Exam 1 - 2.6.2025 PDF

**Making Claims with Evidence** Evidence Claim ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----------------------------------- The university is operati...

**Making Claims with Evidence** Evidence Claim ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ----------------------------------- The university is operating at a deficit The university must raise tuition Warrant Tuition is a primary means by which university improves itself. Backing Profit/loss balance sheets show that tuition is a primary source of income for the university. **\ ** **Ways of knowing; how does research compare with other ways of knowing.** - - - - - **\ Characteristics of Research (1-6)** - - - - What are the Characteristics of Research? - Study Book Page**\ ** **Compare proprietary research to scholarly research** - Proprietary research is conducted for a specific audience and is not necessarily shared beyond that audience. - Scholarly research is conducted to promote public access to knowledge as when researcher conduct and publish studies about the effectiveness of various means of persuasion or new vaccines for treating diseases. **\ ** +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | (ologies) | Question | Positivist | Naturalistic | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | Ontological | Nature of | Singular | Multiple | | | reality | | | | Assumption | | Objective | Intersubjective | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Epistemological | Relations of | Independent | Interdependent | | Assumption | the researcher | | | | | to that being | | | | | researched? | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Axiological | Role of values | Value-free | Value-laden | | | in the research | | | | Assumption | process | Unbiased | Biased | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Methodological | Process of | Deduction | Induction | | Assumption | research? | | | | | | Cause & effect | Wholistic | | | | relationships | understanding | | | | between | of patters of | | | | variables | behaviors | | | | | | | | | Static design | Emergent design | | | | | | | | | Researcher-cont | Natural setting | | | | rolled | | | | | setting | Qualitative | | | | | methods | | | | Quantitative | | | | | methods | Context-bound | | | | | findings and | | | | Content-free | social change | | | | generalizations | | | | | | | | | | Goals of | | | | | explanation, | | | | | | | | | | Prediction and | | | | | control | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Rhetorical | What is the | Formal | Informal | | Assumption | language of | | | | | research | Impersonal | Personal voice | | | reports | voice | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ **Definition of communication** - Process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior **Definition of technical communication --** - Encompasses the strategies used to convey complex information about technical services, products, systems, or processes to targeted audiences. Includes various forms of communication, including specialized information and instructional materials for technical and scientific items, such as computer hardware and software, and manufacturing or research equipment. **Communication research --** - Qualitative and quantitative research methodology followed to understand about the communication phenomena. Communication research helps in confirming and discovering patterns in communication behavior of people, and helps the scholars to develop useful communication theories. Characteristics Basic Communication Applied communication ------------------------ ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Nature of problem Seeks to establish general principles about communication Seeks to understand an important communication problem Goals of research Produce theoretical principles that simplify and explain apparently complex or related communication processes To provide knowledge that can be immediately useful to a policymaker who seeks to eliminate or alleviate a communication problem Guiding theory Other scholars' theoretical perspectives Any idea, including lay theories or other scholars' theoretical perspectives that holds promise of changing an unsatisfying situation into a more desirable one Appropriate techniques Theory formulation, hypothesis, testing, sampling, data collection, techniques, questionnaire, scale measurement, statistical treatment of data, validation or rejection of hypothesis Observe or ask actors about events leading up to current situation; trail and evaluation of proposed solution **Reasons for reviewing previous research** - Contextualize the research problem by providing background information and context - Identify knowledge gaps and areas where further research is needed - Build a theoretical framework for a study - Gain a comprehensive understand of existing knowledge in the field **What are scholarly research articles?** - **Introduces new knowledge based on original research or experimentation**. Many undergo a process called peer review where experts in the field scrutinize articles before they are published, resulting in a body of quality scholarly information. **How research is presented:  Reading scholarly Journal articles** **Typical Quantitative Scholarly Journal Article. -  ** - **Quantitative research commonly uses statistical software, mathematical models, and computational algorithms to analyze data. Such tools enable an efficient evaluation of large datasets, allowing researchers to isolate variables and pinpoint quantifiable trends.