European Settlement of Australia Year 9 Notes PDF

European Settlement of Australia 11 ships, 1530 people (778 of which were convicts) 1. Overcrowded Prisons: In the late 18th century, British prisons were overcrowded due to a rising crime rate and harsh sentencing laws. After losing the American colonies, which had previously ser...

European Settlement of Australia 11 ships, 1530 people (778 of which were convicts) 1. Overcrowded Prisons: In the late 18th century, British prisons were overcrowded due to a rising crime rate and harsh sentencing laws. After losing the American colonies, which had previously served as a destination for transported convicts, Britain needed a new location for its prisoners. Australia offered a remote and unpopulated option. 1. Strategic Military and Naval Base: Establishing a colony in Australia provided Britain with a strategic base in the Pacific region. This was particularly important for maintaining and expanding British influence and power in the region. 2. Economic Opportunities: The potential for economic exploitation of Australia’s resources was another significant motivator. Britain saw Australia as a source of raw materials and a market for British goods. 3. Scientific and Exploratory Interests: The age of exploration saw European powers interested in mapping and understanding new territories. Australia presented an opportunity for scientific discovery and exploration. 4. Preventing Rival Claims: By establishing a colony in Australia, Britain could prevent other European powers, particularly the French, from claiming and settling the territory. This move was crucial in maintaining and expanding the British Empire's global dominance. 5. Social Experimentation: There was also an element of social engineering, as some British policymakers saw the colonisation of Australia as a chance to create a new society from the ground up, where British culture and institutions could be implemented in a new environment. The First Fleet, which arrived in Botany Bay in 1788, marked the beginning of British settlement in Australia, initially as a penal colony. Over time, free settlers followed, and the colony expanded, leading to the establishment of additional settlements and the eventual growth of a new nation. 7.4: The first Europeans arrive to claim Australia James Cook and European exploration of Australia In 1768, British Navy lieutenant James Cook was appointed commander of the Endeavour ship to explore New Holland. He was tasked with investigating plants, animals, natural resources, and Aboriginal population. Cook claimed the east coast of Australia in 1770, but received mixed reports about Aboriginal peoples and remained sympathetic. The decision to establish a colony at Botany Bay There were several factors that contributed to Britain’s decision to establish a penal colony at Botany Bay: The Industrial Revolution taking place in Britain at the time meant that many people from rural areas had moved to the towns and cities seeking work. Some of those unable to find work turned to crime to survive, which meant that British prisons became very overcrowded. Because of the overcrowding in British jails, the authorities started using empty ships to imprison criminals. These rotting ships were called ‘hulks’. Over a short period, these hulks became extremely crowded and full of disease. The government feared that those diseases would spread to the general public unless these prisoners were removed. Before the American War of Independence, some British prisoners had been transported to the American colonies, but after the Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776, the Americans refused to accept any more convicts from Britain. As a result of the Industrial Revolution, British factories and industries were hungry for raw materials such as wood, coal and minerals. It was hoped that Australia would provide many of these resources. Britain was keen to maintain its role as the leading seafaring and colonial nation.  The First Fleet The, arriving at Botany Bay on 18 January 1788. Captain Arthur Phillip declared the area unsuitable for settlement and moved to Sydney Cove The journey had taken over 8 months to complete. The equivalent to flying to the moon today The small community was moved to Sydney Cove because it had more reliable water and a safe harbour The colony was proclaimed on the 7th of February 1788 Indigenous people were curious and the first meetings were peaceful White settlers brought hidden dangers, which then led to deaths across the first Nations The new settlers brought them diseases which the Indigenous people had no immunity to. These diseases were; influenza, common cold, measles, chicken pox Aboriginal Encounters Bannelong died in January 1813 Not all Aboriginals were as receptive to the newcomers Pumulwuy was a warrior who led resistance to white settlement of traditional lands He was involved in the mortal wounding of John McIntyre on 10 December 1790 which led to retaliation from Governor Phillips Several years of raids from both sides resulted in Governor King to remove the remaining Aboriginals from the area and issue an order for the death of Pemulwuy 2 June 1802, Pemulwuy was shot, and his head was sent to Joseph banks in England 7.5: Early colonisation and Aboriginal peoples Terra Nullius - Latin term meaning ‘empty land.’ The British colonised because they believed that the land was unoccupied or Terra Nullius James Cook observed that Aboriginal people in Australia were ignored for land ownership, despite their deep spiritual connection to the land and their belief in shared land caretaking. Early Contact European contact with Aboriginal peoples was initially accidental, with sightings and landings before 1788. Early records show contact with Macassans, Dutch, English, and French before James Cook's arrival in Australia. Historians suggest a Portuguese fleet sailed the south coast of Victoria, with one ship crashing near Warrnambool. The wreck of a Portuguese caravel, built of mahogany, has disappeared, but locals believe it was part of a fleet sailing down the east coast of Australia in 1522. 7.7: Effects of colonisation on First Nations peoples Upon the establishment of British colonies in Australia, the numbers of local Aboriginal people significantly declined, with up to 90% of them believed to have died. The population of Aboriginal peoples prior to European colonisation ranged from 318 000 to 750 000. The majority lived in the south-east, with large groupings along the Dungala River. Europeans mistakenly believed they had no connection to particular areas, leading to the disturbance of traditional hunting areas, food scarcity, and the displacement of Aboriginal peoples in heavily populated areas. Frontier Conflict and Resistance In the 1790s, European colonisation of Aboriginal lands led to increased conflict between Europeans and Aboriginal peoples. Aboriginals resisted settlements with guerrilla warfare, and colonisers often took revenge. Between 1794 and 1800, around 26 Europeans and 200 Aboriginals died in conflicts in New South Wales. Pemulwuy, a famous Aboriginal man, was killed in 1801. Collaboration During colonial times, Aboriginal peoples and Europeans collaborated, such as Aboriginal people joining the police force and becoming trackers. Eora man Bennelong worked with Governor Phillip, while Kuringgai man Bungaree helped communicate with Aboriginals. Elder Billibellary of the Wurundjeri people worked closely with new arrivals to facilitate cultural exchange. Missions and protectorates Government policies in all colonies excluded First Nations peoples from the national story, isolating them through missions and protectorates. Over 211 missions were established during Australia's colonial period, causing significant damage and removing hundreds of First Nations children from their families, leading to ongoing emotional and social difficulties. Dispossession Dispossession refers to the removal of First Nations peoples' land, culture, and way of life, such as in the 18th century British colonisation of Australia. This led to a new protection policy,'smooth the dying pillow', which stripped them of independence, self-confidence, and traditional culture. When the colonies federated, the original people were effectively non-existent in their ancestral land. Port Phillip Settlement Early Settlements The area of Port Phillip had been explored and investigated as a possible Penal Colony 1803 - an attempt to set up a settlement near Sorrento, under the leadership of Lieutenant-Colonel Collins, was abandoned 1834 - Edward Henty set up Victoria’s first Europeans permanent settlement in Portland John Batman and John Pascoe Fawkner Both men had the same plan, to start a settlement in Port Phillip Bay and left Tasmania within weeks of each other to begin their new settlements 1835 Batman claimed about 500,000 acres north of Melbourne and Corio Bay and 100,000 acres around Geelong The claim was legitimised with a treaty that was signed by the local Aboriginal Elders In the same year Fawkner’s party set up a settlement just near the Yarra Falls Within a few weeks the Governor of NSW, Sir Richard Bourke, declared the treaty invalid and all the new settlers were trespassers Increased Settlement By 1836 “squatters grazing rights” were established with a 10 pound fee 1837 Hoddle’s plan to establish a city was approved and named Melbourne In 1839 Charles La Trobe became the Superintendent of the Port Phillip District, however the area was still considered part of NSW The Port Phillip District Victoria's first colony was established in 1803 at Sorrento, initially a New South Wales administrative district. However, abandoned due to lack of freshwater, later driven by free settlers. In 1834, the Henty brothers illegally settled in Victoria's Portland area, while John Batman explored the Yarra River area from Tasmania in 1842. John Batman signed a treaty with Wurundjeri Elders, claiming to have bought 600,000 acres in return for items like mirrors, knives, clothing, and flour. However, the treaty was declared invalid after Governor Bourke claimed the land belonged to the Crown, preventing Aboriginal peoples from selling it. The Yarra River, once a Kulin nation's meeting place, attracted Europeans with its fresh water and Aboriginal grasslands, leading to the establishment of Melbourne in 1837, named after British Prime Minister Victoria. The Port Phillip District thrived due to wool profits, leading to Melbourne's development as a processing centre and port. By 1850, Melbourne was a bustling city with a vibrant arts scene. Port Phillip District was a free colony established in the 1830s, with assisted migrants providing a labour force. By 1850, one in five migrants had become landowners or leaseholders, unlike New South Wales. The Port Phillip District colonisation led to devastating effects on Aboriginal peoples, including diseases, violence, and food loss, resulting in a population decline of 5000-3000 by 1850. In 1851, the Australian Colonies Government Act separated Port Phillip District from New South Wales, renaming it Victoria. Gold discovery in 1851 led to Victoria's prosperity. Batman’s Treaty In 1835, John Batman arrived in Port Phillip and successfully negotiated with local Indigenous leaders to buy their land, resulting in 240,000 hectares of prime farming terrain, including almost all of the Kulin nation's ancestral land. However, this transaction was not as straightforward as it appears. Batman's claim to Victoria's territory was based on European land ownership and legal contracts, a concept unfamiliar to Indigenous Victoria's understanding of land belonging. Batman claimed to negotiate with Aboriginal 'chiefs', but in reality, he was negotiating with tribal elders who were not in a position to sell their people's land. As William Buckley, who lived with the Wathaurung Aboriginal community for 32 years, observed:...they had seen several of the native chiefs, with whom, as they said, they had exchanged all sorts of things for land; but that I knew could not have been, because unlike other savage communities, or people, they have no chiefs claiming or possessing any superior right over the soil: there's only being as the heads of families. [...] I therefore looked upon the land dealing spoken of as another hoax of the white man, to possess the inheritance of the uncivilised natives. Batman's arrival in Port Phillip may have been perceived as a tandarrum transaction, where Aboriginal translators from New South Wales provided gifts for safe passage. Historians suggest that Batman's claims of eight Aboriginal chiefs signing a contract with identical marks in his journal may be forged. Governor Bourke of New South Wales declared Batman's treaty invalid, asserting the British Crown's ownership of Australia and exclusive rights to sell or distribute land. World War 1 August 1914 – November 1918 Soldiers Killed = 9 million Civilians Killed = 6 million Total Killed = 15 million What is Genocide? Original definition - The deliberate killing of a large number of people from a particular nation or ethnic group with the aim of destroying the nation or group. (implies a policy or a plan) Revised definition of genocide for Australia - The white settlers and hunter-gatheres relationship to the land was totally incompatible and the accompanying violence and appropriation of land was of such a scale and ruthlessness (largely uncurbed by official investigation) that the relationship between European and Aboriginal could not be regarded as anything other than one of ‘genocide’ Destruction and Genocide Population of Victoria was more likely to have been 20,000 not 10,000; making the decline more like 90% over these 18 years. What caused this dreadful depopulation on the southern and south-eastern frontiers?  It has been estimated that in Port Phillip of the 8,000 deaths, 5,000 were from disease (or 62%) while Europeans violence, Aboriginal violence against other Aborigines, and death from natural causes, each accounted for 1,000 deaths (or 12%). Each region was unique. Overall disease, malnutrition and alcohol were the greatest killers. They had never had alcohol before the settlers. This time in history there was a very steep decline with birth-rate. Background to WW1 World War I in 1914 was sparked by long-term causes and short-term sparks, including rivalries over resources, economic progress, and overseas colonies, leading to tensions and mistrust. The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) between France and Germany resulted in Germany winning the war and unifying its kingdoms into one German Empire. This led to the development of two major alliances, known as balance of power politics, where all powerful European countries belonged to one alliance, acting as a deterrent to war. Europe in the lead up to the war By 1901, Europe appeared peaceful due to Queen Victoria's over 60-year reign and close royal family connections. Tsar Nicholas II, King George V, and Kaiser Wilhelm were first cousins, and Queen Victoria's granddaughter's wife was also a royal. During the lead-up to World War I, Europe appeared prosperous due to the Industrial Revolution, improved healthcare, sanitation, and aid for the poor, and increased literacy levels. The middle classes fought for political rights and a higher standard of living, while the working classes gained basic rights like voting rights. The prosperity of European nations masked international and domestic tensions due to differing economic rates, living standards, colonial empire size, and weapon development. Working-class families faced unsanitary conditions, slum living, and gender inequalities in Europe. New political movements, like socialism and anarchism, divided people based on class and ethnic lines. Despite Europe's peaceful prewar state, tensions grew. Australia, a federated nation, enjoyed Industrial Revolution advantages. Long term causes of WW1 Rivalry and suspicion between Europe’s Great Powers was intense for at least 30 years prior to the outbreak of WW1 in 1914. 