Lecture Notes Motor Learning and Control EXPT 2151 PDF

Week 1: classification of motor skills What is motor learning? The acquisition, enhancement, or reacquisition of motor skills (permanent, practise) Learning a skill you wouldn't learn naturally For example: throwing a ball at a target, Wh...

Week 1: classification of motor skills What is motor learning? The acquisition, enhancement, or reacquisition of motor skills (permanent, practise) Learning a skill you wouldn't learn naturally For example: throwing a ball at a target, What is motor control? How the neuromuscular system activates and coordinates muscles and limbs to perform a motor skill What is motor Development of human movement from infancy through to old age development? Movements Behavioural characteristics of specific limbs or a combination of limbs that are components of an action or motor skill For example: throwing arm back, extending and rotating the back. What are motor skills? Voluntary control over movements of the joints and body segments to achieve a specific goal Why distinguish There are multiple ways movements can be executed to achieve the same goal movements from skills? (motor skill) and can be tailored to the unique movement characteristic of individuals What are the different 1. Cognitive domain domains of motor skills? 2. Perceptual domain 3. Motor domain What is the cognitive Knowing what to do, knowing how to do it, measure of success (knowledge and domain? cognitive abilities) What is the perceptual Ability to detect information, ability to discern among sensory stimuli, measure of domain? success (sensing when and how to act) What is the motor domain? Doing it and doing it correctly, performed in most activities, motor skills are not performed in isolation, measure of success (quality, speed, range of movement) 3 components influencing 1. Person - individual attributes (influence ability to do the skill) motor skill performance? 2. Task (what) - goals, movement demands and perceptual demands 3. Environment (where) - environment in which a person executes the skill\ Classification of motor 1. One dimensional system skills? 2. Two dimensional system What is the one Size of primary musculature required dimensional system? Stability of the environment Temporal features of the skill What is the two Environmental demands dimensional system? Action requirements What is the size of primary Fine motor skills → recruitment of small muscle groups required to achieve goal, musculature? precision of movement and often require good hand eye coordination and dexterity Gross motor skills → use of relatively large muscles, movement of entire body to achieve skill Examples of fine and gross Fine motor skills → knitting, buttoning a shirt, drawing, repairing a watch motor skills Gross motor skills → pole vaulting, changing a tire, weight lifting, playing tug-o-war Why are fine/gross motor Tests for early childhood development skills classifications OT work with patients who need help with FMS useful? Exercise physiologists/physiotherapists help patients with GMS What are the components Discrete motor skills → clearly identifiable beginning and end points of temporal predictability? (completed quickly) ○ Tennis serve, flipping a coin, catching a ball Serial motor skills → series of discrete movements linked together (can sometimes mimic continuous skill) ○ Triple jump, paddleboarding, shifting car gears Continuous skills → beginning and end are arbitrary ○ Water skiing, flying a kite, brushing your teeth What is the stability of the Specific physical location in which a skill is performed environment? 3 features: supporting surface, objects involved, other people involved What are closed motor Predictable: surface remains constant, objects waits to be acted on and people are skills? stationary Performer initiates the movement involved in performing the skill when they are ready to do so What are open motor Unpredictable: surface changes, object is moving and other people are moving skills? Performer must time the initiation of their movement with an external feature in the environment Example of OPS and CMS CS: basketball free throw, typing, painting a wall OS: mountain biking, wrestling, driving on a busy road What are the Regulatory conditions under which skill is performed environmental demands in Relevant to how skill must be performed 2 dimensional? Stationary or in-motion conditions (environment) Inter-trial variability What are the action Body transport requirements in 2 Object manipulation dimensional? What is the gentile’s Functional guide to assess patients’ movement problems and select functionally taxonomy? appropriate activities Each category imposes a different set of demands on performers in terms of  number and type of variables that must be controlled Why do therapists use the 1. Evaluate patient abilities and limitations gentile’s taxonomy? 2. Select a progression of functionally appropriate activities to help overcome deficiencies 3. Chart individual progress of patients or students 4. Assess effectiveness of a rehabilitation or instruction program Taxonomy of Motor skills based on environmental context dimension of Gentile’s Two Dimension Taxonomy What are the action Body transport, no body transport, object manipulation, no object manipulation requirements of Gentile’s Taxonomy? What are the 2 categories 1. Performance outcome measures: outcome or result of performing a motor of motor performance skill measures? a. Time to complete a task, amount of error, reaction time 2. Performance production measures: how the nervous, muscular, and skeletal systems function during the performance of a skill a. Displacement, joint angle, joint torque What are the variables 1. Reaction time commonly used to assess 2. Error measures motor skills? 3. Kinematic variables What is reaction time? 1. Reaction Time (RT) - the time interval between the onset of a signal (stimulus) and the initiation of a response 2. Movement time (MT) - the time interval between the initiation of a movement and the completion of the movement. 3. Response time - the time interval involving both reaction time and movement time; that is, the time from the onset of a signal (stimulus) to the completion of a response. Types of reaction time 1. Simple RT - the situation involves only one signal (stimulus) that requires only one response. 2. Choice RT - the situation involves more than one signal and each signal requires its own specific response. 3. Discrimination RT - the situation involves more than one signal but only one response, which is to only one of the signals; the other signals require no response What are error measures? Error is a performance outcome measure, indicating the difference between the performance value and the target or goal amount What are types of errors? 1. Absolute Error (AE) - the magnitude of error without regard to the direction of the deviation 2. Constant Error (CE) - the amount and direction of error and serves as a measure of performance bias 3. Variable Error (VE) - the variability (or conversely, the consistency) of performance What are some points for Evaluate the learner’s achievement of the actual goal of a skill as well as the the movement instructor? associated movements Be aware that for many motor skills it is possible for different people to achieve the goal of a skill by using different movements → find the movements that work best for each individual Understanding different categorisation systems assists you to determine how different skills place different demands on the learner Important to understand measures of success for performance of specific skills to identify and correct movement problems to enable achievement of the skill. What does the use of Evaluation of learner capabilities and limitations taxonomy assist with? Planning progression of motor skills Evaluation of effectiveness of training or rehab program What is motor It is an observable behaviour and refers to the execution of a skill at a specific time performance? and in a specific situation. What are examples of performance variables? What are some differences between motor performance vs motor learning? What are the 5 1. Improvement – performance is executed with a higher level of skill at some performance later time than at a previous time characteristics of skill 2. Consistency – a person’s performance outcome and movement learning? characteristics become more similar 3. Stability – the influence of perturbations (internal or external) on skill performance decreases as learning progresses. 4. Persistence – the improved performance capability lasts over increasing periods of time, i.e. the improvement in performance becomes permanent. 5. Adaptability – performance is adaptable to a variety of performance contexts, i.e. the performance of a skill becomes generalisable to different situations Linear performance curve Learning occurs proportionally over time A large amount of learning occurs later in practise Positively accelerating Negatively accelerating A large amount of learning occurs early in practise S-shaped (ogive) Learning accelerates in middle phase of practise What is the power law of The negatively accelerating curve indicates that it is not uncommon for a person to practice? experience a period of time during which improvement seems to have stopped, i.e. a performance plateau Learning often still continues during these times as long as practise is continued An asymptote is an upper limit of performance that is considered the “best possible level of performance” What are the 3 methods of 1. Acquisition all stages go through observation assessing motor learning? 2. Retention 3. Transfer What is acquisition? Shape and rate of improvement, Factors that influence performance, Consistency and stability of performance Direct measurement of performance Measurement represent any changes in performance observed over the course of practise What is retention? Learning independently of temporary performance variables, Persistence or permanence of practice effects Refer to performance measurements conducted after acquisition trials Retention tests should be performed after sufficient time, this allows any effects of performance variables to have dissipated Retention tests only measure the permanent changes in performance → more accurate measure of learning than acquisition tests Retention tests demonstrate the learning characteristic of persistence What is transfer? Influence of practice on strength of learning, Adaptability to other conditions Transfer tests measure how effectively a person can transfer the learning of a skill from one condition to another A measure of the strength of learning in terms of how adaptable the learning is to novel, non-practiced conditions A measure of the adaptability or generalisability of learning What are some points for Good performance under certain conditions does not necessarily mean the movement instructor? learning has occurred Improvement and consistency during practice sessions may be artificially influenced by characteristics of the practice session, e.g. feedback and guidance. Try not to always provide feedback, or physical guidance for every practice attempt As people learn motor skills, they not only show improvement in their performance, but also become more consistent in their performance. Increased consistency is a sign of learning Evaluation of retention and/or transfer gives a better indication of learning. Assess performance at the beginning of a practice session to assess how much has been retained (learnt) from the last session Performance plateaus are normal and common. Learning still does occur during these times so it is important to provide encouragement so the learner continues to practise How can theory of motor Help describe a large class of observations control help? How the nervous system produces coordinated movements Make predictions about future results The outcome of these coordinated movements Why do we care about theories of motor control What are the 2 theories of 1. Motor program-based theory motor control? 2. Dynamical systems theory What is coordination? The patterning of head, body, and/or limb motions relative to the patterning of environmental objects and events What is ‘’degrees of Number of independent components in a system. Each component can vary freedom’’? independently. What is the problem of How can an efficient control system manage a complex system with many degrees ‘’degrees of freedom’’? of freedom? What is a closed loop Involves sensory feedback for movement correction. control? Updates movement instructions based on feedback. What is an open loop Lack sensory feedback: 1) Not enough time to give feedback and make correction control? 2) movement doesn’t need any feedback  For example: throwing a dart What is a motor program? A motor program that controls a class of actions (different actions with a common set of features) Schmit’s Generalised Different actions with a common set of features → invariant features → don’t vary Motor Program trial to trial Parameters must be added to the invariant features in order to meet specific movement demands of a situation What are movement These are the details that are changed to meet specific demands of a situation specific parameters? Schmidt’s Schema Theory Set of rules that serves to provide the basis for a decision How does the motor Initiation is an open-loop control process, but performance can be altered during program deal with execution if time is available (closed-loop). open/closed loop control? How does the motor GMP and motor response schema are very abstract/general in nature, and therefore program deal with degrees very adaptable. of freedom? What is the dynamical Nonlinear dynamics, self organisation, attractor states systems theory? What’s non-linear Not a gradual change → body changes to behaviour pattern to adapt to new behaviour? requirement What is self organisation? The emergence of a specific stable pattern of behaviour due to certain conditions characterising a situation rather than to a specific control mechanism organising the behaviour. What are attractors? Attractors are preferred states or patterns of movement that a motor control system tends to "fall into" under specific conditions. These patterns are relatively stable and energy-efficient, representing a kind of equilibrium where the body can achieve a desired outcome, such as maintaining balance or performing a skilled action. What is stability? Stability refers to how resistant a movement pattern is to changes or disturbances. A stable pattern is one that the body can maintain even in the face of external perturbations (like uneven terrain when walking). How does dynamical Large emphasis on interaction with the environment, and therefore closed-loop system theory deal with control. open/closed loop control? If there is not sufficient time for feedback to be useful, then open-loop control occurs How does dynamical Coordinative Structures (muscle synergies) → Functionally specific collections of system theory deal with muscles and joints that act cooperatively to produce an action (e.g. locomotor degrees of freedom? synergy) CNS controls synergies, not independent joints/muscles List the advantages and disadvantages of MPT and DST?  Week 2: Neuromotor Basis of Motor Control What is the nervous The central nervous system (CNS) → brain and spinal cord; controls regulation of system composed of? body systems and processing and creating memories The peripheral nervous system (PNS) → all neurons connecting the CNS to the rest of the body; send messages from spinal cord and/or brain and back What are the different Cell body → control centre of the neuron, containing the nucleus and organelles parts in the neuron? (essential for cellular function) Dendrites → branching structures that receive signals from other neurons Axon → the long projection that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body to target cells Synapse → the junction where neurons communicate Myelin sheath → protective cover surrounding all dendrites and the axon; it acts as a layer of insulation Neurilemma → nerve cells of the PNS have another protective covering on top of the myelin sheath; made of living cells. What are the types of Sensory neurons → transmit information from sensory receptors to the central neurons? nervous system; detect external stimuli and proprioceptive feedback Motor neurons → carry commands from the CNS to muscles; alpha motor neurons directly innervate skeletal muscle fibres Interneurons → form complex networks within the CNS; integrate sensory input and motor input (crucial for reflex arcs) Neurons send information through electrical impulses that travel along the axon Explain the action potential  1. Resting state: maintains negative charge in the membrane due to distribution of sodium and potassium ions 2. Depolarisation: sodium channels open allowing it to flood into the cell causing the inside of the neuron to be positively charged 3. Repolarisation: potassium channels open up leading potassium to leave; negative charge 4. Hyperpolarization and refractory period: becomes more negative; can’t fire another action potential so that neurons travel in one direction (allows for effective communication What are the different 1. Signal Transmission: Neurons form pathways that relay information from the types of neuronal sensory organs to the brain or spinal cord. communication? 2. Synaptic Gap: Between the dendrites of one neuron and the axon of another neuron is a small gap called the synaptic gap. 3. Chemical Signal: When a nerve cell is activated, the signal passes through the cell as an electrical signal. Once the electrical signal arrives at the axon, it turns into a chemical signal so that it can pass through the synaptic gap and into the next neuron. What are the structures of Neurons (main cells), glial cells (support cells: nutrition), brainstem, cerebellum, the brain? cerebrum Explain the function of the The brainstem controls basic functions like breathing, swallowing, blinking, and brainstem vomiting. Explain the function of the The cerebellum controls muscle movements, maintains posture, and balance. cerebellum Explain the function of the The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and controls higher thought processes. cerebrum Explain the functions of the different lobes Frontal lobe → Responsible for executive functions, such as planning, decision-making, and personality. Controls voluntary movements and speech. Parietal lobe → Processes sensory information, including touch, temperature, pain, and pressure. Aids in spatial awareness and navigation. Temporal Lobe → Processing auditory information, language comprehension, and memory. Plays a role in emotion and recognition. Occipital Lobe → Processing visual information. It receives signals from the eyes and interprets them to create our perception of the world. What is the function of the basal ganglia? Movement initiation and planning Control of force and muscle tone Coordination between antagonistic muscles What is the function of the cerebellum? Coordinates smooth and accurate motion; beneath cortex white matter (red nucleus and oculomotor nucleus); sends motor signals through red nucleus and reticular formation. Helps control eye movement and error detection (sends copy of correct movement to cerebellum). Send how to do the correct movement as well. Hand-eye coordination, timing and posture control (balance and stability), motor learning. What are the functions of the brainstem? Pons → control basic bodily functions Medulla Oblongata → regulates internal physiological processes, corticospinal tract carry sensory and motor signals (contralateral) Reticular formation → structure is a link between sensory and motor control centres in cerebellum and cerebral cortex (smooth and coordinated movement) What is the structure and function of the spinal cord? Grey Matter → The grey matter of the spinal cord is located in the centre and contains neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and synapses. It is responsible for processing and integrating information. White Matter → The white matter, surrounding the grey matter, is composed of myelinated axons that carry signals between the brain and the body. It allows for r rapid transmission of information along the spinal cord. Spinal Nerves → Spinal nerves branch out from the spinal cord, carrying sensory information to the brain and motor commands from the brain to muscles and glands. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, each serving a specific region of the body. Dorsal horns → process sensory information What are the ascending Ventral horns → terminate on skeletal muscles to control movement tracts? Send sensory information to the brain Dorsal column → transmits proprioception, touch, and pressure information to the brain Anterolateral system → carries pain, temperature and some touch and pressure signals. Spinocerebellar tracts → relay proprioception information directly to the cerebellum for movement coordination What are the descending tracts? Pyramidal (corticospinal) → from the cerebral cortex and controls fine motor skills Extrapyramidal → from the brainstem and functions for posture and gross motor control (don’t cross over to the other side 4 facts about ascending tracts 1. Sensory pathway 2. Carries information from the body to the brain 3. Uses sensory neurons 4. Permits us to feel pain, touch, temperature, and pressure 4 facts abouts descending tracts 1. Motor pathway 2. Carries commands from the brain to the muscles 3. Uses motor neurons 4. Allows for voluntary and involuntary movements What does the primary motor cortex control? Controls voluntary movements and fine motor skills What are the motor units? Alpha motor neurons → in the spinal cord and controls many muscle fibres (responsible for coordinating movement of individual muscles) (200 motor neurons) (send signals to motor fibres they control) What is the neuromuscular junction? 1. Connection point: The neuromuscular junction links alpha motor neurons to muscle fibres 2. Signal Transmission: Nerve impulses are transmitted across this specialised synapse. 3. Muscle Response: The transmitted signal triggers muscle fibre contraction. Motor unit composition and variability Fine movements → eye muscles have fewer fibres per motor unit, sometimes just one (allows for precise control) Gross movements → larger muscles have up to 700 fibres per motor unit. This enables powerful contractions.  Adaptability → the variable composition of motor units allows for a wide range of movement types What is motor unit recruitment? 1. Initial recruitment: smallest, weakest motor units are activated first [delicate movements] 2. Progressive activation: larger, stronger units are recruited as more force is needed [lifting or running] 3. Full recruitment: maximal force is achieved when all available motor units are activated Voluntary movement Situational analysis → brain assesses the situation and individual needs Movement intention → a cognitively derived intent for movement is formed Action plan → the brain generates a detailed plan for executing the movement Motor cortex send movement plans to lower sections (brainstem and spinal cord: execute the movement) Controlling voluntary movement The same physical movement can activate different brain areas depending on the task’s cognitive intent.  Week 3: Sensory components of motor control Mechanoreceptors Provide the CNS with information on pain, temperature, and movement. The role of tactile sensory 1. Movement accuracy: tactile feedback significantly influences the accuracy of information in motor fine motor skills control 2. Movement consistency: without tactile feedback there are more errors 3. Movement timing: helps brain coordinate movement correctly at correct time 4. Movement force adjustments: help regulate grip force when lifting up cup 5. Estimate movement distance Proprioception Internal information about: 1. Limb position 2. Movement direction 3. Movement velocity 4. Muscle activation: tension or force being exerted by the muscle Proprioceptors→ Specialised sensory neurons which are found in tendons, muscles or ligaments and joints. Provide continuous feedback to the CNS about the status of limbs and body which are important in executing smooth movements. Importance of Closed loop: proprioceptive feedback allows for precision and accuracy. proprioceptors in closed Open loop: movements are pre-planned, limited use in execution phase. and open loops Parts of proprioceptors 1. Muscle spindles (embedded in skeletal muscles) → detect changes in muscle length and velocity of those changes - Contain specialised sensory receptors (type 1 A axons) [Wrapped around the centre of the intrafusal muscle fibres] - When muscles stretches → axons detect change in length → send signal to spinal cord and brain - Muscle spindles highly concentrated in muscles that need precise control (eyes, hands and neck) - Concentrated muscle spindles allow for fine motor control  - Important role in stretch reflex (e.g. knee jerk) - Muscle stretch → send rapid signal to spinal cord → triggers reflective contraction to avoid the muscle from over stretching 2. Golgi tendon organs a. Sense muscle tension, acting as a protective mechanism to prevent injury b. Located in junction where muscle connect to tendon c. Responsible for detecting change in muscle tension d. Contain type 1 B sensory axons e. When excessive force is applied the tendon organs send signal to CNS which adjust muscle contraction to avoid damage or muscle exhaustion f. Act as a safety mechanism which protect tendons or muscles during intense movements 