French Revolution and Key Historical Events

When people expect progress but instead experience setbacks, frustration can lead to revolutionary sentiment.

The ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity fueled the French Revolution, promising a better future.

The Seven Years' War devastated France financially, leaving it in a precarious economic state.

The American Revolution, while a public relations victory, drained France's finances further.

French colonies played a critical role in the nation's economy, providing essential resources and trade.

Early Modernity is a historical period emphasizing significant changes in Europe, primarily beginning with the 15th century (1450s) and extending into the 18th century, characterized by revolutionary advancements in printing technology, trans-Atlantic explorations, religious reformation, and scientific discoveries.

The Atlantic World refers to the interconnectedness of the continents of Europe, Africa, and the Americas, particularly during the Age of Exploration and colonization, spanning the 16th to 19th centuries, shaped by the expansion of trade, migration, and the transatlantic slave trade.

The Age of Enlightenment, often referred to as the 18th-century Enlightenment, was a period of intellectual and cultural ferment, primarily in Europe, marked by a strong emphasis on reason, individual liberty, and scientific inquiry. It significantly impacted the Western world and contributed to the development of modern societies.

Olaudah Equiano, originally known as Gustavus Vassa, was a prominent individual born in what is now Nigeria, but later transported to the Americas as a slave. He eventually gained his freedom and wrote his compelling narrative, 'The Interesting Narrative', detailing his experiences in slavery and advocacy for abolition. His personal story holds profound significance in highlighting the realities of the slave trade.

Manumission refers to the process of granting freedom to an enslaved person. It is the act of freeing someone from slavery, often by legal means or through the generosity of a slave owner.

The 'Sons of Africa', later known as the 'Society for the Relief of Free Blacks Unlawfully Held in Slavery', was a prominent organization founded in London in 1787. It was dedicated to the cause of abolishing slavery, particularly the practice of capturing and holding freeborn Africans in slavery.

An 'Interesting Narrative' is often defined as a story of a person's life and experiences, particularly those that are remarkable or unusual, highlighting personal journeys of transformation and self-discovery.

Boundaries, particularly in the context of historical geography and identity, are often more imagined or constructed than objectively real, reflecting cultural and social norms, power dynamics, and evolving interpretations of belonging.

The Habsburg-Valois Conflict (1494-1559), also known as the Italian Wars, was a series of conflicts driven by the rivalry between the Habsburg and Valois dynasties for control of Italy and European power. It saw major battles like Pavia and the Sack of Rome, showcasing the shift in warfare with the rise of gunpowder weapons.

Charles V, a powerful Habsburg ruler, was King of Spain (as Charles I) and later Holy Roman Emperor. He inherited vast territories from his grandparents, Ferdinand and Isabella. This grand inheritance made him a key player in European power struggles.

The Franco-Ottoman Alliance of 1526-1789 saw France (led by King Francis I) and the Ottoman Empire (under Sultan Suleiman I) join forces against their common enemy, the Habsburgs. This alliance, driven by shared interests, reshaped the balance of power in Europe.

The Battle of Pavia (1525) was a pivotal moment in the Italian Wars. With the rise of gunpowder weapons (arquebus), the Habsburgs defeated the French forces, capturing King Francis I. This battle marked a turning point in the conflict and highlighted the impact of new military technology.

The Sack of Rome (1527) was a humiliating event for the Habsburg Emperor, where his own mercenary forces, meant to defend the city, actually sacked it. This event highlights the unpredictable nature of mercenary armies and the chaos they could create.

The Copernican Turn challenged the established geocentric model of the universe, putting the sun at the center, impacting scientific and religious thought.

The Copernican Turn (1540s) led to the Scientific Revolution (1540s), which fueled the Atlantic World (1600s), followed by the Age of Enlightenment (1660s) and finally the political revolutions (1770s).

Ptolemy's Almagesti, based on Aristotle's view of the universe, described a geocentric model with crystalline spheres and epicycles. This model dominated astronomy for centuries.

The Italian Renaissance marked a resurgence in humanist thought and a renewed interest in original texts, including Platonic works, inspiring scholars to challenge accepted knowledge.

Montaigne's essay "On Cannibals" explored cultural differences, advocating for cultural relativism, suggesting that different societies have varying views on what is right and wrong.

Garcilasso de la Vega, also known as 'El Inca', was a mestizo (mixed race) writer who bridged the gap between Inca and Spanish cultures. He was born in Peru to a Spanish conquistador father and an Inca noblewoman mother.

Garcilasso's early life was shaped by the political and social environment of colonial Peru, where mixed-race individuals faced restrictions. He spent his youth in Peru before later moving to Spain for the majority of his life.

Despite facing challenges and limitations as a mestizo, Garcilasso achieved notable success in Spain. He served as a captain in the Morisco Revolt, pursued higher education, and ultimately gained recognition as a writer.

Garcilasso's writing in the 1580s marked a turning point, as he embraced his Inca heritage and adopted the name "El Inca" to signify his dual cultural identity.

The Hospital de Naturales, later known as Iglesia de San Pedro, was a significant institution during the Spanish colonial period, reflecting the complex relationship between the Spanish and the Indigenous populations of Peru.

The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) signed by Portugal and Spain, granted Spain vast territories in the New World, including Peru. It included the 'Christianization Clause', a major aspect of Spanish colonial policy, emphasizing conversion to Christianity.

The Inca Empire exhibited strong central governance with a well-developed bureaucratic system and a sophisticated taxation system.

The Inca Empire was embroiled in a civil war between Athualpa and Huascar, two rivals vying for control. This conflict, occurring in the 1520s, weakened the empire and paved the way for the Spanish conquest.

The Spanish conquest was driven by individuals like Hernan Cortes (Mexico) and Francisco Pizarro (Peru), who were driven by a desire for wealth and power, often exploiting the Indigenous populations.

The 'Requerimiento' was a document issued by the Spanish Crown in 1513, stating that Indigenous populations had to recognize the King of Spain's sovereignty and convert to Christianity, or face war. This document justified the Spanish conquest and subjugation of Indigenous peoples.

A philosophical concept put forward by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, suggesting that individuals surrender some of their freedoms in exchange for the benefits of a society governed by the "general will." This "general will" represents the collective good, and the social contract ensures order and stability.

A concept referring to rulers who adopt Enlightenment principles (e.g., reason, progress, tolerance) to govern their states in a more humane and enlightened manner. While monarchs still held absolute power, they aimed to improve the lives of their subjects through reforms and modernization.

Term coined by Diderot to describe monarchs who embraced Enlightenment ideas, promoting science, education, and cultural progress.

The belief that human beings are inherently selfish and driven by personal desires. This view holds that without societal constraints, individuals would engage in constant conflict and violence. This is a core element of Rousseau's philosophy.

A concept developed by Rousseau that describes individuals' natural state before the formation of societies and governments. In this state, people lived in harmony with nature, free from the rules and constraints of civilization.

A process that involves pooling together individual wills to form a collective will that represents the good of the entire society. This general will serves as the basis for legitimate governance in Rousseau's philosophy.

The belief that individuals possess inherent rights that are not dependent on government or other external entities. This concept played an important role in the Enlightenment and influenced revolutionary movements.

Rousseau's view that even with a negative view of human nature, humanity can still be saved and uplifted through the collective power of the general will, driving change and promoting progress.