Europe in the World Lecture Notes PDF

Lecture Notes I. Lecture 3 (09/04/2024): - What does it mean to be European? Previously, only meant that you were “not African” and “not enslaved”? - Early Modernity in the European Context Starting with print with moveable type (1450s),...

Lecture Notes I. Lecture 3 (09/04/2024): - What does it mean to be European? Previously, only meant that you were “not African” and “not enslaved”? - Early Modernity in the European Context Starting with print with moveable type (1450s), Atlantic Voyages (1490s), Religious reformations (1510s), and Wars of Religion (1520s) Moving onto the scientific revolution (1540s), Atlantic world (1600), the age of the enlightenment (1640s), - Observing the given map: what they care about Trading ports and land they occupy - Following map: Europe is still in the center - Observing changing unifying features: dependent on who you ask - Olaudah Equiano Personal narrative (1789) - Micheal Henry Pascal - Robert King (Quaker Merchant- abolitionist but still enslaver) Manumission (1766) Religious Conversion The Sons of Africa (1787) - Wants to be culturally useful for the abolitionist movement The Intersesting Narrative (1789) - False narrative by Vicent Carretta that he was born into American Slavery - James Sweet asks “in what context did Equiano claim a non-african descent”? Part of Colonial Atlantic World: experiencing various forms of enslavement and freedom Views himself as more fortunate than others: others being non-Europeans or even other Europeans? - More fortunate than THE ENSLAVED and claiming his African decent not Europeanness II. Discussion 1 (09/06/2024) - To what extent are boundaries imaginary? - Observing boundaries - Gender of nation? Portrayl of Europe as a chaste civilized woman (pg 156) - Maps: Elaborate maps used to reveal how these places “ought to be portrayed” vs simpler maps used for navigation?  Elaborate maps also used to show land domination of Europe Elaborate maps hung in home reflect “worldliness” of a well-travlled person of status What do the maps show us: - Reflection of the minds of how they viewed land and each other in this day in age - Portrayal of other peoples as less civilized reveal or try to reveal a justification for brutality and conquerings - Equiano Names himself an African-born man: has a valid and real image of Afria that he uses to try to “de-mystify” Africa Describes his home as very comparable to European kingdoms Describes a people who are musically knowledgeable Women in his hometown are doing the same thing that women in Europe are doing→ one group is not more intelligent nor superior than the other. Unconquerd places seen at this time as places lacking culture→ Equiano’s point in describing textiles Who funded this work and how did it influence how he wrote?: ○ Does not directly place Europe lower than his own country but does uplift his nation→ mindful of his critiques ○ Why would white Europeans of noble status fund this work? - At this point, Britain is much more in favor of abolition than America at this time - yet money influences that way in which he is able to go about seeking abolition and On religion, speaks not on the differnce of color but on the religouos similarities Agency: taking on the initiave to create a new alternative of how you are choosing to be labeled→ rejecting the identities put on one Whats the significance of keeping historical agency in mind when looking at autobiographies and other works? ○ Is Equiano’s narrative is an act of agency? III. Lecture 4 (09/09/2024): A Whirlwind tour of Gutenberg’s World - How did this “A-level” character for us in the modern world go seemingly unnoticed as a person of little importance in his time? - Johannes Gutenberg Mainz, ca. 1450 The Social Life of a Merchant  The Holy Roman Empire: a patchwork of states loosely under the rule of the Holy Roman emperor - Major Power players include the Habsburg Dynasty, Valois Dynasty/French State, and the Papacy/Papal State (head of Christendom) - Identified mostly with his city which is why he returned back to the vibrant city of Mainz (conveiently located on a port i.e. good location for trade) - Urbanization in Western Europe (1100-1300): merchant in a time of expanding trade and familiarized with commerce AND even pandemics in expanding cities (bubonic plague (1347-? That claims at least 30% of total European population in the first wave that returns generationally) - Urbanization also introduced a new face to the idea of the “suffering Christ” → shift in the image of the crucifix and view of spiritual victory through suffering. What does it mean to be Christian? Lay Piety in the 14th c. - Urbanization in cities means he would also have known about the Fall of Constantinople (fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453) → changes what it means to be European (and is a story on industrialization and gunfire warfare). - The Ottoman Empire: in the time he lives they are expanding and by the time he dies they are close the gates of the holy roman empire - Understood and lived through the social ladder of the time where he was only just above peasants and serfs being himself a merchant/craftsmen on the same level as farmers. Pope being on top. - Gutenberg was likely trained as a goldsmith , his father was connected to the mint→ just a step ahead of the ordinary goldsmith - Gutenberg was absolutely literate! His family had invested into his education so his rank was just a bit above regular merchant level literacy Gutenberg’s Bible … and all that ! – - Expanded the availability of books→ more economic to buy books/ the population became more literate  - THIS LONGTERM SHIFT IN LITERACY WAS IN FACT LONGTERM, did not happen overnight. - Gutenberg’s Collaborations Johann Fust Peter Shoeffer (understands what the market looks like) - Printing the bible was expensive and yet his endevours did not make him an incredibly wealthy person. - Rag-Based Paper (vs. parchment) Eastern Han Period (China), ca. 100 CE 84% less costly than printing on parchment - Spread of Print in Europe (1450-1500) Explosive transformation for a relatively new technology in Western Europe - Due to demand, spread of information on how to create, spread of literacy, and alongside the spread of education (academically and religiously) IV. Lecture 5 (09/16/2024): Renaissance Humanism…and its unintended consequences Humanism understood as a person who cares about the humanities and an education in the humanities - Finding Laura Cereta MS Letter-book, 1480s → showcase of her learning circulated in her own lifetime; printed her work even after the circulation Widely known in her own lifetime Cereta’s Assets - Grew up in an urban center, Brescia (part of the Empire of Venice) - Silvestro Cereta→ lawyer father who capitalized on Laura - Convent early education and specialist tutor (ages 7-11) - Distinctive talent, but socially average - Gender norms: expected to be a homemaker - Widowhood (age 16): socially and economically very dangerous - Returns to her paternal household Becomes and public figure (correspondence, public lectures, and receives a state funeral after her death at around age 30) Early- Modern Italian Women’s Lives - Get married young (average 16) to an older man (average 26) - Go through childbirth around every other year - Watch ~30% of your children die before age 5 - Die young (average life expectancy 40s) Women and Learning  - Courtesans (ancient and modern) - Women religious→ brilliant heads of combat - Obstacles: - Eve and “original sin” - Pauline Tradition - Predecessors - Tullia (Cicero’s Daughter) - Christine de Pizan (d.1430, born in Venice) → married mother who “yet wrote” - The (Italian Renaissance) Revival of Antiquity Petrarch (d. 1374): 14th c. Italian poet seeking original sources (Latin esp.) Renovatio→ make society a better place Renaissance humanism in a nutshell - Studia humanitatis (Latin, Greek, grammer, rhetoric, history poetry, moral philosophy) - Aims and Ideals: emphasis on literature and multidimensional approach to persuasion vs. scholastic logic, and education the “whole person”( → Jesuits borrow this idea), all aimed at building a better polity (male-oriented) Catalysts: - Cries of the the Later Middle Ages (1340s-1420s): Plague, War, Papal Schism - The Fall of Constantinople (1453): Greek speaking refugees essential for Greek revival Intended Audiences: male children of wealthy families, (Federico da Montefeltro, d.1482: Duke of Urbino) - Renaissance Humanism’s Unintended Consequences Rise of the Artist→ some education and familiarity with a new style and its sources (Michelangelo’s David originally commissioned to stand in front of the State-house) - Michelangelo (1475-1574): Buonarroti family of Florence, literary and artistic education, patronage and personal authority, influential (what he did gave him fame), Giorgio Vasari’s Lives (1550 and 1568) → portrayed as one who “bested” antiquity / the improvement of the arts Reassessment of the Patriarchy (women humanists) - Robin’s title Collected Letters of a Renaissance Feminist V. Lecture 6 (09/18/2024): Ancient Models, Old Competitions, and New Worlds - Global encounters in Cereta’s lifetime  The Italian Wars (1494-1559) Constantinople is now Istanbul Deliberately exaggerating Christopher Columbus - Genoese sailor and cartographer - 4 voyages: 1492-1504 - Financed by Ferdinand and Isabella of SPAIN - Humanist education (ptolemy problem) Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) - Columbus lands off a Caribbean Island renamed for Spain as Hispanola (1492) - Pope Alexander VI (Spanish) - Portugal vs. Spain - Christianization clause VI. Discussion 2: (09/20/2024) - Cereta presents herself as a more candid version of an intellect - Republic of letters→ women VII. Lecture 7 (09/23/2024): From 1485-1546, An Unlikely Reformer- Martin Luther - A Serious “Quarter-Life” Crisis Begins with internal piety - Religious Reform (1380-1517) Predecessors for Luther: John Wyclif in England, Jan Hus in Prague, Brethren of the Common Life, Thomas a Kempis (~1471 proclaimed Imitatio Christi) in Brussels, Erasmus who was a humanist and faithful critic in the Netherlands - Inventing Luthernism on the Fly Company Man to Critic - Augustinian Friar - University of Wittenberg - Indulgence Controversy (Pope Leo X and St. Peter’s Basilica) - 95 Theses (1517) Luther’s Ad Hoc Theology - Sola Fide - Sola Scriptura - Biblical Sacraments (Baptism and Communion Exsurge Domine (1520) Diet of Worms (1521) - Elector Fredrick the Wise of Saxony VIII. Lecture 9 (09/30/2023): Michel De Montaigne, from 1533-1592 Living the French Wars of Religion - Theocracy understood as a rule of the government by the clergy - Michel De Montaigne (d. 1592) Minor nobleman, wealthy upbringing and yet his story is one of social mobility→ lived in Dordogne, France (Southwest France) - Huguenots in his region - Bourbon Kings of Navarre in northern France as well Proficient Literacy: spent lots of time in his library Montaigne’s Bio and Political Profile - Eyquen family - Bourgeois gentelmen - Commercial success as herring merchants → buying title and land in 1477 - Mother is a Huguenot - Peasant caregivers, the humanist and legal training - Stoic revival (latter half of the 16th century) - Suffers kidney stones his entire life - Administrator of his own domain (hands in the dirt), Parlement of Bordeaux, and royal courtier - French Wars of Religion begin in 1562, when Michel is around 30yrs old - 1563 his best friend dies to a cold; 1570 horseback riding injury; resigns from Parlement; 1571 Essais begin; 1580 travels to Italy - Mayor of Bordeaux, infighting even amidst the plague - Considered to be a POLITIQUE: would put the common good, political stability above all else, above religious disputes→wants strong cental monarch, political stability, and peace - Essays - Begins writing in 1571 - Has 6 children, only one survives - Names himself the subject of his writing “What can i figure out for myself”: Que sais-je? (What do I know?) First Printed in French in 1580→ HUGELY popular Posthumous edition: Marie de Gournay a literary who truly impresses Montaigne: “adopts her” Epistemology - The French Wars of Religion (1562-1598) Continual Battle Francois I (d. 1547)  - “One king, one faith, one law…” - Founds the College de France: docet omnia - Marguerite de Navarre - Affair of the Placards (1534) - Huguenot church in Paris 1555 - Franco-Ottoman alliance (1536-1798) New Regime (still Valois) - Catherine de Medici Conspiracy of Amboise (1560): challenged the idea of one stable power requires one stable government with one stable religion - Guise Family Massarce at Vassy (1562) - Huguenots killed by the Guise family in their church, who were already pushed out Early attempted Resolutions: (Edict of St. Garmain and Peace of St. Germain) - Edict: keep the Huguenot practice quiet and it can slide (attempt to stop violence but not really tolerance more of a silencing) Pitched battles (1562-1598) - Battles between Catholic and Huguenot “Leagues” Worst day in fighting: St. Bartholomew’s Day Massarce (1572) - Wedding (1572): Catholic Medici to Leader of Huguenots - Marguerite de Valois and Henri of Navaree (Bourbon region in Northeast France) - < 10k Huguenots are killed during the wedding celebrations but it is not known who started it: did the Guise family start it? Did Marguerite start it? Was it all the Medici’s? - Who Is the Cannibal What does he believe about religiously motivated violence? Believes those who kill men alive IN THE NAME OF RELIGION to be far worse cannibals. IX. Lecture 10 (10/02/2024): - Monarchical Centralization Recipe for an early modern monarchy - Territorial consolidation (Holy Roman empire= exception to the rule) - Systems of taxation that are fairly