3. Joint receptors a. In joint capsule and ligaments b. Detect joint position and motion c. When joint reaches max range of motion these receptors send signals to CNS to prevent over-extension d. Ensure smooth coordination of complex movements (e.g. gymnastics, martial arts) e. Transmitted to CNS through afferent pathways → integrated with information from other sensory systems → help coordinate the movements (spacial) Coordination control Proprioceptors give important feedback for postural control. Proprioceptive feedback with tactile sensory feedback is important for providing CNS in regulating upright posture. Spatial temporal coupling between limbs and limb segments (sensory neuropathy) - Biannual coordination: when we perform tasks that requires two limbs, proprioception help for movement to happen harmoniously - Intra-limb coordination: proprioception influences the coordination between different segments of the same limb. Ensures joint move in coordinated and efficient movement. (synchronisation) - Touch uses mechanoreceptors in the skin to provide sensory information for movement accuracy, consistency, force adjustments, and aiding proprioception in estimating movement distance. - Proprioception is detected by muscle spindles (limb position and velocity), Golgi-tendon organs (muscle force), and joint receptors (extreme joint movements). Points for the practitioner - Touch and proprioception are crucial for everyday activities, and deficits in these sensory systems can lead to movement accuracy and coordination problems. - Identifying such deficits can help explain difficulties a person may have in performing specific tasks. Anatomy of the eye - Cornea: Transparent, dome-shaped front part that helps focus light. - Pupil: Central opening that adjusts size to control light entry. - Iris: Surrounds the pupil, controls its size, and gives eye colour. - Lens: Flexible, adjusts shape to focus light onto the retina for clear vision. Neural components of 1. Retina: Image processing vision a. Photoreceptors: rods (specialised in low light conditions and spread out in retina’s periphery) and cones (concentrated in central part of retina and responsible for sharpest vision and colour perception; good in bright light) b. Light hits retina → bent by cornea and the lens → inverted and reversed image → essential for image processing 2. Movement accuracy a. Optic nerve (visual information to brain) from retina to the brain b. Optic chiasm → nerve fibres cross over to the opposite side of the  brain allowing us to integrate information from both eyes c. Visual cortex (back of brain): processes this information from optic nerve; combines both information from both eyes (gives depth perception; helping us to perceive the world in 3D) Binocular vision vs Tasks become efficient with both eyes monocular vision Without binocular vision we misjudge distance and sizes Binocular vision extends beyond static tasks like reaching or grabbing; esp walking (perceive 3D objects/obstacles with greater accuracy) Monocular vision → loss of peripheral vision (30%) and loss of depth perception One eye → accuracy declines as distance to the object decreases These people increase scanning (turning head) to compensate for the loss in vision Central vs peripheral vision Central vision → middle 2-5 degrees of the visual field, object size, shape and distance and walking path Help us stay in designated path Peripheral vision → help detect limb movement, spatial features About obstacles or uneven surfaces For most people visual field extends 250 degrees horizontally and 160 degrees vertically 2 visual systems for motor Dorsal system control - Process spatial information and guides our movement (location, movement, spatial transformations, spatial relations) - Without conscious awareness - ‘’Where’’ objects are and how to interact with them - Damage: impair ability to guide object based on spatial information - Anatomically: processes information through primary visual cortex to posterior parietal cortex Ventral system - Process detailed visual information (colour, texture, pictorial detail, shape and size) - With conscious awareness - ‘’What’’ the object is - Damage: can’t consciously perceive the object but can still operate it accurately - Anatomically: processes visual information through a pathway from the primary visual cortex to the temporal lobe Perception-action coupling Coordination between what we see and what we move Visual and motor system are interconnected Most tasks eyes lead the movement + provide ongoing feedback Time needed for The minimum time required to process visual feedback and make corrections is vision-based movement between 100-160 milliseconds If you perform something familiar or you anticipate a movement → visual feedback can be faster The optical variable tau Measures the rate of an object’s image expansion on the retina Predicts when to act without needing speed or distance calculations Works automatically by calculating the visual information on the retina Points for the practitioner - Beginners often rely on vision to compensate for touch and proprioception deficits - Ensure a person's gaze is focused on the target object for successful action completion. - Movement corrections depend on having enough time. Fast environments or actions may prevent timely corrections, leading to errors. Fundamental movement 1. Body management skills (balancing) skills 2. Locomotor skills (running, skipping, hopping) 3. Object control skills Catching Functional Need to estimate trajectory, speed and timing Phases of catching Tau and catching Initial body positioning (when ball is far away) and grasping (when ball nears) Important → avoid missing ball Vision of the hands and When people can’t see their hands it’s hard to catch however experience plays a big catching role Phases of striking 1. Preparation: positioning and timing to execute the body 2. Execution: swinging (eye) 3. Follow through: force and direction of the strike Vision and striking in sport Experienced players track the ball for longer than less experienced players → allows them to synchronise strike (highlight the importance of vision) Early vision is important Perception-action coupling: Locomotion Fundamental skill for daily activity (walking, running, skipping, hopping) The rhythmic structure of Central pattern generators locomotion Groups of nerves in the spinal cord create the basic rhythms for movements Adapt our walking and running patterns based on how fast we’re moving Legs to arms move in the ratio of 2:1 when walking and when we get faster it can get to 1:1 at high speeds. Dynamical systems theory Explains movement coordination and gait Allows adaptability: when walking on uneven terrain needs adjusting (from sensory systems) Head stability and Head stable → help keep steady visual field (navigating crowded spaces) locomotion and help keep balance and coordination ○ E.g. when walking Vision and locomotion Initial acceleration phase: focus on getting speed and accelerating to reach optimal speed for jumping Zeroing phase: when they take foot off they take visual feedback to make final strides ○ Contact information: how much time left until final stride ○ Athletes adjust stride length based on visual feedback ○ Closer to take off board stride length is more unpredictable (gymnastics) Avoiding obstacles Size and Shape: Help judge the space needed to avoid obstacles based on their size and shape. Distance and Position: Estimates the distance and position of obstacles to plan movement. Predictive Adjustments: low obstacles (smaller strides) Points for the practitioner Emphasise maintaining visual contact with the object before and during its flight. For Locomotion, monitor the rhythmic arm-leg relationship and ensure head stability. Encourage visual contact with objects that need to be stepped on or avoided. Week 4: Memory and Attention Characteristics of Functional Skill Attention The cognitive process of selectively focusing on specific information while ignoring other stimuli Characteristics of attention 1. Limited capacity: we can only process a limited amount of information at one time 2. Selective: we choose which information to focus on based on relevance 3. Divisible: attention can be split between multiple tasks, though performance may suffer Bottleneck theory We can only process certain amounts of information every time Allows us to prioritise Central resource theories 1. Single resource pool: attentional resources drawn from one pool 2. Capacity limit: total capacity is fixed and limited 3. Resource