Ethics Lessons 1-5 PDF

ETHICS LESSON 1: Course Orientation and The Importance of Rules ABSTRACTION 1. Rules are important to social beings. Just imagine the chaos that results from the absence of rules. 2. Rules are meant to set order. Rules are meant for man. For the sake of order in society,...

ETHICS LESSON 1: Course Orientation and The Importance of Rules ABSTRACTION 1. Rules are important to social beings. Just imagine the chaos that results from the absence of rules. 2. Rules are meant to set order. Rules are meant for man. For the sake of order in society, everyone is subject to rules. 3. Rules are not meant to restrict your freedom. They are meant to help you grow in freedom, to grow in your ability to choose and do what is good for you and for others. 4. If you are a rule or a law-abiding citizen, you don’t even feel the restricting presence of a rule or law because you do what the law or what the rule states everybody should do. This is the state when one acts not because rules demand it but because one sees he has to act that way. It is like saying one no longer needs the rule or law because one has become mature and wise enough to discern what ought to be done. This is an ideal state which the ancient Chinse sages (Confucious, Lao Tzu) referred to as state of no-more rules, no- more laws, because people discern what is right or good and do what is right or good without thinking or a rule or law; people are no longer in need of a government because they govern themselves. It is a state where one owns the moral standard not just abide by the moral standard. LESSON 2: Moral and Non-Moral Standards ABSTRACTION The term “ethics” comes from the Greek word “ethos” meaning “custom” used in the works of Aristotle, while the term “moral” is the Latin equivalent. Based on the Greek and Latin etymology of the word “ethics”, ethics deals with morality. Ethics or moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy which deals with moral standards, inquires about the rightness or wrongness of human behavior or the goodness or badness of personality, trait or character. It deals with ideas, with topics such as moral standards or norms of morality, conscience, moral values and virtues. Ethics is a study of the morality of human acts and moral agents, what makes an obligatory and what makes a person accountable. “Moral” is the adjective describing a human act as either ethically right or wrong, or qualifying a person, personality character, as either ethically good or bad. Moral Standards or Moral Frameworks and Non-Moral Standards Moral standards are norms or prescriptions that serve as the frameworks for determining what ought to be done or what is right or wrong action, what is good or bad character. The following can be classified as moral standards: Do not lie. Don’t steal. Don’t cheat others. Don’t kill. Moral standards are either consequences standards or non-consequence standards. The consequence standards depend on results, outcome. An act that results in the general welfare, in the greatest good of the greatest number. is moral. To take part in a project that results in the improvement of the majority of people is, therefore, moral. The non-consequence standards are based on the natural law. Natural law is the law of God revealed through human reason. It is the "law of God written in the hearts of men." To preserve human life is in accordance with the natural law, therefore it is moral. Likewise, the non- consequence standard may also be based on good will or intention, and on a sense of duty. Respect for humanity, treatment of the other as a human person, an act that is moral, springs from a sense of duty, a sense of duty that you wish will apply to all human persons. On the other hand, non-moral standards are social rules, demands of etiquette and good manners. They are guides of action which should be followed as expected by society. Sometimes they may not be followed or some people may not follow them. From time to time, changes are made regarding good manners or etiquette. In sociology, non-moral standards or rules are called folkways. In short, non-moral actions are those where moral categories cannot be applied. Examples of non-moral standards are rules of good manners and right conduct, etiquette, rules of behavior set by parents, teachers, and standards of grammar or language, standards of art, standards of sports set by other authorities. Examples are "do not eat with your mouth open;" "observe rules of grammar," and "do not wear socks that don't match." The following standards are non-moral. No talking while your mouth is full. Wear black or white for mourning, never red. The males should be the one to propose marriage not females. Observe correct grammar when writing and speaking English. Submit school requirements on time. If you are a male, stay by the danger side (roadside) when walking with a female. Go with the fashion or you are not "in." When you speak pronounce words correctly. Focus the microscope properly. Maintain a good body figure. An indicator whether or not a standard is moral or non-moral lies in its compliance as distinguished from its non-compliance. Non-compliance with moral standards causes a sense of guilt, while noncompliance with a non-moral standard may only cause shame or embarrassment. CLASSIFICATION OF THE THEORIES OF MORAL STANDARDS Garner and Rosen (1967) classified the various moral standards formulated by moral philosophers as follows: 1. Consequence standard (teleological, from tele which means end, result, or consequence) states that ac act is right or wrong depending on the consequences of the act, that is, the good that is produced in the world. 2. Not-only-consequence standard (deontological), holds that the rightness or wrongness of an action or rule depends on sense of duty, natural law, virtue and the demand of the situation or circumstances of that action or following that rule. Natural law and virtue ethics are deontological moral standards because their basis for determining what is right or wrong does not depend on consequences but on the natural law and virtue. Situation ethics, too, is deontological because the rightness or wrongness of an act depends on situation and circumstances requiring demanding exception to rule. What Makes Standards Moral? The question means what obliges us to follow a moral standard? For theists, God is the ultimate source of what is moral revealed to human persons. For non-theists, God is not the source of morality. Moral standards are based on the wisdom of sages like Confucius or philosophers like Immanuel Kant. The Origin of Moral Standards: Theist and Non-Theist The theistic line of thought states moral standards is of divine origin while 20 th century thinkers claim state that they simply evolved. With the Divine source concept, moral standards are derived from natural law, man’s participation in the Divine law. The moral principle, “Do good and avoid evil” is an expression of natural law. Man’s obliging himself to respect the life, liberty, and property of his fellowman arises from the God=given sacredness, spirituality, and dignity of his fellow man. It arises from his faith, hope, and love of God and man. With the evolutionary concept, the basics of moral standards – do good, avoid evil – have been observed among primates and must have evolved as the process of evolution followed its course.  