a response increasing response frequency
Gestalt Psychology
- Founded by Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler
- Focuses on perception and its influence on thinking and problem-solving
- Perceptions are more than the sum of their parts
- Learning is active and purposeful
- Learning is accomplished by insight and not mechanical repetition
Gestalt Approach
- Gestalt theory: personal experience is different from the sum of constituent elements
- Perception of objects is subjective and depends on context
- Foundation for the study of vision and personality in psychology
Psychoanalysis
- Founded by Sigmund Freud
- Theory of personality proposes that people's lives are influenced by unconscious ideas
- Method of psychotherapy helps patients gain insight
- Seeks ways to express wishes and gratify needs
Psychoanalytic Approach
- Unconscious forces produce psychological discomfort
- Conflicts arise from troubling childhood experiences
- Psychoanalysis: therapist and patient work to bring the unconscious into conscious awareness
- Free association
Modern Perspectives (Psychodynamic)
- Modern version of psychoanalysis
- More focused on the development of a sense of self and the discovery of motivations beyond sexual motivations
- Link between neurobiology and psychodynamic concepts should be explored further
Modern Perspectives (Behavioral)
- B.F. Skinner developed theory of operant conditioning
- Explains how voluntary behavior is learned
- Introduces the concept of reinforcement
- Behaviorism became a major force in the twentieth century
Modern Perspectives (Humanistic)
- “Third force” in psychology; reaction to both psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism
- People have free will: the freedom to choose their own destiny
- Self-actualization: achieving one's full potential or actual self
- Early founders: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
Humanistic
- Founded by Carl Rogers
- Focus on the basic goodness of people
- Emphasizes happiness and fulfillment
- Promotes working on personal goals and living up to one's full potential
The Humanistic-Existential Perspective
- Humanism: stresses human capacity for self-fulfillment, roles of consciousness, self-awareness, and decision-making
- Existentialism: stresses free choice and holds people responsible for choices
- Based on works by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
The Cognitive Perspective
- Looks at mental processes to understand human nature
- Studies those things referred to as the mind
- Rooted in Socrates's advice, structuralism, functionalism, and Gestalt psychology
Cognitivism
- Behaviorism can't explain everything
- Study of mental function
- Focus on neural mechanisms underlying thought, learning, perception, language, and memory
- Worked to develop integrated view of the mind
Modern Perspectives (Sociocultural)
- Focuses on the relationship between social behavior and culture
- Social psychology: study of groups, social roles, rules of social action and relationships
- Cultural psychology: study of cultural norms, values, and expectations
- Includes cross-cultural research
The Biological Perspective
- Seeks relationships between brain, hormones, heredity, and evolution
- Behavior and mental processes
- Charles Darwin: most adaptive organism manages to mature and reproduce
Table 1.1: The Seven Modern Perspectives in Psychology
- Perspective, Major Focus and Concepts, Major Theorists (table listing of seven perspectives and their respective theorists)
Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization (Psychologist)
- Professional with an academic degree and specialized training in one or more areas of psychology
- May specialize in clinical, counseling, developmental, social, or personality areas
- May conduct basic research, applied research, or both
Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization (Psychiatrist)
- Medical doctor who has specialized in diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders
Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization (Psychiatric Social Worker)
- Social worker with some training in therapy methods focusing on environmental conditions (e.g., poverty, overcrowding, stress, and drug abuse) impacting mental disorders
Steps in the Scientific Method
- Formulate a research question
- State a hypothesis
- Test the hypothesis
- Draw conclusions based on findings
- Apply critical thinking
- Avoid confusing correlation with cause and effect
- Consider selection factors in correlations
Naturalistic Observation
- Observe subjects in their natural environment
- Unobtrusive measure
Descriptive Methods (Laboratory Observation)
- Watching animals or humans in a laboratory setting
- Advantages: control over environment, allows use of specialized equipment
- Disadvantage: artificial situation may result in artificial behavior
- Descriptive methods contribute to testable hypotheses
Descriptive Methods (Case Studies)
