Motor Learning and Control and Classification of Skills PDF

Week 1 ------ Introduction to Motor Learning and Control and Classification of Skills ----------------------------------------------------------------------- ### Key Talking Points - The design and implementation of effective learning experiences requires the creation of an informed action...

Week 1 ------ Introduction to Motor Learning and Control and Classification of Skills ----------------------------------------------------------------------- ### Key Talking Points - The design and implementation of effective learning experiences requires the creation of an informed action plan grounded in an understanding of the learning process, the current learning situation and the potential instructional strategies available from which to draw. - The field of *motor learning* examines the processes and variables that influence the acquisition and refinement of motor skills; the field of *motor control* focuses on the neural, physical, and behavioral aspects that underlie movement. - Learning and performance are not synonymous. Learning is a relatively permanent change in the capability to execute a motor skill as a result of practice or experience, whereas performance is simply the act of executing a skill. - Motor skills are categorized by several classification systems: - - - - - All teaching strategies will not be equally effective for all learners, owing to individual differences. - Each of us possesses different levels of abilities, which are genetically determined traits that enhance or limit our potential to become skilled at a particular task. Stages of Learning ------------------ ### Key Talking Points - According to Fitts and Posner, learners pass through three distinct stages: 1. 2. 3. - Gentile's two-stage model emphasizes the goal of the learner and the influence of task and environmental characteristics on that goal. - - - To infer learning, the practitioner can assess numerous performance changes, including changes in coordination and control, muscle activity, energy expenditure, consistency, attentional focus, knowledge and memory, error detection and correction, and self-confidence. - Progress can also be assessed through performance curves, retention tests, and transfer tests. - - - A performance plateau is a period of time during the learning process in which no overt changes in performance occur. Plateaus often represent transitional periods in the learning process when the integration of task components (and perhaps strategy) is being resolved; they are not necessarily indicative of a cessation in the learning process. ### Week 2 ### Information processing and Reaction Time Key Talking Points The process by which meaning is attached to sensory information is known as perception (Stimulus Identification stage). During the response selection phase, a decision is made on what to do with the information from the previous stage Once the decision is reached, response programming occurs. In this stage the motor programme is retrieved from memory and it contains all the information required to begin the movement. A time lag occurs between the moment when a stimulus is presented and when a response is initiated. This interval of time is known as reaction time and is indicative of the time needed to prepare a response before it can be executed. Reaction time is not constant; it depends on the processing demands imposed by a given situation. Numerous variables influence the time needed to prepare a response, including the number of response choices available, temporal and/or event anticipation, the psychological refractory period, stimulus--response compatibility, and amount of practice. When response time delays are noted, practitioners must make a distinction between moving slowly and initiating movement slowly in order to determine which course of action to take for their correction. Questions to consider: 1. Explain the degrees of freedom problem **Week 3** Skill Presentation: Instructions and Demonstration\ Key Talking Points\ Practitioners can choose either a Hands-on or Hands-off approach to instruction\ --- Hands-on instruction, also known as direct instruction, employs verbal\ instructions and demonstrations as well as the provision of feedback to guide\ skill development.\ --- Hands-off instruction emphasises movement exploration through the purposeful\ manipulation of key constraints in order to guide the learner in discovering\ optimal movement solutions.\ When giving instructions:\ --- Keep explanations short and simple\ --- Use developmentally appropriate terminology\ --- Direct learners' attention to critical elements of the skill during initial instructions\ --- Provide learners with a frame of reference for correctness\ --- Consider learners' learning styles and previous experiences.\ Instructions focusing learners' conscious attention on the effects of their movement\ rather than on specific body movements have been shown to be superior for\ learning.\ Verbal cues are used to focus learners' attention or prompt a movement or\ movement sequence and should be concise, accurate, limited in number, and used\ repeatedly throughout the learning process.\ When planning a demonstration, the practitioner should consider its content, the\ characteristics of the model performing the demonstration, how the demonstration\ will be organised, and its distribution and frequency.\ When providing an initial demonstration, the practitioner or model should perform\ the whole skill in real time to give learners an idea of the movement.\ Learners benefit from demonstrations that focus on a new pattern of coordination.\ The use of a learning model encourages movement exploration and active\ involvement in the learning process. © 2018 Cheryl A. Coker\ For an effective demonstration, all learners should have a good viewing angle and\ should be focused on the key elements being demonstrated.\ The complexity of the skill and the extent to which the learner understands the\ information will dictate when and how often a demonstration should be provided.\ Manual guidance may be used to convey skill requirements and for safety\ purposes, but it should be withdrawn as soon as possible.\ Diagnosing Errors/Feedback\ Key Talking Points\ When diagnosing errors, practitioners tend to focus on the outcome of the\ movement and provide feedback only about technical aspects of the skill that can\ be observed, but many errors can be attributed to deficits in motor learning.