rationalized: sufficient revenue - Bureaucratic Expansion (especially “new men”)  - Print culture in the Vernacular: Latin does not go away in the language of the learned but use vernacular language to standardize, bringing realms together - Political Power of Religion: Christianity is defined and policied as well as how people of other religions were treated - Military Infrastracture (borrowing from the Ottomans) - Building of standing armies and navies (vs. mercenaries, ad hoc militias) - Regularized and increasingly state-sponsored training→ increased use of gunpowder artillery - Military revolution Rise of the Infantry - Pikemen (swiss stand out here) - Arquebus and then musket (1520s) → changes status of warfare as they are common folk possesing these grandly powerful weapons - Scale and cost of combat favors larger and wealthier states - “Nobility of war” is now in question → changes nature of what war looks and feels like Political Power of Religion - “One King, One Faith, One Law” enabled French king to elect his own bishops → essentially the “Church of France” - Kingdom of Spain: expulsion of Muslims and Jews and introdution of the Spanish Inquisition (a state directed religious absolutle orthodoxy of Chrisitianity under the crown) Eurpoe’s Major Players: - France (King, Valois) - Spain (King, Habsburg) - Ottoman Empire (Sultan) - 1299 to 1922: conquest by trade and deals rather than conquest by sword Suleiman I, The Lawgiver: OG monarchical Recipie (SULTAN) - Tributary Taxation - People of the book (dhimmi) → protected: those protected by their book, although they had to pay a higher tax i.e. Jews a. Religiuos Pluralism (head-tax) b. Refugees (Spanish Inquisition) c. Patronage of the Arts and Letters - Germany (King, Habsburg) - The Italian Wars or the Habsburg-Valois Conflict(1494-1559): Naked Greed Roman Empire (117 CE): At gretest extent they claimed most of European land not rules by The Titans - Habsburg: Charles I/V - Grandson of Ferdinnad and Isabella - Charles I of Spain (1516) - Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire (1519) - Franco-Ottoman Alliance 1526-1789 (French Cathoilc King Francis I and Ottoman Muslim Sultan Suleiman I): - United under a common enemy, the Habsburg The Battle of Pavia (1525) - Habsburgs and Valois choose Pavia for no legitimate reason to take it - Francis I taken captive, ransomed: on a different scale because his horse was shot (not noble hand to hand combat) - Gunpowder weaponry (arquebus is decisive) - Ottoman Aid The Sack of Rome (1527) - Attacked by soldiers meant to defend the city: Holy Roman Emperor is heavily humiliated by his own forces - The trouble with mercenaries → not united under one nation - And maybe Lutherans? Peace of Cateau-cambresis (1559) - France abandons claims to Italy Niccolo Machiavelli (d. 1527) - Bureaucrat for the Florentine Republic - De Principatibus (“On Principalities”) printed 1532 - The Reason of State - The Battle of Lepanto (1571) King Philip II of Spain This battle practically does nothing except for in an ideological sense for Christians - Massive Forces led by John of Austria (illegitimate son of Charles V), Pope Pius V, and Doge Alvise Mocenigo (Venice) - Juan Latino (d. 1590s) Austrian seaman (1573): recounts Christian vistory at Lepanto Respect for Ottoman military, empathy for enslaved oarsmen BUT Muslims characterized as a notorious race of evil hertica  Rhetorical necessity for - Montaigne’s view on the Ottomans: admiration of military technical AND moral discipline X. Lecture 10 (10/07/2024): - Adventures in Historical Close Reading Context and Significance: - The 5 Ws: Who, What, When, Where, and Why Should historians care - Why historians should care comes from assessing the significance observing specific reference to key events happening during the source’s creation and making a salient comparison/contrast to one other source. Review Primary Sources, and keep comparisons to sources as close and tight as possible. - Garcilasso de la Vega (El Inca) A complicated biographical timeline: - Mother is never directly mentioned, a noblewoman of Inca ancestry - Father is a Spanish nobleman, conqueror - Youth in Peru (1539-1560): named Gomez Suarez de Figueroa but does not go by that name, by 1556 is his Father’s righthand man of the pen/ secretary, primary ed among is mother’s kin and humanist secondary ed, Charles V’s decrees against mestizos holding office or becoming priests, - Remainder of Life in Spain (1560-1616): spends the rest of his life in Spain although he considers retruning to his motherland, spends a lot of time seeking Philips II’s recognition for father’s achievements (never resolved), more restrictions on mestizos in Peru than in Spain (rebellions), lives in places from Seville and Madrid to Montilla (uncle’s estate) and finally Cordoba, attains university studies and military career - Fights in the Morisco Revolt in Granada (1568-1570) at the rank of captain, under Joh of Austria - Execution of Tupac Amaru of Cuzco (1572) - Philip II orders all “New World” docs to be sealed in an archive in Seville (1577) - Close friendships and collaborations with Jesuit scholars by 1580s - Concentration on writing *1580s, restyles himself as Garcilasso de la Vega, el Inca, or “Inca Garcilasso”  - - Sixteenth-Century Cuzco Hospital de Naturales (now Iglesia de San Pedro) Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): Pope Alexander VI, Portugal vs Spain, Christianization Clause Major global domination Inca Culture - Political Centalization, Bureaucracy, and Taxation - Civil War between Inca rivals Athualpa and Huascar in the 1520s Spanish Colonial Mechanisms - Legacies of the Reconquista The Requerimento (1513) - Hidalgos (minor noblemen): Hernan Cortes (in Mexico) and Francisco Pizzaro - Estancias and Encomiendas: encouraged to take land for Spain but entitled to use their labor - Smallpox: infectious disease that reduces the indigenous populations to 1/10 of what they were → brought over by the Spanish The Peruvian Case - Francisco Pizarro, Peru 1529, Atahualpa executed 1532-1533, Pizzaro executed in 1541 - Race before Racism? The beginnings of Casta Confronting the beginnings of racial typology Potosi (1545) - Silver mines - Decimated Indigenous population - Atlantic Slave Trade - XI. Lecture 11 (10/09/2024): Colonization in the Americas - Midterm talk: Some questions from quizzes One quote identification Syllabus, primary sources, ppts, previous quizzes, and study groups. Dates: understand chronology more than remembering dates - Slavery in the Americas: Ppl did not question slavery as a system “Old world” slavery (to CA. 1500) - Primarily military and domestic labor→ most often taken as a prisoner of war in which you had a sense of locality  One might even be freed eventully Plantation model: taken and shipped very very far away - Cape verde island using african labor and exportation to