- Study of one individual in great detail
- Advantage: tremendous amount of detail
- Disadvantage: findings cannot be applied to others
- Famous example: Phineas Gage
Descriptive Methods (Surveys)
- Researchers ask a series of questions
- Given to a representative sample of a population
- Population: the entire group of people or animals
- Advantages: data from large numbers of people, ability to study covert behaviors
- Disadvantages: ensuring representative sample, avoiding courtesy bias
Correlation
- Allows investigation of the relationship between learned behavior or measured traits
- Correlation coefficient expresses strength and direction of the relationship
- Suggests, but doesn't prove, cause and effect
Five Scatterplots
- Illustrates direction and strength of correlation
- Perfect correlations (positive or negative) are rarely observed
The Experiment
- Deliberate manipulation of a variable to determine cause-and-effect relationships
- Operationalization: defining a variable for direct measurement
- Example: definition of aggressive play
The Experiment (Independent Variable)
- Variable in an experiment manipulated by the experimenter
- Example: violent TV
The Experiment (Dependent Variable)
- Variable measured in response to the independent variable
- Example: aggressive play
The Experiment (Experimental Group)
- Subjects in an experiment exposed to the independent variable
- Example: watch violent cartoon
The Experiment (Control Group)
- Subjects in an experiment NOT exposed to the independent variable
- Example: watch nonviolent cartoon
The Experiment (Randomization)
- The process of assigning subjects to experimental or control groups randomly
- Ensures equal chance of subjects being in either group
- Controls for confounding variables
Experimental Hazards and Controlling for Effects (Placebo Effect)
- Phenomenon where participant expectations influence behavior
Experimental Hazards and Controlling for Effects (Experimenter Effect)
- Experimenter expectations unintentionally influence results
Experimental Hazards and Controlling for Effects (Single-Blind Study)
- Subjects do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group
- Reduces placebo effect
Experimental Hazards and Controlling for Effects (Double-Blind Study)
- Neither the experimenter nor the subjects know which group they're in
- Reduces placebo and experimenter effects
A Sample Experiment (Hypothesis)
- Knowing others believe success is based on athletic ability rather than intelligence can negatively impact an athlete's performance on academic tests
A Sample Experiment (Independent Variable)
- Timing of "high threat" question
A Sample Experiment (Dependent Variable)
- Test scores
A Sample Experiment (Experimental Group)
- Answered "high threat" question before the test
A Sample Experiment (Control Group)
- Answered "high threat" question after the test
Ethics of Research With Humans
- Psychologists may use deception when the benefits outweigh the harm
- Participants are debriefed later
The Nervous System
- Central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord
- Peripheral nervous system (PNS): somatic (voluntary movements) and autonomic (involuntary movements)
The Peripheral Nervous System
- Somatic nervous system: carries messages between the brain and spinal cord and control purposeful movements
- Autonomic nervous system: regulates internal organs (through sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions)
The Neuron: The Nervous System's Building Block
- Basic cell that makes up the nervous system
- Receives and sends messages within the nervous system
Parts of a Neuron
- Dendrites: branch-like structures receiving messages from other neurons
- Soma: cell body maintaining the life of the neuron
- Axon: long, tube-like structure carrying neural messages
- Axon terminals: rounded areas at the end of axon branches, communicating with other nerve cells
Neurons: Into the Fabulous Forest
- Specialized cells in the nervous system that receive and pass messages
- Vary according to function and location
- Glial cells remove dead neurons and waste products
Neurons: Into the Fabulous Forest (Myelin)
- Fat insulating axon from electrically charged atoms (ions)
- Minimizes electrical current leakage
Neurons: Into the Fabulous Forest (Afferent Neurons)
- Transmit messages from sensory receptors to spinal cord and brain (sensory neurons)
Neurons: Into the Fabulous Forest (Efferent Neurons)
- Transmit messages from brain or spinal cord to muscles or glands (motor neurons)
Generating the Message Within the Neuron
- Ions: charged particles with an important relationship for charge balance
- Diffusion: ions move from higher to lower concentration
- Resting potential: neuron state when not firing a neural impulse
- Action potential: release of a neural impulse, a reversal of electrical charge within an axon.
- All-or-none principle: neuron either fires completely or not at all.