allocation: distributing resources for multiple tasks Kahneman’s attention Attention is allocated based on perceived task demands theory The availability of resources influences attention Resource capacity is determined by both the task demands Proposes a single pool of mental resources that can be flexible allocated based on arousal levels and task demands Role of arousal 1. Physiological and psychological alertness 2. Influences breadth and focus 3. Optimal levels vary for different tasks 4. Optimal performance at moderate arousal: better than too much or too little Multiple resource theories 1. Separate resources: attention divided into specialised pools 2. Task types: resources allocated based on task type 3. Implication: complex tasks can be managed simultaneously Several different resource pools specific to components of skill performance Rules for allocating 1. Task demands: complexity and urgency attention 2. Resource availability: limited mental resources 3. Practice and expertise: automaticity with practise (which means needs less resources) Dual-task procedures Simultaneous execution of 2 separate tasks Primary task Primary task = the task being assessed for attentional demands E.g. driving Secondary task Secondary task = additional task to cause interference E.g. talking while driving Internal focus - Attention on internal processes - Focus on body movements - E.g. muscle tension, technique External focus - Attention on external effects - Focus on movement outcomes - E.g. target, environment, impact Broad attention Attending to a wide range of information E.g. team sport (anticipate movement from multiple players) Narrow attention Concentrating on a specific detail Automaticity - Tasks performed with minimal conscious effort - Frees up cognitive resources for other tasks - Achieved through extensive practise System 1 operate quickly or automatically with little or not effort (automaticity used more here) System 2 allocates attention to activities that demand it Selective attention - Filtering: focus on relevant stimuli while ignoring irrelevant stimuli - Experience, task demands and environment - Motor skills: helps focus on cues for execution - Visual search: helps to guide control - Action-selection Quiet eye - Directed at a critical location or object - Stable fixation that begins just before the first movement - Elite performers show longer Quiet Eye durations Practical implications - Design instruction and practice based on the varying ability to perform multiple activities simultaneously. - Be aware of and minimise unusual events in the performance environment to reduce distractions. - Ensure skilled individuals maintain optimal arousal or anxiety levels for best performance. - Encourage focusing on the intended outcome of the movement rather than the movement itself. Memory - Memory is the ability to retain information - More than just remembering facts or events → using the memory to affect our future actions Working memory 1. Temporary storage: holds info for immediate task 2. Processing hub: integrates sensory and long term memory 3. Multiple components a. Phonological: auditory and verbal information (temporary storage space for language) b. Visuospatial: visual and spatial information (layout of object in space) (what they look like or where they are) (limited amount of information at one time) c. Central executive: direct the other loops, what’s important and what  information is used Working-memory capacity Limited capacity: we can remember 7 +- 2 pieces of information Limited duration: information after 20-30 seconds without rehearsal Long term memory - Theoretically unlimited - Information can be stored for long periods, but retrieving it can sometimes be difficult Declarative knowledge Knowing what to do (rules of a sport or steps to a particular skill) Learner Explicit and can be verbalised Procedural knowledge Knowing how to do something: remembering how to do something Allows us to perform movements fluidly without constant conscious effort Inexplicit and can’t be verbalised Implicit memory - Learned through practice and repetition - Stored in procedural memory - Automatic execution: Allows you to focus on other aspects of performance Semantic memory General knowledge (e.g. facts of the world) Episodic memory Personal experiences and events (tied to particular place or event) (emotions and sensory information) Forgetting 1. Encoding failure: information not well-encoded 2. Inferterence: old information disrupts new information 3. Lack of practise: neural connections weaken over time 4. Proactive interference: previously learned material disrupts new material Interference Proactive: old memories disrupt new memories Retroactive: new memories disrupts old memories Assessing remembering Explicit memory tests which require conscious recall and forgetting 1. Recall tests: retrieve information without cues 2. Recognition tests: provide cues to choose the correct option Organising memory - Chunking: breaks down complex information into smaller units (helps create logical connection between items) - Assign meaning: associate movements with visual images or cues - Golfer: swing is like a pendulum Context and memory A mismatch between practise and test environments can impair recall - Environmental conditions (e.g. lighting, noise) - Personal factors (e.g. mood, sensory feedback) Practical implications - Keep the time between instructions and practise short and free of other activities. - Avoid describing "what not to do" before or after instructions; if needed, do so after practice. - Practice in environments similar to real-world situations to improve retention and performance. What is the speed - Manual aiming skills involve accurate movement to a target accuracy trade off? - Increasing speed reduces accuracy (inverse relationship) - E.g. typing, striking - Speed demands increase reliance on pre programmed motor actions while accuracy requires constant sensory feedback to adjust the movement Fitts’ law Models relationship between movement time, target size and distance Increasing the target distance or reducing the target size makes the task more difficult → therefore need more time to do action Phases in speed-accuracy 1. Preparation: brain gathers information about the task (vision) tasks 2. Initial flight: open-loop control, pre-programmed movement 3. Termination: closed-loop control, fine adjustments using feedback Prehension - Reach and grasp: action of reaching for and grasping objects - Sensory integration: vision, proprioception, motor planning - Components of prehension: transport, grasp, object manipulation - Context-dependent: object properties intended action Components of prehension 1. Transport: arm movement brings hand to object 2. Grasp: hand shapes itself in response to object 3. Manipulation: object use depends on functional goal Temporal coupling in - Temporal coupling: synchronisation of transport and grasp prehension - Grip adjustments: hand opens during transport - Maximum aperture: grip fully opens just before contact Prehension and vision - Assess regularly conditions - Central and peripheral vision: make dynamic changes in grip size to manipulate object properly - Supplements tactile (refine grip strength and adjust the hands contact with the object) and proprioceptive feedback (hands position and movement) Prehension and Fitts’ Law - Grasping small objects or distant objects takes longer Handwriting - Complex motor control: positioning of the arm - Adapting the size, force and direction of strokes Cognitive and motor - Adapt the moment while maintaining consistency in the output processes - Handwriting is controlled at a higher level of motor planning, where the brain encodes the general shape and sequence of movements rather than relying on fixed muscle patterns - Premotor cortex plan overall actions → lower systems adjust the movement Bimanual coordination Symmetric: same movement with both arms (rowing) Asymmetric: different movement with each arm (playing guitar) - Brain prefers symmetry in movement - Harde to coordinate different tasks for each limb Motor control and theories Generalised motor program: single program for symmetric, spearare/adapted programs for asymmetric tasks Dynamical systems theory: symmetric movements are natural ‘’attractor’’ states The role of feedback 1. Proprioceptive feedback: helps control limb position and movement 2. Visual feedback: critical in learning asymmetric coordination Points for practitioner - When teaching speed-accuracy skills, prioritise accuracy over speed initially. - Incorporate