colonies in brazil in the search for sugar Uniquely dehumanization through in a random location Enslaved in Africa: - Valued > land - Prisoners of war - Domestic and military service - Incorporation Enslaved in the Atlantic - Values < land - Sold at market - Plantation labor and mining (lacks appreciation and honor for labor) - Displacement Statistics: 14M Africans enslaved the majority of which end up in the americas in a plantations What drives this type of slavery?: - Commodities - Consumerism - Circulation of people, germs, food, and commodities Potosi, Peru - Discovery of precious metals, namely silver in peru in the middle of the 16th C. - Indigenous→ african labor Aztec Empire, Mexico - Moctezuma I (r. 1440-1469) - Tribute System: capture of a town and forced labor, ENSLAVED LABOR ALREADY PRESENT WHEN EUROPEANS ARRIVE → some who object to this overruling of Moctezuma - Warrior ethos: like Spaniards, there was a sense of nobility in capturing land and others deeply present in the Mexica people who were warriors Bartolome de las Casa (d. 1566) - Encomendero turned dominican friar (previously hidalgo) - Tells spanish crown to stop the violence brought by greedy soldiers coming over to the americas  → for Philp II, he wrote A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indes written in 1542 and printed in 1552 - Meets Inca Garcilaso (1560s) → tense meeting as las Casas was more sympathetic to the ppl of central america not the people of peru - “New Jerusalem”: attempts to makes a new world that's absolutely perfectly catholic, perfect christianity of indigenous peoples → Problems is that he portrays the indigenous ppl as “lambs not warriors” → shift in Royal Policy (1540s) → indigenous to african enslavement (claimed the indigenous people to be God’s new chosen people) - Syncretism (Cultural Blending): For the Mexica: the Sun God For the Europeans: the Son of God Council of Huejotzingo to King Philip II, 1560 The Royal Commentaries (1607 and 1617) - Inca Garcilaso (again) → mestizo position as an asset: unavoidable? → models: Lopez de Gomara’s General history of the Indes (first ed. 1552) and Jesuit José de Acosta’s Natural and Moral History of the Indes (1590) →Previous publications: Translation of Leon Hebreo’s Dialogues of Love (1590); The Florida of the Inca (1605) → “The historians have written it; are you going to deny it”: enraged at misrepresentations of the truth of both the Hidalgos and the Indigenous people - Imagining the Americas Back in Europe: Montaigne, “On Cannibals”: Cultural relativism Shakespeare's The Tempest XII. Lecture 12 (10/21/2024): Science, Religion, and Patronage - We are HERE: Scientific Revolution (1540s) to the Atlantic World (1600s) then the Age of enlightenment (1660s) and finally to the political revolutions (1770s) - The Copernican Turn (1540s) Ancient Astronomy - Aristotle to Ptolemy→ Aristotle believed the circle was the perfect shape - Alnagest (c. 150 CE) - Crystalline Spheres  - Epicycles Italian Renaissance Contributions - Humanist work in the original sources - Platonic Corpus (vs. Aristotle) - Mathematics - Archimedes, new Latin translation 1543 - Artist-Engineers (Da Vinci, Michelangelo, etc.) - Practices, - Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) - Humanist Education (platonic revival) - Contemporary of Paracelsus - Cleric of the Counter Reformation - On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres → Latin composition → Completed 1530, printed in 1543 → Dedicated to Pope Paul III; reaching out to the educated populations and acknowledges that the Pope is a learned person - Heliocentric Model (Earth is decentered and in motion) - Galileo Galilei (d. 1642) - Musical and Academic Family - University fo Pisa - Experimental Physics - Medici Family’s Patronage: keen to attract the interesting people of the time, Galileo being one of them → “Grand Dukes of Tuscany” - “Spyglass”/ Telescope (1609) - Starry Messenger (1610): lunar surface, “medician stars”, - Letter to the Grand Duchess - Comet of 1618: comet cuts the Crystalline Spheres/ not following the pattern of spheres but rather a straight line cutting across the sky - New Evidence vs. Ancient Texts - Publishing of his dialogue (in Italian), calling one of his characters “idiot” who was modeled after the current pope → LEADS HIM TO THE INQUISTITION TRIAL Road to Rome: ○ The “Liga” (mostly fellow academics, vs. patrons and helpers such as Grand Duchess Christina, Cardinal Bellarmine a Jesuit)  ○ Warning in 1616 → Condemnation in 1632 → Trail in 1633→ 1638 he publishes his mathematical proof of Capernican heliocentrism in LEIDA, DUTCH REPUBLIC not in Rome - Clerical Fans of Galileo Jesuits and Suor Maria Celeste Galilei XIII. Weathering the Chaotic Seventeenth Century - Tense relationship with the priorities of the Dutch market - Silver: connecting the world → brook’s reading used to connect these places - The 30 years war: starts as a war of religion. Starts obviously becoming less and less about religion and about gain. Scale makes it feel like maybe the first world war (7 million ppl died and nearly every European state got involved). Holy Roman Empire. Peace of Augsburg (catholic or lutheran, not Calvinist). Recipe for disaster year of the comet 1618. Jesuit evangelists in Bavaria → re-educate. Camps of Catholic Leagues in Bohemia. - Holy Roman Emperor: aligned with a Catholic reformation as the king of bohemia. - Defenistration of Prague. - 1618: Protestant nobles declare a CALVINIST their king, rejecting the holy roman emperor as their king - Dutch and Ottoman (bc of a shared hate of the Hapsburgs) Support for the Calvinists - High profile and forgein aid: intrestes and alliances that have nothing to do with religion - Lutheran sweeden gets involved (King himself is on the ground fighting) - French Catholic Cardinal gets involved and sides with the Lutheran Sweedish king NOT the Hapsburgs → clearly not about religion but about power - Raison d’etat (reason of state) - The peace of Westphalia (1648): ends the 30 years war - Written in French not Latin (the new common language? The importance of the winner, i.e. France) - Anti-Hapsburg decrees: independence of portugal and the Dutch Republic (vs. Spain) - Sweden and French guarantors - Minority religious rights (peace of augsburg + calvinism) - State sovereignty: recognition of the harmful effects of forgien aid who come in and keep the conflict going → national autonomy - Death toll: 7-13M  - Cultural Effects of the 30 years War: changes the image/notion of warfare - New art genre “The Great Miseries of War”: moment of frightening violence - Hans Heberle’s “Record of His Times”: specificity and the statistical way of recording the numbers → taking on the role of a chronicle historian - Maybe use of others’ word of mouth but news sheets as well - The Little Ice Age - Intensification c. 1620-1715 the temperatures decrease 