Neurotransmission
- Synapse, synaptic vesicles, neurotransmitter
- Receptor sites: three-dimensional proteins on the surface of dendrites/cells that have the shape to fit certain neurotransmitters
Neurotransmission(Types of Synapses)
- Excitatory synapse: transmitter that causes the receiving cell to fire
- Inhibitory synapse: transmitter that causes the receiving cell to stop firing
Neurotransmitters: Messengers of the Network
- Agonists mimic or enhance neurotransmitter effects
- Antagonists block or reduce neurotransmitter effects
Drugs, Agonists, and Antagonists
- Drugs can mimic or block neurotransmitter effects
- Opiates, Amphetamines, Cocaine
Neurotransmission (Cleaning Up the Synapse)
- Reuptake: process of neurotransmitters being taken back into the synaptic vesicles
- Enzymes: complex proteins breaking down neurotransmitter structure
Methods for Studying Specific Regions of the Brain (Lesioning Studies)
- Insertion of thin insulated wire into the brain
- Sends electrical current to destroy brain cells at the tip
Methods for Studying Specific Regions of the Brain (Brain Stimulation)
- Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) - milder electrical current activating neurons
Neuroimaging Techniques
- Computed tomography (CT): brain-imaging method using computer-controlled x-rays of the brain
- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields
Structures and Functions of the Brain (Hindbrain)
- Includes medulla, pons, and cerebellum
- Medulla controls heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration
- Pons transmits information about body movement and functions associated with attention, sleep, and arousal, and respiration
- Cerebellum maintains balance and controls motor behavior
Structures and Functions of the Brain (Reticular Formation)
- Located within the lower part of the hindbrain
- Sends messages to the cerebral cortex to make one alert to sensory information
Structures and Functions of the Brain (Cerebrum)
- Responsible for thinking and language
- Cerebral Cortex forms the surface of the cerebrum
- Wrinkled/convoluted structure with ridges and valleys (fissures)
- Connected with cognitive abilities
The Cortex
- Cerebral Hemispheres: two sections of the cortex on the left and right sides of the brain
- Corpus Callosum: thick band of neurons connects the two hemispheres
Lobes of the Cortex
- Frontal lobe: executive function, thought, planning, movement
- Temporal lobe: auditory
- Parietal lobe: touch, attention, spatial
- Occipital lobe: visual
The Cortex (Occipital Lobe)
- Section of the brain at the rear and bottom of the cerebral hemisphere
- Contains visual centers
- Primary visual cortex processes visual information from the eyes
- Visual association cortex identifies and interprets visual information
The Cortex (Parietal Lobe)
- Top and back of cerebral hemisphere
- Contains centers for touch, taste, and temperature sensations
- Somatosensory cortex processes information from skin and internal body receptors
The Cortex (Temporal Lobe)
- Along the sides of the brain, behind the temples, contains neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech
- Primary auditory cortex processes auditory information from ears
- Auditory association cortex identifies and makes sense of auditory information
The Cortex (Frontal Lobe)
- Front and top of brain
- Responsible for higher mental processes, decision-making and fluent speech
- Motor cortex sends motor commands to the somatic nervous system
Association Areas of the Cortex
- Areas within each lobe of the cortex that coordinate and interpret information and higher mental processing involved
- Broca's aphasia: language production problems
The Cerebral Hemispheres
- Cerebrum, the upper part of the brain consisting of two hemispheres
- Split-brain research: study of patients with severed corpus callosum
The Central Nervous System
- Sensory neuron carries information from senses to the central nervous system (afferent neuron)
- Motor neuron carries messages from central nervous system to the muscles of the body (efferent neuron)
Damage to the Central Nervous System
- Damage once thought to be permanent
- Neuroplasticity: ability to change structure and function in response to experience/trauma
- Neurogenesis: formation of new neurons
Sensation vs. Perception
- Sensation: sensory receptors located in sense organs, transmission of sensory information to the central nervous system
- Perception: active process of organizing and interpreting sensations into meaningful inner representations
What is Transduction
- Sensation: activation of receptors in the sense organs (eyes, ears, nose, skin, taste buds)
How we understand stimuli
- Transduction: turning outside stimuli into neural activity
- Sensory receptors: specialized forms of neurons, stimulated by different kinds of energy rather than neurotransmitters
Sensory Thresholds
- Absolute threshold: minimum intensity of stimulation for sensation