LESSON 3: Moral Dilemmas ABSTRACTION Meaning of Moral Dilemma Moral dilemmas are situations where two or more moral values or duties make demands on the decision-maker, who can only honor one of them, and thus will violate at least one important moral concern, no matter what he or she decides to do. Moral dilemmas present situations where there is tension between moral values and duties that are more or less on equal footing. The decision-maker has to choose between a wrong and another wrong. The decision maker in a deadlock. Meaning of a False Dilemma A false dilemma is a situation where the decision-maker has a moral duty to do one thing, but is tempted or under pressure to do something else. A false dilemma is a choice between a right and a wrong. What to Do When Faced with a Moral Dilemma Ultimately, dilemmas are conflicts in the application of moral standards. The question is which moral standards must be followed? In a state of emergency, necessity demands no moral law. You have to decide based on your judgment or choose based on the principle of lesser evil or greater good or urgency. A. Divergent Roads Do the divergent roads tell what a moral dilemma is? Explain your answer. LESSON 4: The Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas ABSTRACTION A. Individual. This refers to personal dilemmas. It is an individual’s damn-if-you-do-and- damn-if-you-don’t situation. B. Organizational. An organizational dilemma is a puzzle posed by the dual necessities of a social organization and members’ self-interest. It may exist between personal interests and organizational welfare or between group interests and organizational well-being… (Wagner, J. 2019) C. Structural. A structural dilemma is a conflict of perspective of sectors, groups and institutions that may be affected by the decision. Gap Versus Overlap There may be gaps and overlaps in roles and responsibilities. If key responsibilities are not clearly assigned, there may be gaps or overlaps in important tasks. If there are gaps, organizations end up with no one doing the responsibility. If there are overlaps, things become unclear and may lead to more confusion and even conflict and worse wasted effort and perhaps even resources because of the unintended overlap. Lack of Clarity Versus Lack of Creativity If employees are unclear about what they are supposed to do, they often tailored their roles around personal preferences instead of system wide goals, frequently leading to trouble. Flexibility versus Strict Adherence to Rules  You accommodate by bending rules to help someone or you stick strictly to rules no matter what and so unable to help someone who is thrown into a helpless situation. Or you may become being too accommodating that all rules are no more. Your jobs are defined so clearly that you will stick to them even if circumstances are such that by sticking to your job description the service or product that your organization provide suffers. Excessive Autonomy Versus Excessive Interdependence This refers to being too isolated versus too much coordination. When individuals or groups are too autonomous, people often feel isolated and disconnected. If units and roles are too tightly linked, people are distracted from work and waste time on unnecessary or too much coordination. Centralized versus Decentralized Decision Making In decentralized decision-making organizations can respond to change more rapidly and effectively because the decision makers are the people closest to the situation. However, top managers may lose some control. This is the dilemma of tight over centralization or diffusing authority which is loose. Resolving Moral Dilemmas The following offer some techniques in resolving moral dilemma: 1. Think of available alternative options revealing that the dilemma does not really exist. 2. Another way is “choosing the greater good and lesser evil” or…,” Or one may apply the situation ethics approach, following the rule, one must do only what he can where he is. Do not resort to extraordinary or supernatural means. LESSON 5: Freedom as Foundation for Moral Acts ABSTRACTION Ethics Applies Only to Human Person The Song, My Way/Born This Way, implies choice freedom “I did it my way”. Unlike the lower forms of animals, human persons have a choice or freedom, hence morality applies only to human persons. We cannot say a cat is unethical when it eats the food at table intended for you or when a dog urinates on your favorite bag laying on the floor. Freedom and Moral Choice Without freedom it is impossible to make a moral choice.” If we are to have free will we must have the ability to make a decision that is unhindered. Kant believe that we must have free will if we are to be held morally responsible for our actions. If God did not give us free will then our decisions cannot be considered immoral or moral as we would have had to act in the way, we did. Thus, we cannot be held responsible; a good moral action cannot be praised as you have no other option, whilst an immoral action cannot be punished as once again there was no free choice. Because a human person has freedom, he/she has choice and so is responsible for the consequences of his/her choice. The lower forms of animals have no choice since they are bound by instinct and so cannot be held responsible for their behavior. To be Ethical: Own Not Merely Abide by Moral Standards Having free will or freedom to choose among alternatives, which implies prior analysis and study, is coming to terms with what you finally affirm or deny. When you arrive at a personal conviction and self-affirmation, you begin to own the moral standard. The moral standard begins to be integrated, internalized. You follow the norm not because it is imposed by others, not because others say so or authoritatively impose it on you. On the other hand, merely abiding by moral standards means applying them as basis to resolve a moral problem without necessarily having internalized them. Merely abiding by them means once the enforced is not around, the moral standard is not followed. Or if you do not own or internalize the standard, you will tend to use it for convenience, to evade a responsibility, to put the blame on the standard itself when things do not end well. You simply become legalistic, and adopt the maxims, “follow the rule or law, even if the sky falls down”; “the law says so”; the law is hard, but it is the law (dura lex sed lex). You followed the law because others, authorities, regulators say so; not because you say so. Owning moral standards means internalizing them, making them part of your conviction. Internalized or embodied moral standards are being followed with or without anyone telling you.