1.1-3.6 degrees due to too little sunspots and too many volcanic eruptions (something also observed by Galileo) - At the same time as the 30 yrs war - Widespread famine and fuel for inflationary patterns/trends - The “Price of Revolution”: runaway inflation 1550-1651 - Inflation levels of up to 500% - Europe doesn't starve to death because of the POTATO - Factors: influx of the bullion from the Americas - Population growth (to mid 1600s) - Expansion of agriculture? - Proto-Capitalism: local → regional→ international markets which seems to mark the emergence of the merchant capitalist - Domestic system/cottage industry - NO NOTION OF A FREE MARKET YET (government regulation: some private investors but still under the rule of state regulation) - Deaths exceeding births by a significant margin - Delft was not in this position of a very catastrophic lifetime: sent harring further south and suddenly available to the Dutch in a way they previously had not been - Dumb luck and adapt XIV. Lecture 13 (10/28/2024): The Rise and Fall of the Dutch Republic - Transregional Empires to Globalization (17th century) - Pioneering Imperial Models: Imperial China (Ming and Qing dynasty), Mughal Empire (modern day India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan), and the Ottoman Empire - 17th century: witnesses a fascination of trying to understand where we are specifically in relation to others in the world → whats our own importance as we come into contact with others/other regions - 17th century concludes a story of the economic importance shifting from the the Mediterranean to the Atlantic: interconnectedness of the whole world now Silver has connected the lands across the Ocean  Other commodities include Siberian furs, Persian silk, american sugar, english wools, southeast asia spices, indian cottons, chinese porcelain and horses, and enslaved people. - The Dutch Republic: A Brief History (1581-1795) - Struggle for independence (under the rule of the Habsburgs in Denmark from 1568 to 1648) but gained independence with the end of the 30 yrs war and the peace of westphalia - A Calvinist Federation but still religiously tolerant - Centralization (stadholders) - Strengths that might have made it surprisingly successful in the face of the Habsburgs Relative Tolerance ○ Muti-confessional state - Ottomans ○ Refugees to the Dutch Republic - Germany - Spain and Portugal (Habsburgs) - France (Wars of Religion- Louis XIV) - England (Civil War after the Elizabethan Settlement, then Oliver Cromwell) ○ Vibrant Art Market (ca. 750 artists) ○ European Leader in the Book Trade/ Print Capital - Galileo Galilei’s publishing of his mathematical proof of Capernican heliocentrism in LEIDA, DUTCH REPUBLIC not in Rome - Rembrandt: allowed to visually represent human dissections Boatman of the 17th c. world system ○ One example is the herring boats ○ Dutch East India Company (VOC) - Major trading company globally - Founded in 1602 as a government engine - Ship goods and have military power: set up tollhold through economic trade (power by trade not by inquisition) - 1689: 22k employees - Company is working closely under the Dutch government - The Dutch “East Indies” (1619-1949) - Batavia (Jakarta)  - Pepper, nutmeg, tea, coffee - Textiles and porcelain Mercantile Ethos ○ Chinese porcelain: Chinese traditional blue and white actually comes from Persia ○ Dutch porcelain: knock-off dutch pottery not produced in the Dutch Republic or China but created in MEXICO → fake chinese dutch replica made in mexico sold back to the dutch: encapsulates globally economy of the 17th century ○ Tulip Mania: Tulips native to the Ottomans but began to be harvested by the Dutch (cornered the tulip market for a time) - THE RISE OF CONSUMERISM - Finding the things people want most - Woman holding a Balance, 1662-1663 - Beginning of mismatching price and goods - Consumer Revolution - Overextension of Dutch Martime Empire: empire by trading-post, due to costs and efforts spent to maintain these places, they over extended themselves. XV. Lecture 14 (11/04/2024): People and Goods in the Atlantic World Takeaways: At this point, colonialism in the 17th c. and 18th c. typically emphasized commercial, scientific, and political goals over religious ones. In 1450, travel beyond your birthplace w/out a very specific reason like a professional goal u were weird but by 1750 this would have made you educated. Maria Sybilla Merian offers a case study of a movement within the Atlantic Worls as well as the world’s structuring… - The Atlantic World - Commercial Empires (Mercantilism) State policies to increase investment (monopolies) Fierce International Competition (Zero Sum Game) Colonial Charters: colonies exists for the benefit of the “mother state” Joint-Stock companies (state charters) ○ Dutch East and West Companies (1602, 1621) ○ English East India Company (1600s) - People on the Move - Merchants  - England in the Americas: King James I’s Jamestown Colony chartered in 1607 - A notion of excitement, getting out there - “The Grand Tour” (1700s especially) → “the educated person is a well traveled purpose” thus 15k-20k travelers per year - Dramtic and monetary increase of the Aitlantic Slave Trade: Slave trade runs the movement across the Atlantic - Maria Syballia Merian - Background and Travel Family (Swiss-Calvinist): artists, engravers, printmaking, naturalia Travles from Frankfurt in the HRE up till 1670→ Nuremburg (1685) → Friesland in the Dutch Republic (1691) → Amsterdam (1699) → Suriname (1701) → Amsterdam (while sick) Art and Scientific “Marketplaces”: Artist and Merchant Labadism (“The Family of Love”) Piety and Science ○ Abiogenesis ○ Break from Medieval and Anciet encyclopedic organization Amsterdam: Can gain money from her work to go to other places such as Suriname, a Dutch colony(1699-1701) ○ Suriname: enters with a vast collection of Indigenous and African knowledge allowing her to see all she is able to see (Flos Pavonis or the Peacock Flower) Commerce, Consumption, and Science: back in Amsterdam she wants to publish a full work Book of Flowers, 1680→ catering to the Dutch demands (ferocious markets) ○ Knows how to continue to be a scientist and a merchant in her own name to publish works that become important to the scientific community How can we compare Laura Cereta to Maria Sybilla Merian? What differences can we observe in their works to understand change over time 𝚫T? XVI. Lecture 15 (11/11/2024): Shadowing Diderot Through Enlightenment Europe - Sapere Aude: “dare to know” - Immanuel Kant - What is Enlightenment (1784) - Sapere Aude - Denis Diderot: A Case-Study in Eighteenth C. Idealism - Diderot: Cutler’s son to pan-European Celebrity - ALMOST a priest  - Anticlericalism: against the institution and corrupt people within it (they made it take a very hypocritical stance) - Anti-Authoritarian (LIBERTY) - Serious anglophile - Philosophe: a