- Difference threshold: minimum amount of change for detecting a difference between two stimuli
Examples of Absolute Thresholds
(table showing senses and respective thresholds)
Signal-Detection Theory
- Perception involves interaction between physical, biological, and psychological factors
- Sensory adaptation: sensitization (positive adaptation) and desensitization (negative adaptation)
Sensory Thresholds (Subliminal Stimuli)
- Stimuli below conscious awareness
- Strong enough to stimulate sensory receptors but not enough for conscious awareness
- Subliminal perception: act on the unconscious mind, potentially influencing behavior
The Eye
- Light enters through a narrow opening (cornea)
- Cornea: transparent eye cover
- Iris: muscular, colored part of the eye
- Pupil: opening in the iris sensitive to light
- Lens: changes thickness to adjust/accommodate an image; projecting image onto the retina
Rods and Cones
- Cones densely packed at center of retina (fovea) providing color vision; Rods provide black-and-white vision, more sensitive to dim light than cones
- Visual acuity: shape of the eye affects nearsightedness and farsightedness
- Presbyopia: lens becomes less flexible
Rods and Cones (Blind Spot)
- Part of the retina where axons form optic nerve
- Provides color vision
- Light adaptation: clarity/feature discrimination improves
- Dark adaptation: detection ability increases as time in dark increases (rods and cones respond differently)
Hearing (Audition)
- Audition: sense of sound perception
- Sound wave: changes in air pressure
- Amplitude: determines loudness
- Frequency: determines pitch
The Ear
- Outer ear: funnels sound waves to eardrum
- Middle ear: acts as an amplifier
- Inner ear processes sound
The Chemical Senses (Smell/Olfaction)
- Contributes to flavor of foods
- Odors are sample molecules in air
- Trigger firing of receptor neurons in olfactory membrane
- Sensory information is sent to the brain through the olfactory nerve
The Chemical Senses (Taste/Gustation)
- Sensed through taste cells (receptors on taste buds)
- Flavor depends on odor, texture, temperature, and taste
- Taste sensitivity varies among individuals
Gustation: How We Taste the World
- Five basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and possibly umami (brothy)
- Taste buds: cells in the mouth for sense of taste (Gustation)
The Other Senses (Somesthetic)
- Consisting of skin senses, kinesthetic, and vestibular senses
- Body senses
Phantom Limb Pain
- Pain perception in amputated limbs
- Activating nerves in the limb stump
Kinesthesis and Vestibular Sense
- Kinesthesis: awareness of body position/movement
- Vestibular sense: informs the brain of physical uprightness, monitors head and body position in relation to gravity
The Sense of Scents (Olfaction)
- Sensory receptors sending olfactory information
- Olfactory bulbs located above sinus cavity and below frontal lobes receiving information.
- Information sent to piriform cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and amygdala.
Culture Influences on Taste
- Preferences for tastes are influenced by culture
- Affected by mother's diet in the womb and through breastfeeding.
Body Movement and Position (Kinesthesia and Proprioception)
- Kinesthesis: senses body movement and location
- Proprioception: awareness of where body parts are located in relation to each other and to the ground.
Body Movement and Position (Vestibular Sense)
- Vestibular sense: awareness of balance, position, and movement
- Sensory conflict theory: motion conflict between eye and vestibular information causes dizziness/nausea
Perception
- Method by which sensations are interpreted and organized into meaningful fashion
Gestalt Principles of Grouping
- Proximity: close objects grouped together
- Similarity: similar objects grouped together
- Closure: incomplete figures are perceived as complete
- Continuity: continuous patterns perceived over broken-up patterns
- Contiguity: close events perceived as related
- Common fate: objects moving together perceived as related.
Definition of Consciousness
- A person's awareness of everything happening around them at any given moment
Altered States of Consciousness
- Waking consciousness: thoughts, feelings, sensations are clear and organized.
- Altered state: Mental activity changes
- Conditions such as distraction, sleep, and drug/alcohol use.
- Two kinds of mental processes: controlled and automatic
Biological and Circadian Rhythms
- Circadian rhythm: internal process regulating sleep-wake cycle
- SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) stimulates the pineal gland to reduce melatonin output when awake
- Melatonin promotes sleep
The Functions of Sleep
- Rejuvenates the body; helps recover from stress
- Helps consolidate learning; may promote development of infants' brains
- REM rebound: sleep-deprived people experience more REM sleep during subsequent sleep periods.