visual feedback strategies to enhance grasp accuracy and transport efficiency - Begin with simple, symmetric tasks and gradually introduce more complex, asymmetric movements  Week 5: Theories of Skill Acquisition Learning A change in a person’s ability to perform a skill, inferred from a lasting improvement due to practice or experience 1. Improvement 2. Consistency 3. Stability 4. Persistence 5. Adaptability Association theories Stimulus identification: interpreting sensory information Response selection: deciding on the action to take Response programming: translating the decision into motor commands Association Theory emphasises the role of associations formed between stimuli and responses. - Stimulus-Response Connections: Motor skills are developed by linking specific stimuli to appropriate responses. - Reinforcement: Repeated practice leads to stronger associations, making the response more automatic over time. - Feedback: External feedback reinforces these connections, helping learners adjust their responses. Stages of learning Autonomous stage → fewer errors and needs much more practise Information processing Information Processing Theory likens the human mind to a computer, focusing theories on how information is processed and stored. - Input, Processing, and Output: This model outlines how information is received (input), analysed (processing), and executed (output). - Cognitive Processes: It emphasises the cognitive processes involved in decision-making, problem-solving, and planning motor actions. - Feedback Loop: Feedback is critical for refining skills, as it allows learners to adjust their actions based on the results of their performance. Limitations: - Focuses on sequential steps - Doesn’t consider real-time interaction - Doesn’t account for dynamic movement (pre-planned movement) Open and closed loop control Neurocomputational - Optimised to achieve specific behavioural goals theories - Balance between task performance, stability, and energy efficient - Brain regines movements to be more efficient 1. Neural Representation - Motor Maps: Different areas of the brain, like the motor cortex, create maps that represent various body movements. These maps are modified through practice and experience. - Synaptic Plasticity: Learning is associated with changes in the strength of synapses, a process known as synaptic plasticity, which underlies the formation of motor memories. 2. Feedback Mechanisms - Error Correction: The brain continuously compares the intended movement with the actual outcome. Discrepancies (errors) are processed to adjust future movements. - Sensory Integration: Multiple sensory inputs (visual, auditory, proprioceptive) are integrated to inform motor control and improve accuracy. 3. Computational Models - Neural Networks: Artificial neural networks simulate how neurons interact, helping to model learning processes and predict motor outcomes. - Reinforcement Learning: This framework models how actions are reinforced through rewards, guiding the acquisition of skills. 4. Cortical and Subcortical Contributions - Cortex: Involved in planning and executing voluntary movements. - Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum: Play crucial roles in timing, coordination, and error correction, refining motor performance over time. 5. Dynamic Systems Theory - Movement Patterns: This perspective emphasises the dynamic interactions between various systems (muscular, neural, environmental) that influence motor behaviour. Challenges: - Complexities in multi-limb coordinations - Translating spatial representations into muscle commands and real time  communication between brain regions The role of internal models Forward model: predicts sensory consequences of actions Inverse model: maps desired outcomes to motor commands Brain areas involved 1. Primary motor cortex: executes voluntary movements 2. Cerebellum: fine-tunes movements 3. Basal ganglia: automates routine movements 4. Prefrontal cortex: planning and decision-making Limitations of traditional Overemphasis on internal representations, lack of emphasis on body environment theories interactions and simplified view of movement dynamics Dynamical systems 1. Complex system (motor performance as intricate, dynamic process) 2. Constraint interaction (movement arises from interplay of various factors) 3. Self organisation (patterns emerge from environment, individual, task demands) Ecological dynamic Individual constraints Physical: strength, flexibility, coordination, injury status Cognitive: decision-making, attentional focus, perception Intrinsic motivation Task constraints - Rules: specific requirements and objective of activity - Equipment: size, weight, design of tools used - Strategy: tactical approaches influenced by task demands Environmental constraints - External factors: weather, surface type, spatial dimensions - Social dynamics: team interactions, audience presence - Cultural context: societal norms influencing performance expectations Interaction of constraints - Continuous interplay: constraints interact dynamically during performance - Adaptive responses: athletes adjust to changing constraint interactions - Performance variability: outcomes influenced by complex constraint interactions Research on constraints - Constraints impact performance - Examined motor performance participants with and without MS under different task constraints  - MS participants performed tasks slower due to reduced action capabilities, highlighting the importance of understanding constraints. Ecological dynamics Dynamical systems theory: movement emerges from fluid interactions of various systems Ecological psychology: effective movement arises from perceiving affordances Holistic perspective: motor learning is adaptive and influenced by context Perception-Action coupling The ongoing relationship between what a learner sense and how they move Practice environments should mirror the perceptual and decision-making demands of real performance Perceptual-motor Attractors: stable movement patterns that satisfy task goals landscape Landscape shifts: changes in constraints lead to new attractors Exploration: learner discovers effective coordination through practice Adaptability: richer landscape allows better performance across contexts Affordances Opportunities for action and unique to each individual Movement variability - Supports exploration and adaptability - Enables learners to respond to changing constraints - Builds diverse set of movement solutions - Promotes creativity and innovation in movement Facilitating learning 1. Modifying Constraints Adapt task, environment, and performer to create new challenges. 2. Encouraging Exploration Design open-ended tasks and scenarios for problem-solving. 3. Minimising Direct Feedback Promote self-reflection and self-assessment through guiding questions. 4. Creating Diverse Environments Introduce variability to enhance adaptability and transfer. Hands off practitioner 1. Observation Closely monitor learners to identify emerging patterns. 2. Feedback Provide informative, non-prescriptive feedback to guide learning. 3. Questioning Prompt critical thinking through strategic questioning. 4. Constraints Manipulate task, environment, and organism constraints to provoke exploration. Retention and transfer - Increased Skill Retention - Practitioners can utilise the Constraints-Led Approach to improve learners' ability to maintain skills over time. - Enhanced Skill Transfer - The Constraints-Led Approach helps learners apply skills effectively in various contexts, fostering adaptability. Technique change 1. Identify Current Constraints 2. Define Desired Outcomes 3. Manipulate Task Constraints  4. Encourage Exploration 5. Provide Supportive Feedback Multidisciplinary approach 1. Biomechanics Understanding the mechanical aspects of movement 2. Physiology Examining the bodily systems involved in movement 3. Psychology Exploring cognitive and emotional factors 4. Sociology Considering the social and cultural influences Integrating insights from various disciplines leads to a more comprehensive and effective understanding of motor skill acquisition - Encourage variability in practice to foster adaptability - Minimise direct instructions and focus on facilitative feedback - Facilitate technique changes through constraint manipulation Week 6: Demonstration and Instruction for Motor Learning What is instruction? Adequate and effective learning of motor skills often involves formal instruction ▫ Verbal instructions ▫ Verbal cues Styles of instruction and demonstration should be based in sound theory and reliable empirical evidence Skill practice where instruction and demonstration are absent is often ineffective and inefficient Purpose of verbal Effective verbal instruction can provide the following benefits to the learner. instruction ▫ Understanding of performance requirements (critical features) and goals ▫ Provide structure and direction to practise sessions ▫ Enhance learner confidence ▫ Reinforce correct behaviours ▫ Emphasise relevance of skill/movement being instructed ▫ Promote skill learning To be effective, instructions need to be tailored to the learner and his or her specific needs in their specific situation. Knowledgeable instructors recognise the needs of learners at various stages of skill development Characteristics of verbal Verbal instruction involves telling the learner what to think about and what to do instruction before they attempt to practise the skill: Several factors are particularly important for developing effective verbal instruction 1. Content of verbal instruction (critical features) 2. Quantity of verbal instruction 3. Precision of verbal instruction 4. Focus of verbal instruction Verbal Cues Verbal cues are short, concise phrases that serve to: 1. Direct the performer’s attention to regulatory conditions in the environmental context or 2. Prompt key movement components of skills. Content of verbal - Content of instruction relates to “what” you say, information - Focus verbal instructions on those features of a skill that are most critical to performance and learning, i.e. critical features - Instructor must understand and analyse the movement themselves so that their verbal instruction will contain the most appropriate content - Correct identification of critical features is crucial for developing content of verbal instruction - Take advantage of the skills that a learner already knows when formulating verbal instructions for a new skill Precision of verbal - Descriptions that may seem clear to instructors because of their instruction experience with a skill can be confusing to beginners - When providing instructions, instructors should focus on providing descriptions that are meaningful. - Effective instructions do not allow for varying interpretations  - Become familiar with the level of precision that works most effectively for specific individuals - Research indicates that beginner learners respond better to more general, rather than specific, instructions Quantity of verbal - Humans have a limited attentional capacity for the amount of information instruction that can be held and acted upon in short-term memory - The amount of information provided in verbal instruction should be in accordance with - Learner’s developmental limitations and needs - Learner’s attentional capacity - The general goal and critical features of the skill must be kept in the forefront of learner’s attention and memory - Provision of too much information at any one time causes confusion and loss of attention of the main goal of the movement - Instructions should focus learner’s attention on a limited number (three as a maximum) of items at any one time Focus on verbal instruction A key part of skill learning is where a person directs their conscious attention when performing a skill In performing any skill, two distinct processes can be identified - Perceptual processes (ascending neural pathways) – the performer must perceive what is in the environment (sensory information about external conditions) (event code) - Action processes (descending neural pathways) – based upon perceptual information a person decides upon, organises and initiates a motor response (action code) All voluntary motor behaviour is a combination of event codes and action codes An essential role of movement instructors is to promote the learning of the mental operations responsible for translation into physical acts, i.e. what is the appropriate physical response to a specific situation?  Common Coding Approach (Prinz, 1997) – a functional relationship between perception and action Perceived events and planned actions share a common representational domain – i.e. direct communication is possible between areas within the brain that process actions and effects Execution of bodily movements (actions) are always coupled to representations of their effects Actions will be more effective when a person focuses their attention on the intended outcomes of an action, rather than on the movements required by the skill What is an internal focus of Instructions which focus learners’ attention on the actual movement pattern attention? involved in producing the skill What is an external focus of Instructions which focus learners’ attention to the effects of their movements attention? Instructions that promote an external focus of attention lead to better learning than instructions with an internal focus. What is observational Observational learning is “any instance where one observes someone, and, learning? based on this observation, learns something new or modifies a previously learned skill or behaviour” What subtypes of 1. Physical action or movement must be observed observational learning are 2. An enduring change to motor performance must occur there? Components of 1. Attention - the behaviours to which the learner must pay attention when observational learning observing. It determines what type of demonstration prototype to select 2. Retention - the observed behaviours are stored in the memory in the form of symbols through schemata and verbalisation 3. Reproduction - the stored information or observed and learned behaviours are reproduced  4. Motivation - the demonstrative behaviour that learners show under certain situational conditions 1 and 2 play crucial role in acquisition phase and 3 and 4 play crucial role in executing the motor skill Methods 1. AOT = Action Observation Training - alternated between observational learning and physical practice 2. OL = Observational Learning - initial observation, one physical practice, then all observational learning 3. MP = Motor Practice - initial observation, then all physical practice BEST: AOT, OL, MP Action observation training - Research shows that observational learning interspersed with physical practice is more effective than physical practice only or observational learning only for motor skill learning - The process of alternating observational learning with physical practice is labelled as “Action Observation Training (AOT)” - Action Observation Training has the potential to combine the advantages of motor practice and observational learning, which has a higher effect than the sum of that achieved by observational learning and physical practice (Bazzini et al., 2022). - Action Observation Training constructs a process of cognitive adaptation in motor skill acquisition, whereby movements are organised into cognitive representations and then developed into symbolic codes to guide execution. Mechanism of action - Action observation training activates the cortical motor system, tuning the observation training formation of new motor programs. - Regular alternation between observation and execution activates the motor system according to the correct motor program, so the person then executes the action with a motor system already pre-activated and geared toward a correct performance Purpose of demonstration - Most frequently used method of conveying information to learners - Should not replace, but rather “complement” verbal instructions - Can convey information concerning complex movement patterns that would be impossible to communicate verbally Priming learners through - “Priming” = Introduction of new information or skill before practice demonstrations - “Priming” = a brief physical demonstration of the whole skill in real-time without concurrent verbal instruction before practice - Gives learners an idea of what they are going to practise - Providing a “priming” demonstration without concurrent verbal instructions allows learners to make better use of subsequent verbal instruction Demonstration - optimal - It is important to ensure that demonstrations are provided to the learner viewing perspectives from an appropriate perspective, this could mean demonstration from more than one view - Ensure that you fully understand the critical features of the skill/exercise and that you know the most suitable perspective for the learner to view this from - Think about whether it is best for you as demonstrator to move to change  the learner’s viewing perspective, or if its better for the learner to move to achieve the optimal