philosopher of the times - Got any “Philosophy”? - Thérese Philosophe (1748), The Tell-Tale Toys (1748 ff.), and Angelique (Diderot’s daughter)! - Voltaire (1694-1778) - Letters Concerning the English Nation (1733) - Candide (1759): a satire on optimism - A practical reformer (esp. Penal reform): put his money where his mouth was - Madame du Chatelet: in a polygamous relationship throughout his life with a married woman who was very mathematically talented. - Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) - Diderot’s “Frenemy” - From a middle-class Swiss family; he takes up residence in France - Therese Levasseur (lower-class woman): has 5+ children with this woman whom he never married– placed children in “foundling homes” - On the Social Contract: negative view of human nature, need some entity to save us from ourselves - Optimism still exists but only if all “general wills” are pulled together we can save ourselves for our individual baser instincts and desires - Not thinking of monarchs but rather pooling in the general government/ general wills→ shift away from individual - State of nature: how do we operate without constraint (what keeps up under control) - ~ Hobbes: Social Contract with the State of Nature (Leviathan) - Our own rights and how they work in relation to the government - “Enlightened Despotism” - Diderot’s Coinage (1760s) - Target Audience of Many Philosophes - How Best to Implement Reform? - Some core European monarchs listen (to an extent)- sponsorship of science, as publicly useful and militarily useful (England and France) - Eastern Europe - PRUSSIA AND RUSSIA  Frederick the Great of Prussia (d. 1786) ○ Cared deeply about state funded education and allowed religion to slide on the basis of bettering the society ○ Rival was Catherine II of Russia (d. 1796) - Built off of the groundwork of Peter the Great (d. 1725) Diderot on Pension BUT territorial ambition ○ Vs. Frederick II of Prussia Plan for top-down reform ○ Attempts to abolish serfdom ○ Educational innovations, emphasis on STEM - Science and Enlightenment (a major change over time story) Cabinets of Curiosity Museums Ancients vs. Moderns Fixing the Machine of Daily Life: application of a kind of empirical view of the world XVII. Lecture 16 (11/13/2024): Whose Liberty? - Weekly Takeaways: Empirical methods and mechanistic thinking of the “new science” gradually spread to other sectors of society and other topics including politics and social welfare. Salons and coffeehouses were some of the most vibrant and diverse spaces. Enlightenment thought of the 18th c. stressed the importance of liberty from traditional authorities. - The Public Sphere - Jurgen Habermas, coins the notion of the public sphere - Salon of Madame Geoffrin (1699-1777) OPENS UP HER LIVING ROOM FOR DISCUSSION (DIFFERENT CLASSES AND GENDERS) OF PHILOSOPHES, a wealthy woman who desired conversation - Coffeehouses: A Bourgeois Public Sphere Democratic potential A way of exciting association and interaction between thinkers Depicted in contemporary art: something intriguing about people getting around to learn something new “The Penny University” - The News Moves across Europe Early 17th C innovation (pan- european)  Thirty Years War as one spur (roughly published weekly by 1620s) - Diderot’s Masterpiece: Starts the idea of an Encyclopedia: aimed to put together/form a society of educated/lettered people → eventually our Wikipedia ○ Putting together what needs knowing: arts, sciences, and even the practical ○ IN FRENCH, not in Latin ○ 1751, first of 17 volumes ○ Diderot and d’Alembert (who was knowledgeable in math) ○ Included ~60,600 articles, wherein Diderot wrote 5k articles ○ Discussions lead to conflict with the government since they are anti-monarchical ○ The closest we get to someone really wanting to educate the masses - The Limits of Liberty (Woman and People of Color) - Angelique Diderot: Received a rigorous education including sex ed, attends Madame Geoffrin’s salons, Harpsichordist, her mother Nanette shares space with many mistresses like Sophie Volland, her father had the social stigma of being a libertine meaning that she needed a huge Dowry, and eventually marries a merchant on schedule - Rousseau’s Emile (1762) Thinks in an idealistic sense, meaning he hoped to educate the right/perfect people and citizens ○ Emile: receives good education and play time ○ Sophie: does not receive the education but is trained to be the perfect woman to serve the perfect man, insists that woman if educated properly will become “lovely”; needs protection and will become the perfect companion to Emile - Sophie is critiqued by Mary Wollstonecraft - Bartolome de Las Casas (D. 1566) Critique of Aritsotle’s natural slave - Encourages liberty of Indigenous people at the expense of African Slavery - John Locke (1632-1704) Political refugee in Amsterdam Two Treatises of Government (1689) ○ Social Contract can be revised (unlike Hobbes and Rousseau) ○ Natural Rights to man (LIFE, LIBERTY, and PROPERTY)  - Except for “hunter-gatherer societies” Slavery is “vile and base” ○ Except for prisoners taken in a just war - Diderot’s Entry on the Slave Trade In his entry in the Encyclopedia, he very clearly understands slavery to be dehumanizing and condemns it; AND YET does not make a specific call to action and remains invested in the French West India’s Company that enacts the things he rejects (for the sake of his daughters) - Hypocrisy - Sugar Economy European annual per capita sugar consumption (1700, 4lbs → 1800, 18lbs→ modern US, >150lbs) - Louis Sala- Molins: Not a single philosophe proposes amendment to slavery as a legal and economic system but rather a “gradual emancipation” - Rousseau On The Social Contract (1762): The slaves he names are not enslaved Africans but middle class and middle aged white men - Abolitionism begin the 1780s, with the leadership of Black advocates like Equiano, not philosophes like Diderot - Questioning the Enlightenment - Candide, Voltaire (1759) BUT crudest stereotypes of Africa - What is Enlightenment, Kant (1784) Public use of Reason (Frederick II) → you should have the ability to put aside your career to come up and speak openly about critiques i.e. “dare to think for yourself” “An age of enlightenment” - Is the Enlightenment a historical period or an unfinished project? XVIII. Lecture 17 (11/18/2024): Radicalism and Its Personal Costs - The “Radical Enlightenment” - Core elements: Commitment to Implementing Progress through Education/ calls for Broad-Based Social Reform (from “natural rights” to “human rights”) i.e. egalitarian thinking in terms of social classes, humanitarianism, sexual equality, and abolition of slavery - Education: radical enlightenment thinking shifts from understanding education as nature to nurture  Locke (1690): tabula rasa, a blank slate → no original sin, not inherently sinful and removes the meaning of a social