1.Imperialism – the pursuit of Empire (the acquisition of new territories) 2.Militarism – the investment in and growth in military capability 3.The Alliance System – treaty agreements between the major powers 4.Nationalism – Pride and loyalty to one’s nation Each of these factors contributed to a growing mistrust and escalating tension between the great powers Imperialism  1.Where a powerful/large country (Great Power) acquires/controls a smaller state or territory (known as a colony – hence the process of ‘colonialism’. 2.The benefits of colonialism for the Great Powers were numerous; economic (markets for trade, slaves) military (army recruits) and naval outposts, status symbols, natural resources … Why & How did Imperialism cause tension between the major powers? Jealousy; colonies were symbols of power and could generate wealth (trade/resources) British Empire was known as the Empire upon which‘the sun never set’. The German leader (Kaiser Wilhelm II) was jealous of the power and wealth of the British Empire and wanted Germany to match (exceed) Britain’s Empire. He set the goal for Germany to have her own place in the sun.’ The regions of Africa and Asia in particular were targeted by Europe’s Great Powers from 1870. ‘Available’ land was finite and so tension increased as available ‘free’ territory diminished. Militarism - the Arms Race (1871 - 1914) Militarism is the belief that all nations should build and maintain strong armed forces so that they are prepared to defend themselves against attack or promote their national interests. In the lead up to WW1, many European countries competed with each other over the size of their empires and over the size of their armies. Between 1870 and 1914, military spending in many European countries increased by an average of about 300 per cent. After 1871, all the major European nations except Britain also introduced conscription, which meant that all men over the age of 18 were forced to serve a minimum period in the armed forces. Military weakness = unlikely to have a successful empire. They needed the military to be the best. Weakness = (i.e. bullied) Alliances/Treaties In the period between 1870 and 1907 a series of Treaties were signed and alliances forged between many of the major powers of Europe. They were allied ‘defensive’ treaties - but they had the opposite effect. Non signatories to new treaties saw them as dangerous alliances of powerful nations that threatened their own security. Moroccan Crises  1st Moroccan crisis (1905 – Tangiers) Where? North Africa Why? Kaiser wanted to prevent extension of the French Empire in Nth Africa Cause? Kaiser made a speech in Tangier arguing for Moroccan independence from France. Consequences? French furious, Britain backed the French, international conference to determine who had rights in Nth Africa – France’s interests supported Outcomes? Kaiser humiliated and Alliance between Britain and France is strengthened 2nd Moroccan Crisis (1911 – Agadir) Where? Nth Africa Why? Kaiser wanted to prevent extension of the French Empire in Nth Africa Cause? Local Sultan ruler requests French support to put down an uprising by rebel tribesmen. Kaiser, fearing a total French takeover in Morocco, sends a naval ship to Agadir. Consequences? German action seen as aggressive, French furious, Britain backed the French. Outcomes? Kaiser humiliated and Alliance between Britain and France is strengthened Evidence for it being main Useful reason for war Quotes/Stats/Numbers Militarism Militarism created an The arms race... raised the atmosphere of tension and stakes in the confrontation competition across the among the European European powers powers." Arms Race: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, European nations engaged in a massive arms race, particularly between Germany and Britain. Countries built up their armies and navies, believing that having a strong military would both protect them and act as a deterrent to enemies. This competition heightened tensions and made war more likely because nations were increasingly prepared and willing to use military force. Influence of the Military in Politics: In many countries, military leaders had significant influence over political decisions. This was especially true in Germany, where the military leadership played a key role in shaping foreign and  domestic policies. The dominance of military thinking in political circles made diplomatic solutions less likely and war more probable. Alliance System Dividing Europe into Rival Camps: By 1914, Europe was divided into two main alliance blocs: the Triple Entente (France, Russia, and Britain) and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy). These alliances were meant to provide security, but they also created a situation where any conflict involving one member of an alliance could quickly involve others, making a larger war more likely. Imperialism Nationalism Assassination Essay Writing WW1 Title: XX is the main cause of WW1 - To what extent do you agree. Intro - Must briefly mention what your contention is in response to the question. You should use some of the wording of the question in your Intro For example: XX was an overwhelming driver of the events that led to the outbreak of war in 1914 but it would be wise to view it as one contributing factor of many that sparked the war. Briefly explain your 3 points. -point 1 -point 2 -point 3 Body paragraph Australia Goes To War Australia was involved because it was a dominion of the British Empire Federation of 5 million men, 14 years old, 600,000 men signed up, 300,000 went, 60,000 killed.  