\ When conducting an observation, the practitioner should identify the purpose and\ key elements of the skill, determine the optimal viewing perspective, decide how\ many trials to observe prior to making a judgment regarding performance quality,\ and choose whether to record.\ Errors can occur as a result of organismic, task, or environmental constraints.\ Comprehension errors occur when a learner does not understand the requirements\ of the skill or what is expected.\ Errors in selection can result from problems in assessing the environment for task-\ relevant cues, faulty decision making, or forgetting.\ Whether an error should be corrected depends on the learner's capability to make\ the correction, the amount of time available, and the level of motivation.\ Correcting Errors © 2018 Cheryl A. Coker\ Key Talking Points\ "Feedback" is a general term used to describe the information a learner receives\ about the performance of a movement or skill.\ Feedback can be intrinsic (coming from one's own sensory system) or augmented\ (supplied from an external source).\ Knowledge of results provides information regarding the outcome of a response and\ is concerned with the success of the intended action with respect to its goal.\ Knowledge of performance provides information regarding the specific\ characteristics of the performance that led to the outcome.\ Augmented feedback serves to provide information for error correction, motivate,\ and reinforce.\ Sources of augmented feedback include auditory feedback, visual displays, video\ replay, equipment and drills, and biofeedback.\ In the sandwich approach, the practitioner first gives the learner information to\ reinforce correct performance, then provides information regarding error correction,\ and finally offers encouragement to motivate the learner to incorporate the\ recommendations.\ The provision of both descriptive and prescriptive information can assist learners in\ developing associations between errors and corrections.\ Learners need a high frequency of feedback in the initial stage of learning.\ However, unless that frequency is reduced as the learner becomes more proficient,\ the learner may develop an overdependence on augmented feedback.\ To reduce feedback frequency, the practitioner can use faded, bandwidth,\ summary, average, and learner-regulated feedback.\ Learners need time to process intrinsic feedback and formulate a new movement\ plan for the next attempt.\ Prompting learners to estimate their own performance errors before providing them\ with augmented feedback results in superior learning.\ The purposeful manipulation of key task and/or practice variables should be\ considered when correcting performance errors **Week 4** **Practice Schedules\ Key Talking Points\ When learners are first introduced to a new motor skill, they should engage in\ constant practice, practicing only a single variation of the task. Once they have\ acquired the basic movement pattern, they should engage in variable practice\ strategies, rehearsing multiple variations of the task.\ For open skills and closed skills that involve inter-trial variability, the practitioner\ should systematically introduce variations in both regulatory and non-regulatory\ conditions that could be present in an applied setting. For closed skills that do\ not involve inter-trial variability, learners should be exposed to a variety of\ potential non-regulatory conditions, while the regulatory conditions of the skill\ should remain constant.\ Increasing contextual interference---the interference that results from switching\ from one skill to another or changing the context in which a task is practiced from\ trial to trial---has been shown to facilitate learning.\ Low contextual interference occurs during blocked practice, when the learner\ practices one skill or skill variation repeatedly before attempting another skill or\ skill variation. High contextual interference results when multiple tasks or task\ variations are performed in random order.\ Initial learning should be organised through blocked practice, and random\ practice should follow once learners have acquired some degree of proficiency.\ Repeated-blocked practice combines the advantages of blocked and random\ practice.\ Learning is enhanced when practice sessions are shorter and more frequent.\ Distributed practice is recommended for novel and complex skills, continuous\ tasks, tasks that inherently have high-energy requirements, and tasks whose\ performance involves some degree of risk. Massed practice can be effective for\ learners who have acquired basic skills, are highly motivated, are in good\ physical condition, and have long attention spans.\ Self-controlled practice, where learners are given the opportunity to choose\ some characteristics of the practice situation, has been shown to facilitate\ learning\ To maximise time on task, the practitioner should carefully consider rest\ intervals, equipment substitutions, and drill design.** **Week 5** **Key Facts Sheet: Wearables in Sport\ Introduction to Wearables in Sport\ Data Collection: Wearables gather data such as heart rate, GPS location,\ movement patterns, and physiological metrics.\ Performance Analysis: Helps in analyzing performance, identifying\ strengths and weaknesses, and optimizing training strategies.\ Real-Time Feedback: Provides immediate feedback during training and\ competition for performance adjustments.\ Existing Technology in Cricket/Sport\ Hawkeye: Virtual understanding of the ball\'s angle and distance.\ Snickometer: Detects ball contact with the bat using a microphone in the\ stumps.\ REV Counter: Shows the rotation speed of the ball for spinners.\ Hot Spot: Infra-red imaging to determine ball contact points.\ Stump Camera and Speed Gun: Capture detailed visuals and speed\ data.\ Instant Replays: Allow for review and analysis of plays.\ Wearables and Feedback in Motor Skill Acquisition\ Feedback Types: Intrinsic and extrinsic feedback, including auditory,\ visual, and tactile cues.\ Performance Enhancement: Real-time feedback helps correct errors\ and improve technique.\ Personalized Training: Tailored feedback maximizes individual\ performance.\ Types of Wearables\ 1. Fitness Trackers: Track steps, heart rate, and calories burned.\ 2. Smart Watches: Offer notifications and track various health metrics.