class Rousseau’s Emile (1762): perfect child State-funded schools - Penal Reform: how do different ppl play a role in the penal system John Howard (d. 1790) on the condition of prisons: an expose in a scientific sense Caesre Beccaria (d. 1794) calling for the outlawing of torture→ imperical data starts for funding the reorganizing of systems - Mary Wollstonecraft: The Early days - Living by Wits–and Education - Middle Class English Woman - Spitalfields, London - Financial hardships and severe domestic abuse along w mom and sister - Best friend Fanny Blood dies in childbirth - Circle of intellectuals Printer-bookseller Joseph Johnson and his analytical review (a father and brother), Thomas Paine, and Dr. Richard Price - Dissenters (anyone who wasn't Anglican)- 1500s onward - Opposition to state interference in religious matters: Elizabethan Settlement to English Civil War → state continues to interfere - 18th c. “Radical dissenters: freedom of conscience, opposition to hierarchical church, emphasis on education of the clergy - An (Actual) Educator (vs. Rousseau) - Campaign vs. Rousseau’s Emile (1762) - School at Newington Green, London (1784) - Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (1787), encouraged by Joseph Johnson - Governess for Lady Kingsboroughs’s daughters: educator with growing popularity - Enlightened Cultural Critic - Heated Argument with Edmund Burke Burke finds French Revolution to be disgusting (violent assault) and an abomination ○ Taking of the Bastille (1789): a moment of liberation, beginning the fight for a new social/world order: true enlightenment - Olympe de Gouges: not radical enough for the most radical of revolutionaries Rights of women and Black people  Executed in 1793 - Tipping in the Age of Revolution - 1775-1884: Life, Liberty, property - Fast shift into radical liberty: - American War of independence (begins 1775 - French Revolution - Haitian Revolution - Latin American Revolution - The personal costs of liberty: - 1792: London to Paris (enormous risk) - This is the moment of the Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), too! - 1795: back to london, trailing after Gilbert Imlay with their daughter Frances (Franny), attempted suicide - 1797: Marriage to William Godwin - Birth of Mary (later Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley) - Death from complication following the birth William Godwin was radical enough: ○ Dissenter (even anarchist ○ An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice ○ Marriage is legal prostitution and the institution should be abolished ○ Ensuring posterity for his wife, and he writes her memoirs but gave her a bad reputation XIX. Lecture 20 (11/25/2024): A Global Snapshot - Think abt where on earth europeans are/ status of globalization - Takeaways: At this revolution cascading around the Atlantic World in the late 18th c. evince the entangled interest of Western European colonial powers; ideas and books help to make revolutions but the recipe has other critical ingredients, especially the sudden disappointment of rising expectations - Where on Earth? - Expectation of Global Travel and what constitutes the Globe/ New Hemisphere due to changed global scale - Atlantic World touched by Europe The Caribbean: Spanish, English, France, and even the Dutch have a presence here fighting over the Caribbean Islands due to sugar, coffee, and tobacco that relied on plantation slavery ○ Ground Zero for the European Colonialism ○ Challenges to Spanish control during the Thirty Years War (1618-1648) - Warfare Globalizes  - Wars of the Spanish and Austrian Successions (1701-1748) Concern of re-pulling together of the Hapsburg dynasty Squabble over who will take over empty thrones Fighting in one place means fighting around the world - French-Indian War/ Seven Years War (1754-1763) A contest btw extremely powerful france and Great Britain attempting to be a “France Level” player ○ Great Britain wins→ very costly; at the Treaty of Paris ○ France allies with the GB colonies that choose to revolt in the American Revolution - Cries of Liberty - Enlightenment liberty in Print form (Revolutions without Borders, Janet Polasky 2014) - Historians debate what were really the most salient catalysts of revolution - The United States and Liberty - De Facto Colonial Self-Governance: got along and did their business - 1775, Thomas Jefferson writes “This ball of liberty I believe most piously is now so well in motion that it will roll round the globe, at the least the enlightened part of it, for light and liberty go together. It is our glory that we first put it forward - MISSING SOMETHING GEMA - France and Liberty - Gilbert Du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette (d. 1834): joining w George Washington and being deeply embedded into the American Revolution, embodied an on the ground understanding of liberty - Collaboration with George Washington and Thomas Jefferson (1770s - Society of the Friends of the Blacks - Present at the assembly of the Estates General (1789) - Important in the drafting of the Declaration of the rights if Man and Citizen, Aug. 26, 1789 → putting the idea of liberty in your own social position - Saint Domingue and Liberty - Kingdom of Kongo Large population of people of color all mostly taken from the Kingdom of Kongo meaning - Marronage, self governing and hiding but making it work - Vincent Ogé (d. 1791) Mixed Race, wealthy planter Embassies on Paris (1780’s) being a witness to the first calls for revolution in France  ○ Petitions that this form of revolution ought to be seen on Saint Domingue too → extend liberty to this colony ○ 1789 Rebellion → revolution - Do Books Make Revolutions? - Declaration of Independence (1776) - Thomas Jefferson, “Plagarist” of Locke: “We hold these truths to be self-evident that all men are created equal…life, liberty, and [the pursuit of happiness] - King George III of England as the Tyrant The Stamp Act (Parliament, 1765) - Locke’s Two Treatises of Government that gave the blueprint for revolution - Combined Male and Female Literacy by 1780: ~30% - How do ideas make their way to people who cannot read? Word of mouth, images, people in power, etc. - Rising Expectations: slow evolution - The Language of Liberty + Sharp reversals of Expectations (James Chowning Davies - When ppl think thye have reason to expect more and don't get it then it seems like a platform for revolution XX. Lecture 21 (12/02/2024): Transforming France– From Metropole to Colonies - Revolution(s) in France - Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Noble Image of Liberty leading on revolution - French Economic Crisis Louis XV (d.1774): deeply embroiled with Great Britain ○ 7 yrs War: fiscal and PR loss eft France in a financially ruined state Louis XVI (d. 1793) ○ American War: PR gain but fiscal loss Beyond International conflict ○ Inflation, Unemployment, National