Australia’s entry into the war Before World War I, Europe had a relatively peaceful 40-year period, with the Franco-Prussian War in 1871. Young Europeans and Australians, except for a few soldiers, had no real war experience or understanding. Australia responds to European tensions Australians were enthusiastic about war in 1914, with both sides agreeing to go to war. Opposition leader Andrew Fisher promised to defend Australia to the last man and shilling. Prime Minister Joseph Cook promised Australian navy vessels and 20,000 men to Britain. The great adventure During World War I, Australia, a self-governing country, was a part of the British Empire and was obliged to follow British instructions. As a result, Australia became involved in the war effort against Germany. Men aged 21-35 rushed to enlist in the Australian Imperial Force (AIF), with many believing the war might end before reaching Europe. The Australian Government initially promised to supply 20,000 men to the British war effort by 1914, but by the end of the year, around 50,000 men had enlisted. The reasons for enlistment varied, with some driven by a desire to show their new nation's contribution to a world conflict, loyalty to Britain, or a spirit of adventure. The opportunity to earn a good income and hatred of the enemy also motivated enlistment. First Nations Australians were among those who offered to enlist, with about 1000 accepted for service. Other motives included escape from family obligations, boredom, school earliness, and family home confines. Despite the brutality of war, most Australians saw it as an adventure. Questioning voices Despite the positive response, not all Australians were enthusiastic about the war. Some argued it was Europe's war, while others were pacifists, like the Jehovah's Witnesses. The Women's Peace Army, led by Vida Goldstein, mobilized women against the war. A small percentage of Australians did not enlist due to fear or financial reasons. Despite these oppositions, the majority of the population remained positive and supportive until the harsh reality of war became clear. The impact of war on Australian society In late 1916, Australia was divided due to growing dissatisfaction with the war and a sense of 'inequality of sacrifice'. Working-class Australians felt they contributed the most and were exploited, while middle- and upper-class people were less affected. In 1914, the federal government passed the War Precautions Act, giving them increased powers and censorship, which affected the Australian people's access to information about the war and restricted overseas trade.  Impact on the Australian economy World War I significantly impacted Australia's economy, necessitating the introduction of income tax and borrowing from Britain for essential wartime infrastructure, which would take over 20 years to repay. During the war, Australia experienced inflation due to raw material redirection and wartime industries, leading to a 50% increase in living costs. International trade was disrupted by naval blockades and shipping for military purposes. The Australian Government introduced tariffs to protect local supplies, leading to the development of new products and the establishment of the Australian National Shipping Line. During the war, Australian pharmacists George Nicholas and Henry Smith developed Aspro, an Australian version of Aspirin, which became a popular over-the-counter medication in Australia, replacing the unpopular German-made Aspirin. Farmers supplied wheat, dairy, meat, wool for soldiers' uniforms, and munitions factories worked overtime to support the war effort. The impact of war on Australian women World War I is often referred to as the first 'total war', as nations mobilised all resources and citizens for the war effort, putting new pressures on those left at home. During war, women assumed various roles, including voluntary work, fundraising, and recruitment, and moved into male-dominated fields like munitions factories. They could join the armed forces for home defence. During the war, over 3000 women, mostly nurses, voluntarily served, facing both overseas and domestic challenges, highlighting the significant impact of war on women's lives. Women on the ear front Australian soldiers' battlefields saw around 3000 nurses, including women, serving in makeshift hospitals and providing comfort to dying men. They witnessed horrific wounds and often served as cooks, drivers, and interpreters, highlighting the harsh realities of war. Women in the paid workforce Before the war, women were mostly homemakers, but with around 500,000 young men off, they wanted to support the war effort. Trade unions resisted hiring women in  traditionally