\ 3. Smart Clothing: Measure respiration rate, body temperature, heart rate,\ and sleep.\ 4. Sport Watches: Designed for athletes, tracking heart rate, pace, and\ fatigue.\ Importance of Wearables in Cricket\ Performance Tracking: Monitor vital signs and movement patterns.\ Skill Analysis: Analyze specific skills for improvement.\ Personalized Training: Tailor training programs based on individual\ needs.** ** Injury Prevention: Detect and monitor potential injuries.\ Theoretical Framework: Motor Learning and Skill Acquisition\ Cognitive Stage: Understanding the skill and developing a mental\ representation.\ Associative Stage: Refining the skill through practice and feedback.\ Autonomous Stage: Skill becomes automatic, allowing focus on other\ aspects.\ Feedback and Skill Development\ Real-Time Feedback: Immediate insights enable technique adjustments.\ Post-Performance Analysis: Detailed data analysis for improvement.\ Targeted Training: Develop tailored training plans to address\ weaknesses.\ Case Studies\ Performance Enhancement: Use of wearables to improve player\ performance.\ Data-Driven Coaching: Transformation of coaching strategies through\ wearable data.\ Conclusion and Future Trends\ Advanced Analytics: AI and machine learning for sophisticated data\ analysis.\ Virtual Reality Training: Immersive simulations for skill development.\ Biometric Monitoring: Advanced sensors for tracking physiological data** **Week 8** **2. What were the two inherent problems associated with the original notion of motor\ programs? How did the proposition of the generalised motor program resolve\ these issues?\ Theories of Motor Control\ Key Talking Points\ Skilled movement requires that the learner not only condense the available\ degrees of freedom (coordination) but also control the resulting movement.\ A generalised motor program is an abstract representation of a class of actions\ that can be modified to yield various response outcomes.\ Some elements of the generalised motor program (invariant features) are\ thought to be relatively fixed from trial to trial, defining the motor program itself;\ others (parameters) are more flexible, defining the program's execution.\ Parameters for a given situation are specified according to one's schema, which\ is a rule or relationship that is developed through practice and directs decision\ making. The interaction of the learner, the task, and the environment in which\ the task is performed is fundamental to the understanding and facilitation of\ motor skill acquisition and performance.\ Constraints led Coaching -- Dynamical Systems Theory\ Key Talking Points\ The dynamic system theory argues against the notion of a central command\ center and suggests instead that movement emerges or self-organizes as a\ function of the constraints imposed on the system at any given time.\ Three categories of constraints have been identified: organismic, environmental,\ and task.\ According to the constraints-led approach, the learner searches through a range\ of potential movement solutions for the optimal movement strategy that will\ satisfy the imposed constraints.\ The role of the practitioner is one of identifying and manipulating key constraints\ to guide the learner's search for optimal movement solutions.\ Dynamical Systems Perspective\ The second theory of motor control is the 'Dynamical Systems Perspective'. This\ is a non-linear perspective where the movement pattern emerges as a function of\ the environmental, organismic, and task constraints. All the information that is\ needed for the movement to be successful is found in the environment and can\ be observed by the learner. A constraint limits the movement capabilities of the** **individual. As stated below, and as seen in Figure 1 below, there are three\ categories of constraints.\ 1. Organismic (e.g. structure/functional) include body shape, weight, height,\ cognitive, etc.\ 2. Environmental constraints include temperature, light, wind, audience, etc.\ 3. Task constraints are essentially the rules of the game, goal of the task, and\ the implements being manipulated.\ Figure 1 -- Self Organization by Interacting Constraints\ A result of the interplay of these constraints (Figure 1) is our stable state. A\ learner prefers to be in a stable state, which is also known as the 'attractor state'\ within the motor control literature, and it is what we prefer. When a change in the\ constraints occurs, the stability of our system is in danger. The movement pattern\ is forced to re-organise and the new technique will begin to take over and stability\ will be regained.\ Think about increasing the speed on a treadmill where you can no longer walk\ and are forced to run. This perspective emphasises the interaction between the\ learner and the physical environment. Therefore, coordination is seen as an\ interaction of constraints, stability, and requisite ability; not so much a pre-set of\ commands like the generalised motor program.\ Issues with Skill Acquisition\ Being that skill acquisition is still in its infancy, researchers are still trying to figure\ out what best practices enhance the motor learning process for complex and\ applied motor skills outside of the lab setting. Traditional approaches to skill\ acquisition have failed to capture motor learning as a reflection of exploratory\ activity. In other words, we are still in the age of reproducing static\ representations of a movement, conditioned to follow demonstrations overloaded\ with instruction (i.e. over-coaching) and, therefore, we seem to be losing sight of** **the complexity of movement as a product the performer and his or her\ environment. This is particularly apparent in the youth coaching methods used in\ developed countries by the means of repetitive, non-exploratory drills (i.e. line\ drills).\ It is, therefore, imperative that we further the dialogue, perhaps towards the\ ecological (i.e. dynamical systems theory) approach to perception and action.** **the complexity of movement as a product the performer and his or her\ environment. This is particularly apparent in the youth coaching methods used in\ developed countries by the means of repetitive, non-exploratory drills (i.e. line\ drills).\ It is, therefore, imperative that we further the dialogue, perhaps towards the\ ecological (i.e. dynamical systems theory) approach to perception and action.**