Debt, Irrational Taxation, and Poor Harvests (Bread Riots, 1780s ff.) ○ Remember that at this point over 80% of the world population is living in rural areas French Colonies are economic LIFELINES! - Bourgeoisie Thwarted: had been able to scramble themselves up to forms of nobility→ purchasing titles but they observed a stop in there ability to climb up - Fall of the Bastille (14 July 1789) Representatives of the everyday people who led the revolution  Revolt to acquire the weapons Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (26 August 1789) ○ Marquis De Lafayette ○ 17 articles: liberty, equality before the law, religious tolerance, abolition of slavery in France but not the colonies due to the fact that they were lucrative Women’s March on Versailles (5 October 1789) ○ A form of strong organized protest still deeply rooted in economic success - Louis XVI, The Watchmaker Called a tyrant by the people Legislative assembly (1791), ~constitutional monarchy: Planting of the “Liberty Tree” used as a public recognition of a new path for France - The Reign of Terror (1793-94) Leadership lacks experience in government, rampant paranoia regarding a counterrevolution ○ Legislative Assembly had declared war on all of Europe in 1792 “Madame la Guillotine” ○ Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette (1793) ○ Ultimately ~30k nobles and “enemies of public safety” including Olympe de Gouges - Napoleon Bonaparte, born in Sicily but a French citizen General and exemplary tactician Made “First Consul” of the French Republic (1799-1804) ○ This is the role in Toussaint Louverture’s story ○ In effect is running the French government ○ Working to reinstate slavery in French colonies Crowns himself “Emperor of the French” in 1804; deposed and exiled in 1815 - Toward Revolution in Saint-Domingue - Saint Domingue Jewel in the crown of the expanding French colonial Empire Tobacco, coffee, and SUGAR (>30% of French trade outside the mainland) African and African-descended laborers are ~90% of the population due to the fact that Atlantic slave trade was rapidly working here  Shared Heritage (Kingdom of Kongo); military training; strong tradition of marronage Vincent Oge’s leadership in first rebellion (1790): Rising Expectations Did the Haitian Revolution stem from the French Revolution in the motherland? - Introduction to Toussaint Louverture (d. 1803) Enslaved laborer → freedman planter and soldier Massive uprising of the enslaved in Saint-Domingue in 1791 Controls Saint Domingue by 1801 ○ Constitution and “Governor General” → tactician Not as liberal as we would expect him to be Engaging Napoleon (“First Consul”) Seized on Napoleon’s orders by Napoleon’s brother in-law, Charles Leclerc, and extradited to France where he dies in prison in 1803 ○ “Memoir” written in prison: a report/account of his actions to show himself to be a good and loyal participant/citizen in the French colonies ○ Elements of the notion of how he has been treated are threaded into the text: calls racism what it is ○ Sees himself first and foremost as a general Independence of Haiti (Ayiti), 1804 XXI. Lecture 21 (12/04/2024): Toussaint Louverture and The Black Atlantic - Luoverture’s Career Highlights and Legacy - Spanish (since Saint-Domingue is half French and half Spanish) Service as a Soldier (1793-94): military tactician that ends up with a large amount of governmental power As of 1794 shifts his loyalties (to an extent) to France - Helps repulse a British invasion of Saint-Domingue (1794-98) - In 1794 he leads an abolition of slavery in Saint-Domingue Yet wants the workforce exporting sugar to remain (not under slavery but strict laws to maintain wealth income) - Secret Diplomacy with Britain and US (1798-1801) Maintains important networks but at what cost for his revolutionary disposition - Made Governor General of Saint-Domingue and Constitutio (1801) Saint-Domingue begins to look like an entity of its own as it begin to act as independent of the French Empire Constitution draft sent to Napoleon (already wanting to make attempts to bring back slavery) who sees what is going on  - Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Haitian Independence (1804) Recognition of Haiti by France in 1825 Recognition of Haiti by US in 1862 - Self-Presentation in The Memoir (PAY ATTENTION TO pg 153-154) Model Soldier Man of Honor (vs. Leclerc) Family Man Substantial Property Owner Servant of the French Republic - William Wordsworth sends poem to Luorveture (To Toussaint L’Ouverture, 1803) assuring him that he and his legacy will not be forgotten The Common Wind, Julius S. Scott - The African Atlantic - Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800 highlights African Control over slavery, African cultural Continuities (language, clothing, social and military organizations, religions, and food) Religion: Vudon (Caribbean Syncretism of African+Indigenous+Christian religious elements) Music: the akonting becomes modified to what we understand as the banjo Dance: Rumba - Phillis Wheatley (1753-1784) Enslaved in Boston from Gambia/Ghana Poet: Poems on Various Subjects Religious and Moral (1773) Christian Piety - The Interesting Narrative - Abolitionism - Ottobah Cugoano (1757-1791) Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil and Wicked Traffic of the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species (1787) ○ The Evidence of Experience ○ “White” = Cannibal ○ Support of Quakers ○ Legal Foundation: Somerset v. Stewart (1772) 10-14K free POC in Britain The sons of Africa (1780s) ○ Leadership of Ottobah Cugoano and Equiano ○ Infamous case of The Zong (1781, known 1783) ○ Petitions to Parliament  ○ The Slave Trade Act (1788) → full abolition in Britain and its territories in the 1840s - Josiah Wedgewood (1730-1795) Ceramics - Francois Cauvin’s Portrait of Louverture painting him as a founding father: gives us a new image of a person who is African and who is European might be XXII. Lecture 22 (12/09/2024): What's the Point of Studying Early-Modern (European) History - Final Exam Structure and Tips - Review notes in parallel w/ syllabus - Review previous quizzes and midterm - Re-read primary sources we emphasized on Friday discussion sessions - Your History Core Strength/Crash Course Review Session: familiarity with a broas sweep of our shared past, ability to situate primary sources in context, conceptualizing change over time - Major Themes 1450s ○ Social order solidified ○ Christendom ○ Centralization of monarchy ○ Slavery unquestioned ○ Gender inequality ○ Race: nation and place ○ Combined literacy c. 8% 1800 ○ Social order disrupted ○ Commerce and competition ○ Crumbling of monarchy ○ Slavery questioned/ abolitionist movement ○ Gender inequality ○ Race: biology and social status ○ Combined literacy c. 30% - Major Protagonists Mary Wollstonecraft Toussaint Louverture - Claiming Genealogies of People, Ideas, and Dilemmas -