male jobs, fearing lower wages or preferability. However, women were able to take on some roles, as government-controlled war-related work limited their opportunities. The Australian Women's Service Corps aimed to train women to replace male roles in domestic services, but was dismissed as unnecessary. Despite a 13 per cent increase in women working outside the home by the end of the war, expectations remained that women would return to traditional roles. Women’s voluntary work during the war During World War I, women joined voluntary organisations to help the war effort, sewed and knitted, and raised money. This experience developed skills and confidence, shaping their lives and promoting future feminist movements. Australian Red Cross Established in 1914, the Australian Red Cross, a national humanitarian organization, provided essential supplies and support to soldiers, including packages, medical aid, and home-based recovery facilities. Australian Comforts Fund The Australian Comforts Fund, established in 1916, aimed to raise funds to provide soldiers with comfort boxes containing knitted socks, pyjamas, and cigarettes. Women and recruitment Women played a significant role in influencing and encouraging men to enlist during World War I, often refusing to speak to unenlisted men or sending white feathers as a symbol of cowardice. Some women, like Vida Goldstein, promoted pacifism. The conscription debate World War I had a minor impact on Australia's home front, causing food shortages and military attacks. Unlike countries with conscription systems, Australia's non-compulsory service was a divisive and bitter argument during the war. Enlistment In 1914, Australian men saw war participation as a noble cause, but as the war dragged on and death tolls increased, volunteer numbers dropped. The Australian Government used propaganda campaigns to pressure men into enlistment, known as recruitment. In 1916, Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes faced recruitment issues after the Battle of the Somme, leading to a referendum to force men of military age to join the army due to the decline in volunteers and heavy losses. Hughes argued Australia needed 7500 men per month to maintain fighting strength, introducing conscription despite his previous stance against sending men out of the country to fight against their will. The conscription plebiscites In 1916, a plebiscite in Australia was held to vote on conscription, with 49% in favor and 51% against. This led to the Labor Party splitting, with Hughes and his supporters leaving and forming the Nationalist Party. A second plebiscite in 1917 saw 46% in favour and 54% against, but Hughes chose not to introduce conscription due to the non-binding nature of the results. Australia divided Pro-conscription lists, middle- and upper-class Australians, argued that it was their patriotic duty to support the war effort, accusing opponents of being lazy and selfish. Pro-conscription propaganda depicted noble Australian soldiers and their families suffering. Opponents of conscription were predominantly working-class, Catholic, and Irish-born. Catholic Archbishop Daniel Mannix led the campaign, urging Catholics to vote 'No'. Opponents argued Australia had already given enough young men, and 'No' was urged in the plebiscite. Trade unionists opposed conscription, arguing it was a capitalism war and that sending able-bodied Australian men to the front would lead to lower wages for non-whites, while women were equally divided in the campaign. Source 17 Content: In this speech, Prime Minister Billy Hughes emphasises Australia's need to increase its contribution to the war effort during World War I. He compares Australia's relatively smaller military commitment to that of Britain and argues that Australians must rise to the occasion and do more to support the war. He calls for unity and duty, urging Australians to defend their nation in a time of peril. Origin: This excerpt comes from a speech delivered by Prime Minister Billy Hughes during World War I, on 18 September 1916. Hughes was advocating for conscription, which was a highly divisive issue in Australia at the time. Context: Australia, as part of the British Empire, was involved in World War I, and the question of conscription—whether Australians should be required to serve in the military—became a contentious issue. The speech was made in the lead-up to a national plebiscite (referendum) on conscription, which ultimately failed in 1916. The country was deeply divided, with some people, like Hughes, strongly supporting conscription to boost Australia’s military forces, while others opposed it on moral, political, and social grounds. Purpose: Hughes’s speech aimed to rally support for the conscription cause, urging Australians to see military service as a national duty and emphasising that the war effort required greater sacrifice from the population. Source 18 Content: In this speech, Archbishop Daniel Mannix condemns the idea of conscription, arguing that it equates to slavery. He refers to the 1916 plebiscite, where Australians had already voted against conscription, and calls for an even stronger rejection in the upcoming second plebiscite. Mannix defends Australia's democratic values and positions conscription as