viewing perspective Mirror neurons - Visuomotor neurons in the brain - Fires in two different circumstances (When performing a given motor act, When observing the same or a similar act being performed) - Activation of mirror neurons give information not only on WHAT but also on WHY grasping is done (grasping-for-eating) - This specificity allowed the observer not only to recognise the observed motor act, but also to understand the intentions of the action's agent - Human brain has multiple systems of mirror neurons - Motor and social behaviors (e.g. language, understanding intention) - Mirror neurons in the pre-motor cortex become excited when observing a movement or skill in which the observer has some experience - Mirror neurons in the pre-motor cortex do not become excited when observing a movement or skill in which the observer does not have experience What are mirror neurons - It is believed that mirror neurons are responsible for planning and initiation responsible for? of voluntary movements, though not the actual execution of movement - Observing a motor act activates the same motor network required by the observer to execute that action themselves When does the mirror - Human infant data using eye-tracking measures suggest that the mirror neuron system develop? neuron system develops before 12 months of age Week 7: Feedback in Motor Learning Definitions and Functions of Feedback What is feedback? “Feedback is characterised as information that indicates something to a person about the actual state of that person’s movement” (Schmidt 2008) “Feedback constitutes any movement related information received by a performer either during or subsequent to the execution of an action” (Edwards 2011) “Feedback is information people receive about their performance of a motor skill during or after the performance” (Magill 2021) How is feedback classified? Sensory (intrinsic feedback): Perceptual information that is naturally available while performing a skill Augmented (extrinsic feedback): Information about a performance that supplements sensory feedback and comes from a source external to the performer What is sensory feedback? Consists of information provided as a natural consequence of making an action Received directly from sensory systems Can be further classified into - Proprioceptive feedback – includes all sensory information concerning the performer’s body - Muscle spindles - Joint receptors - Golgi tendon organs - Vestibular apparatus - Exteroceptive feedback – includes all information about the external environment - Vision - Audition - Touch - Smell What is augmented Information provided by a source external to the performer feedback? Called “augmented” because it augments (“complements” or “adds to”) sources of sensory feedback - Examples include - Information provided by an observer (e.g. coach, teacher, instructor) - A video replay of the performance - A graph or computer generated display of some aspect of the performance - Can be classified as - Verbal – all information that is capable of being verbalised but may be delivered in another fashion. - Non-verbal – not capable of accurate verbalisation, due to complexity or abstract nature of information Functions: - Provides information necessary for error correction - Motivates behaviour  - Reinforces behaviours - Is a source of guidance What two types of 1. Knowledge of Results (KR) – externally presented information about the information does outcome (result) of an attempt to perform a skill augmented feedback give? a. What happened? b. What was the outcome? c. How successful was the attempt? 2. Knowledge of Performance (KP) – information about the movement characteristics that led to the performance outcome a. Was the movement correct? b. What caused an outcome error? c. How should the movement be changed? How else can KR and KP Concurrent feedback - provided during production of a motor performance be classified or Terminal feedback - provided after production of a motor performance Distinct feedback - provided after each attempt at a movement skill and represents only that particular performance or Accumulated feedback - provided after multiple attempts at a movement skill and represents information on a series of performance attempts Descriptive feedback – describes the errors a learner has made, without any suggestion about how the error might be corrected or Prescriptive feedback – supplies learners with useful information on how they can correct their errors Research indicates that prescriptive feedback is more useful for beginners because it guides them into corrective actions they would not be able to determine on their own Descriptive feedback becomes more useful once learners have acquired sufficient knowledge and skill to self-correct specific errors What are the types of Internal focus of attention - Instructions and prescriptive feedback which focus attentional focus? learners’ attention on the actual movement pattern involved in producing the skill External focus of attention – Instructions and prescriptive feedback which focus learners’ attention on the effects of their movements Some research indicates that actions will be more effective when attention is focused on the intended outcome of an action (external focus), rather than on the specific movements required by the skill (internal focus) Augmented feedback for Motor learners may be unable to accurately interpret all the sensory (intrinsic) learners feedback resulting from their actions - Was my performance correct? - What caused the errors? - How can my performance be improved? Augmented feedback functions provide learners with understandable and interpretable information about their “correct” and “incorrect” actions and movement patterns. Information on “incorrect” aspects of a movement is beneficial than information on “correct” movements Feedback information can be provided in the form of: - What actually happened (KR) - Why this happened (KP) Augmented feedback - - If receiving messages of improvement, learners perceive their practice motivation attempts as being effective and are encouraged to continue working towards further improvement - If receiving constant messages of non-improvement, learners may become discouraged and cease participation (i.e. give up) - Researchers (Schmidt & Lee 2005) suggest that positive motivation is an indirect learning variable, as it encourages learners to engage in more intense and longer deliberate practice - Continued positive feedback motivates learners to adhere to training regimes, thus increasing the overall effectiveness of training Augmented feedback - Reinforcement increases the likelihood that desired movements will be repeated, reinforcement and that undesired movements will be diminished and eventually eliminated Thorndike’s (1927) Law of Effect states that - “An action elicited by a stimulus and followed by pleasant, or rewarding, consequences tends to be repeated when that stimulus appears again; an action followed by unpleasant, or punishing, consequences tends not to be repeated” Three types of reinforcement - Positive reinforcement – a pleasantly experienced reward presented after a response - Punishment – designed to reduce the likelihood that learners will continue practising in an incorrect way - Negative reinforcement – consists of the removal of punishment. Unlike punishment, learners experience negative reinforcement in a pleasant way Learning theory states that the greatest improvement in learning occurs in order of: 1. Positive reinforcement 2. Negative reinforcement 3. Punishment However, learning theory also states that learners benefit most when they receive information about their incorrect movements Information about incorrect movements can be effectively provided if the “sandwich effect” is used Augmented feedback - - Augmented feedback guides learners to keep their performance within a guidance prescribed range (i.e. range of correctness) - Learners are guided towards the correct actions – i.e. learners change their performance on each attempt until the desired response is achieved - Caution - learners can become overly dependent on guiding feedback if it is provided too often. In this case, their performance suffers markedly when guiding feedback is removed. Learners ultimately need to be able to generate a correct movement on their own What are the guidelines of 1. The precision of feedback providing feedback a. General or specific? 2. The timing of feedback a. Provided immediately after practice or delayed? 3. The frequency of feedback a. Given for all practice a