Why We Sleep (Adaptive Theory)
- Animals and humans evolved sleep patterns to avoid predators when they are most active
Why We Sleep (Restorative Theory)
- Sleep is necessary for physical health, replenishing chemicals, and repairing cellular damage
Why We Sleep
- Important for memory formation
- Sleep deprivation leads to problems in concentration and irritability
4 Sleep Stages
(description of characteristics of each stage)
Sleep Disorders
- Insomnia: problems falling asleep or staying asleep
- Narcolepsy: sleep paralysis and unexpected sleep episodes
- Sleep apnea: breathing repeatedly stops and starts
- Sleep-related disorders: sleep terrors, sleepwalking, bed-wetting
Why Do We Dream? (Freud)
- Dreams as unconscious wish fulfillment
- Manifest content: dream itself
- Latent content: hidden meaning
Why Do We Dream? (Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis)
- Dreams result from brain areas interpreting random signals.
What Do People Dream About?
- Typically about daily events, usually in color
- Differences between genders (e.g. girls/women are more likely to dream about people they know, relationships, or issues related to family and home; boys/men are more likely to dream about outdoor settings, weapons, or sexual content).
Hypnosis
- State of consciousness where people are especially susceptible to suggestion
Psychoactive Substances
- Drugs that alter perceptions and moods
- Classifications (e.g., depressants, stimulants, hallucinogens)
- DSM-5 defines substance use disorders (e.g., DSM-5 notes changes in brain circuitry connected to impaired control over use of substance)
Substance Use and Substance Use Disorders
- Impaired functioning due to repeated substance use.
- Characterized by loss of control over substance use.
- Biological symptoms can be indicative of addiction.
- Tolerance: needing more of the substance to achieve the same effect
- Abstinence syndrome: experiencing withdrawal symptoms
- Craving: occurs without substance use
Causal Factors in Substance Use Disorders
- Experimentation
- Peer influence or positive effects of the drug.
- Self-medication
- Genetic predisposition to physiological dependence
Psychoactive Drugs
- Imitate the brain's natural neurotransmitters (e.g., Marijuana, Opiates)
- Change the activity of neurotransmitter receptors (e.g., Cocaine)
- Effects depend on the neurotransmitter system the drug affects (activation or imitation).
Dependence
- Physical dependence: body unable to function without the drug
- Drug tolerance: needing more of the drug to achieve the same effect
- Withdrawal: physical symptoms when the drug is absent
- Psychological dependence: feeling that a drug is needed to continue emotional or psychological well-being
Stimulants: Up, Up, and Away
- Drugs that increase nervous system functioning
- Examples: Amphetamines (synthesized), Cocaine (natural), Nicotine (tobacco), Caffeine
Down in the Valley: Depressants
- Drugs that decrease nervous system functioning
- Examples: Barbiturates (sedative effect), Benzodiazepines (lower anxiety), Alcohol, Rohypnol (date rape drug)
Down in the Valley: Depressants (Alcohol)
- Chemical resulting from fermentation/distillation of vegetable matter
- Often mistaken for a stimulant, but actually a CNS depressant
- Commonly used and abused depressant
Alcohol Effects
- Lowering of inhibitions
- Euphoria and elation
- Impaired cognitive function and coordination
- Varying effects in men and women due to aldehyde dehydrogenase differences, with women having less aldehyde dehydrogenase than men
- Physiological dependence.
Opiates and Opioids
- Group of narcotics derived from the opium poppy and produced in a lab.
- Relieve pain and induce sleep
- Morphine, heroin, codeine, and Demerol
- Euphoria, potential for physiological dependence
Barbiturates
- Depressants with medical uses (anxiety, tension, pain, epilepsy, hypertension, insomnia)
- Rapid physiological dependence
- Dangerous if mixed with alcohol
Marijuana
- Psychedelic substance (THC) derived from cannabis resin
- Alters time perception, bodily sensations, and sexual sensations
- Disorientation, perceptual-motor problems, short-term memory and learning problems, nausea, vomiting
- Tolerance and withdrawal symptoms
LSD and Other Hallucinogenics
- Synthetic hallucinogen (LSD) causing vivid hallucinations, flashbacks (distorted perceptions)
- Include mescaline and phencyclidine (PCP)
How Drugs Affect Consciousness
(table summarizing drug classifications, common forms, main effects, and adverse effects)
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Description
Test your knowledge on key concepts in psychology, including structuralism, functionalism, neurotransmission, and brain imaging techniques. This quiz examines foundational theories and their implications for understanding behavior and mental processes.