incompatible with those ideals. Gallipoli landing The Allies planned a land attack on the Gallipoli Peninsula, hoping to surprise and defeat the Turkish forces, take control of Constantinople, and open supply lines to Russia. On 25 April 1915, troops from Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, India, and Newfoundland landed on the Gallipoli Peninsula. The campaign faced difficulties due to darkness and waves, leading to cliffs and heavy gunfire from Turkish fortifications. The Anzacs secured the beach but made limited progress. Despite aiming for 7 kilometres, only 1 kilometre was achieved, with 16,000 soldiers landing and 2000 killed or wounded. British commander General Sir Ian Hamilton instructed troops to dig until safe. Hamilton's campaign continued with the success of the Australian submarine AE2, which penetrated the Dardanelles. The Turks launched a counter-offensive, but were driven back. In August, the Australians and New Zealanders launched the Battle of Lone Pine and the Battle of the Nek, capturing Lone Pine and causing 234 deaths. Despite battles, Gallipoli remained unchanged for eight months. Respect between Turkish and Anzac troops grew, with agreements for respectful burial and amnesty. Over time, they traded and developed nicknames, with Turkish soldiers referring to Australians as 'Diggers' and Anzacs as 'Johnny Turk', 'Jacko', or 'Mehmets'. Conditions at Gallipoli The Anzacs faced constant danger at Gallipoli, facing constant enemy fire from Turkish soldiers, snipers, and artillery bombardment, making their safety a constant concern. The Allies faced harsh winter conditions in Australia, with harsh winter weather, including icy north winds, snowfalls, and frequent rainfall, causing mud on battlefields and affecting their uniforms and light blankets. Drinking water was scarce, requiring careful rationing and shipment to troops. Food was plentiful but lacking variety, with canned meat, corned beef, and hard biscuits. Fresh food was rare and often shaved with leftover cold tea. Poor health was a major issue, with more Australians and New Zealanders dying or hospitalised due to disease rather than enemy action. Painful conditions, diseases, and pests spread through damp trenches, poor sanitation, and food-handling practices. Australian soldiers, under-resourced due to long journeys and frequent bombings, devised survival tactics like using jam, bone, razors, and nails for grenades, and using cricket skills to catch and throw back Turkish grenades. Withdrawal In December 1915, the Anzacs were ordered to withdraw from Gallipoli, using tactics known as the 'ghost guns of Gallipoli'. They used tins filled with water to fire rifles,  wrapped horses' hooves in cloth, and evacuated the last Australian soldiers overnight. This silent withdrawal is considered the most successful part of the Gallipoli campaign. The Turkish Perspective The Gallipoli campaign, viewed by Australians as a symbol of the Anzac spirit, is referred to as 'Çanakkale Savasi' in Turkish, a victory over invading forces. Turkish soldiers, mostly from impoverished rural areas, displayed loyalty and determination, with stories of brave commanders like Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. Adda, a Turkish Australian, respects both sides of the war, stating that those who lost their lives served their country. The campaign resulted in 8709 Australian deaths and 19,000 injuries. Anzac Day and the Anzac Legend Australians commemorate World War I efforts with official days, Anzac Day and Remembrance Day, along with other symbols and traditions, to recognize and honour the sacrifices of Australian forces. Australians commemorate World War I through the Gallipoli landing, symbolising determination, mateship, and valour, despite their involvement in more successful campaigns. Anzac Day Commemoration In 1916, Anzac Day was declared a day of commemoration in Australia, with ceremonies, marches, and dawn services held across the country, including a march in London. The Gallipoli landing in Turkey on 25 April 1915 remains a significant event in Australian history, with a growing legend. School children learn about it and hear stories like Simpson and his donkey. Hundreds of thousands participate in Anzac marches and wreath-laying ceremonies at war memorials. In 2020, thousands attended dawn services, demonstrating the determination of Australians to honor their past. Young Australians attend Anzac Day dawn services in Gallipoli, traditionally ending with Laurence Binyon's poem 'For the fallen'. Origins of the legend The Gallipoli campaign's significance lies in its role as Australia's first war as a nation, as it marked the first encounter of the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) in a war that had only been 13 years old at the time. Gallipoli was a defining national experience, leading to Australia becoming a nation on its shores. Historians refer to it as Australia's 'baptism of blood' or 'baptism of fire', fostering national traditions among Australia, New Zealand, and Turkey. The Anzac and Turkish soldiers developed respect, despite being enemies. The legend later revealed British officers' carelessness with Australian lives, leading to pro-republic sentiment in Australia, but held only by a minority.