** - **Non-quantitative research employs interpretative techniques like content and thematic analyses to identify concepts or themes and narrate stories, without necessitating numerical analysis.** - **Quantitative research offers a structured, objective framework geared for hypothesis testing and generalizable insights, while non-quantitative research provides a finer-grained, context-sensitive exploration of phenomena.** - **Usually written in a standardized format called the IMRaD format - Introduction, Methods, Results, (and) Discussion sections; usually a Conclusions section. Authors ensure that readers will be able to readily locate the paper\'s critical elements.** \-           **Figure 3.4 and what these sections are and do in a scholarly quantitative journal article \* pp 67-74** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | *Title* | *Presents topic and variables | | | studied by researcher* | +===================================+===================================+ | *Abstract* | *Summary of important points; | | | condensed summary of entire | | | article; can establish whether | | | article is relevant and should be | | | included in a literature review; | | | determines whether entire article | | | should be read* | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | *Introduction* | *Body of journal article; no | | | longer than a page or two; | | | orients reader to topic and why | | | it is important that it be | | | studied; often starts with an | | | introduction to general area of | | | research under which the specific | | | topic falls, then explains the | | | specific purpose/focus of | | | research but not phrased as a | | | research question or hypothesis | | | and points out the | | | significance/important of the | | | research for communication | | | scholars, practitioners and | | | general public; establishes the | | | purpose and significance of the | | | study* | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | *Review of the* | *One of the most crucial section; | | | researcher identifies the | | *Literature* | previous work done by scholars | | | relevant to topic; understanding | | | what needs to be done next in an | | | area of research can only be | | | achieve after a comprehensive and | | | clear review of what has been | | | done, since knowing what has been | | | done directs researchers to | | | topics and questions they now | | | consider worth studying; reflects | | | author's personal style. Might | | | frame topic within broader goals | | | of discipline, some conceptual or | | | theoretical perspectives, and/or | | | its applied value;* | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | *Research* | *Explains how research | | | question/hypothesis grew out of | | *Question/* | literature review; it is not | | | unusual to have multiple research | | *Hypothesis* | questions and/or hypothesis posed | | | with explanations of them in | | | between* | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | *Methodology* | *Authors explain exactly how | | | research was conducted. Contains | | | three formal subheadings Research | | | Participants/Texts, Procedures | | | and Date Treatment* | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | *Research Participants/Texts -- | | | recorded or visual messages | | | studied; all relevant information | | | about participants or texts; such | | | as total number, important | | | characteristics and how they were | | | selected.* | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | *Procedures -used to conduct | | | research; straight forward of | | | what was done with the research | | | subjects/texts; explains how | | | dependent and independent | | | variables were operationalized | | | put into observable terms and | | | measured; goal is to provide | | | enough concrete information that | | | another researcher could | | | reproduce the study if so | | | desired* | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | *Data Treatment -- explanation of | | | the ways in which quantitative | | | data were analyzed; sometimes | | | presented in results section* | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | *Results* | *Explains what was found; | | | typically, short, straightforward | | | account of findings without | | | attempting to interpret or | | | discuss them; author remains | | | objective, now allowing personal | | | interpretations or feelings to | | | color the reporting; may be hard | | | to read due to statistics, | | | tables/figures, jargon, and | | | abbreviations;* | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | *Discussion* | *Author interprets results | | | reported in preceding section; | | | author explains significance of | | | results and what they mean; | | | involves three things meaning and | | | important of findings are | | | examined; might discuss how | | | findings support or refute a | | | theory and/or previous research | | | and what recommendations might be | | | offered from the findings to | | | practitioners and general public; | | | problems/limitations are | | | identified on basis of hindsight; | | | findings are used to suggest new | | | topic worth studying, new | | | questions worth asking, and new | | | procedures worth trying* | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | *References* | *Disclosure of indebtedness -- a | | | complete and accurate list of all | | | sources cited* | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | *Footnotes -- provide | | | explanations of material | | | mentioned in the article that is | | | elaborated on for interested | | | readers* | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Using Research and SPSS Inferential Statistics Section** **SPSS, what it is, data page, variable page** - Manage and analyze large data sets. - Use advanced statistical procedures and modeling techniques. - Predict customer behaviors. - Forecast market trends. - Detect fraud to minimize business risk. - Conduct reliable research for accurate conclusions. - Optimize organizational strategies - **Variable page - Type specifies the type of a variable, such as numeric, string, data, date, and so on. In our example, SPSS has correctly identified Age as a numeric type. If you need to change the type, click inside the cell you want to change (within the Type column, click again on the ellipsis if it appears), and a list of variable types will be displayed (as below). Select the variable type you require and click OK.** - **Data page - This guide shows you how to **enter data** into **SPSS** Statistics so that you can then **analyze** your **data** by running statistical tests on your correctly formatted data.** **Observations and Measurement** **Conceptual definitions** --used in dictionaries; relating it to other abstract concepts; relating love to a deep and tender feeling **Operational definitions** -- describes idea in terms of observable/measurable characteristics or behaviors; specify how the idea can be observed in actuality **Measurement theory** -- researchers must determine ways to record/order in a systematic way observation; measurement is the process of determining existence, characteristics, size, and/or quantity of changes/differences in a variable through systematic recording and organization of the observations. **Quantitative vs Qualitative Measurements** - Quantitative measurements use numerical indicators to determine the amount of something - **Levels of Measurement\*\* NOIR** **Nominal** -- classify variable into different categories; categories may be words or numbers; not the degree or amount of a variable; categories are not arranged in any particular order from highest to lowest or best to worst; simply represent different categories. **Ordinal** -- classify variable into nominal categories but also rank order categories along some dimension; measured along some greater than and less than scale. Ipsative scale -- ordinal scale in which rank can only be used one; normative scale allows ranked ties as well as interval and ratio rating scales **Interval (types)** - Likert -- developed by Rensis Likert (1932); [It consists of a statement or a question, followed by a series of five or seven answer statements. Respondents choose the option that best corresponds with how they feel about the statement or question. The scale is a close-ended, forced-choice scale used in a questionnaire that provides a series of answers that go from one extreme to another2](https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=9b1b029cd5ffa59ac807946895471b14c2dae4c2619da2f42fe83c028b9ca171JmltdHM9MTczODEwODgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=2f171719-d9c1-6c60-2b7a-0397d8476d17&psq=likert-type+scale&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cudGhvdWdodGNvLmNvbS9saWtlcnQtc2NhbGUtNDY4NTc4OA&ntb=1). [The choices range from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree so the survey maker can get a holistic view of people's opinions and their level of agreement3](https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=14efe65dd12dc21494d74b0dc79245a265dae1b93fbe4a5b07e869a9a0a502ceJmltdHM9MTczODEwODgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=2f171719-d9c1-6c60-2b7a-0397d8476d17&psq=likert-type+scale&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cudHlwZWZvcm0uY29tL3N1cnZleXMvbGlrZXJ0LXNjYWxlLXF1ZXN0aW9ubmFpcmVzLw&ntb=1).. - Likert-Type -- any adaptation that resemble Likert scale; also called Likert-like; different answer categories than agree-disagree and sometimes a different number of answers (e.g., 7-point scales) depending on the purpose of the research and type of question(s) asked. **Ratio** -- categorize and **rank** order a variable along a scale with equal intervals between adjacent points but also establish an absolute or true zero point where the variable being measured ceases to exist.   **Advantages/disadvantages of each, comparative information richness of each level** - Factors -- communication concepts composed of a number of different sub concepts - Unidimensional -- measured by a set of indicators that can be added together equally to derive a single, overall score; called a summated scale; - Multidimensional -- Summated scale that can be added together; concepts that incorporate more than one factor and most be measured by more than one of the scale items (each set of scale items is a summated scale that can be added together). **Measurement Methods** - **Self-Reports** -- measures, the backbone of psychological research, offer a tantalizing glimpse into individual's thoughts, feelings, and experiences, but their apparent simplicity belies a complex web of advantages, limitations, and applications that demand careful consideration. These tools, ranging from simple questionnaires to intricate interview protocols, have revolutionized the way psychologists understand the human mind and behavior. - **Observer Ratings** - [**scores given for a variable**, using units of measurement defined by the researchers](https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=6ade92deb8788431677498af2e124039123baafe81f8dcfe1f851066d521f1d1JmltdHM9MTczODYyNzIwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=2f171719-d9c1-6c60-2b7a-0397d8476d17&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuc2NpZW5jZWRpcmVjdC5jb20vc2NpZW5jZS9hcnRpY2xlL3BpaS9TMDE2ODE1OTEwOTAwMDY5MA&ntb=1); [used to measure job demands that can be observed, such as task complexity, decision latitude, and work environment1](https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=3b49db8df9649f6122780977f99b5b72cac4fdfea4a5458bea65794da7110578JmltdHM9MTczODYyNzIwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=2f171719-d9c1-6c60-2b7a-0397d8476d17&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9wbWMubmNiaS5ubG0ubmloLmdvdi9hcnRpY2xlcy9QTUM2NTk0MzI1Lw&ntb=1). [They can also be used to analyze caregiver-child behaviors and situational factors2](https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=749435ff944c1019ecd6230b8bc6f3a1557002934b5f29b550fd6788b062113fJmltdHM9MTczODYyNzIwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=2f171719-d9c1-6c60-2b7a-0397d8476d17&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9wbWMubmNiaS5ubG0ubmloLmdvdi9hcnRpY2xlcy9QTUM0MDgzNjExLw&ntb=1). [Observation is the act of recognizing and noting facts or occurrences, often involving measurement3](https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=eaf2d5ebfa7aa816b6eedf6328850258edc5063e37f9f901f00e952b04219a55JmltdHM9MTczODYyNzIwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=2f171719-d9c1-6c60-2b7a-0397d8476d17&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9saW5rLnNwcmluZ2VyLmNvbS9jaGFwdGVyLzEwLjEwMDcvOTc4LTEtNDg5OS0yMjgzLTBfNA&ntb=1) - **Observations (and types)/data** - [Observational research involves ***systematic*** observation and recording of behaviors, actions, and interactions](https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=543491d67879b1657f9f87b1fe66496b0c179be5ea64a4cc5d85bcb782161960JmltdHM9MTczODYyNzIwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=2f171719-d9c1-6c60-2b7a-0397d8476d17&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9yZXNlYXJjaG1ldGhvZC5uZXQvb2JzZXJ2YXRpb25hbC1yZXNlYXJjaC8&ntb=1). [There are four types of variables](https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=167b54d87807815c4c9a4dc6946462c817fc82135e35c5fec740c6f2885a9043JmltdHM9MTczODYyNzIwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=2f171719-d9c1-6c60-2b7a-0397d8476d17&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9wbWMubmNiaS5ubG0ubmloLmdvdi9hcnRpY2xlcy9QTUM2MjA2NzkwLw&ntb=1): [nominal, ordinal, discrete, and continuous. ](https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=167b54d87807815c4c9a4dc6946462c817fc82135e35c5fec740c6f2885a9043JmltdHM9MTczODYyNzIwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=2f171719-d9c1-6c60-2b7a-0397d8476d17&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9wbWMubmNiaS5ubG0ubmloLmdvdi9hcnRpY2xlcy9QTUM2MjA2NzkwLw&ntb=1) [Strong research methodology involves applying methods to assess and ensure that different observers, raters, or coders would get the same result when evaluating the same data](https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=b9bf6810d3c8d1f88002e7e8c2ed329123ec2a8c8e00303e8451188f32ae29a3JmltdHM9MTczODYyNzIwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=2f171719-d9c1-6c60-2b7a-0397d8476d17&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9vaGlvc3RhdGUucHJlc3Nib29rcy5wdWIvc3drMzQwMS9jaGFwdGVyL21vZHVsZS0zLWNoYXB0ZXItNS1vdmVydmlldy1vZi1tZXRob2RzLWZvci1kYXRhLWNvbGxlY3Rpb24tYW5kLW1lYXN1cmVtZW50Lw&ntb=1). - **Measurement Techniques** - [methods and instruments used to quantify physical properties or parameters1](https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=d6c7a068396404c4a1edfe4259a1345024c0c084de312b7bb582b9390cf0a09fJmltdHM9MTczODYyNzIwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=2f171719-d9c1-6c60-2b7a-0397d8476d17&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9saWJyYXJ5LmZpdmVhYmxlLm1lL2tleS10ZXJtcy9pbnRyby1jb2xsZWdlLXBoeXNpY3MvbWVhc3VyZW1lbnQtdGVjaG5pcXVlcw&ntb=1)(https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=152e8113603ed03f4b12e92f0aaa43638c3545947515d0a90c8d8385f8761382JmltdHM9MTczODYyNzIwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=2f171719-d9c1-6c60-2b7a-0397d8476d17&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cudmFpYS5jb20vZW4tdXMvZXhwbGFuYXRpb25zL2VuZ2luZWVyaW5nL3Byb2Zlc3Npb25hbC1lbmdpbmVlcmluZy9tZWFzdXJlbWVudC10ZWNobmlxdWVzLw&ntb=1)(https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=43e2c603f29d27e4c65b9e0c8228d90bce30ef90bc941d7901fc282b76be92c8JmltdHM9MTczODYyNzIwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=2f171719-d9c1-6c60-2b7a-0397d8476d17&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9saWJyYXJ5LmZpdmVhYmxlLm1lL2tleS10ZXJtcy9wcmluY2lwbGVzLXBoeXNpY3MtaWkvbWVhc3VyZW1lbnQtdGVjaG5pcXVlcw&ntb=1)(https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=6ed77896d452e10433fea4eb4cfeb5ca6e01a307d7352823cc56a0ee411893b6JmltdHM9MTczODYyNzIwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=2f171719-d9c1-6c60-2b7a-0397d8476d17&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cucGVybGVnby5jb20vaW5kZXgvdGVjaG5vbG9neS1lbmdpbmVlcmluZy9tZWFzdXJlbWVudC10ZWNobmlxdWVz&ntb=1).  [Essential for obtaining reliable data and making informed decisions in various scientific and engineering applications. Methods of measurement include direct, indirect, comparative, substitution, null, and fundamental methods](https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!&&p=6eeee7508db2228ae32a18b4e6aafd65378aeaecb980f2da3131f1d4a2846eb9JmltdHM9MTczODYyNzIwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=2f171719-d9c1-6c60-2b7a-0397d8476d17&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly9pbnN0cnVtZW50YXRpb250b29scy5jb20vbWV0aG9kcy1vZi1tZWFzdXJlbWVudC8&ntb=1).   **Validity and Reliability** **What is validity?** Extent to which results really measure what they are supposed to measure. Checks how well results correspond to establish theories and other measures of the same concept. A valid measurement is generally reliable; if a test produces accurate results they should be reproducible. **What is reliability?** Extent to which results can be reproduced when research is repeated under the same conditions. Checks consistency of results across time, across different observers, and across parts of the test. A reliable measurement is not always valid; the results might be reproducible, but they're not necessarily correct. Internal - how consistently different items within a single test measure the same concept or construct; ensures test is stable across components. External -- measures how consistently a test produces similar results over repeated administrations or under different conditions; ensures test is stable over time and situations. **What is measurement validity?** Extent to which the data or results of a research method represent the intended variable; valid results display accuracy in research methods and results **What is measurement reliability?** Consistency of a research method; **Inter-rater reliability** -- statistical measure that assess the consistency and agreement between raters or observers; used to evaluate reliability of answers produced by different items on a test or the consistency of ratings given by different evaluators **Test-retest** -- measure used to assess consistency or stability of a measurement instrument over time; examines whether same results are obtained when the same individuals or objects are measured on two separate occasions. **Parallel forms --** know as alternate forms reliability; measures used in psychometric testing to assess consistency of results obtained from different versions or forms of a test that measure same construct. Involves administering two or more equivalent versions of the same test to a group of individuals and comparing results to determine degree of correlation between versions. **Internal consistency --** measure used in research to determine extent to which items with a test or survey are consistent with each other, meaning they measure the same concept **Multiple-administration techniques for this (test/retest)** Single-administration techniques for this; split half, Cronbach's alpha, intercoder reliability. - Split-half -- measures extent to which all parts of the test contribute equally to what is being measured. - Cronbach's alpha -- known as tau-equivalent reliability(displaystlehoT) or coefficient alpha (coefficient displaystylealpha), is a reliability coefficient a measure of the internal - Intercoder reliability -- ICR measurement of how much researchers agree when coding the same data set; often used in content analysis to test consistency and validity of the initial codebook; helps show that multiple researchers are coming to same coding results **Validity threats due to** How the research is conducted, a. b. c. d. e. **Research participants** -- characteristics of research designs that lessen the degree to which results are interpreted correctly; can occur when hypothesis is tested in a manner other than what the researcher intended\ Researcher effects (e.g, history, sleeper, Hawthorne effect, maturation, attrition, researcher bias, etc.) **Maturation effect** -- occur when changes in participants behavior or performance are due to the passage of time rather than independent variable. In a longitudinal study measuring children's reading skills, natural improvement due to aging and development could affect results, making it unclear whether gains are due to the reading program or maturation. Include a control group to account for changes that would occur naturally over time. **Sleeper effect** -- a psychological phenomenon where a persuasive message initially has little impact on an individual's attitudes or beliefs, but over time, the person becomes more accepting of the message. **Hawthorne Effect** -- individuals modify or improve their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed;