ETHICS M1_L1.pdf

1 Module 1 – Understanding Morality and Moral Standards 2 Module 1 – Understanding Morality and Moral Standards The College of Teacher Education: At the end of the program, the graduates should be able to: a. Explain the English language system, history and development comprehensively; b. Communicate effectively, fluently and creatively using the English language in any cultural and social setting; c. Facilitate learning of the English language; d. Work efficiently in any setting across the globe; e. Display proficiency in job placement interviews; f. Participate in discussion with various language systems; and g. Produce well-written texts for research, academic and professional purposes. Ethics This course provides students with a foundational understanding of moral principles and the philosophical underpinnings of ethical behavior. Through a combination of theoretical exploration and practical application, students will examine key ethical concepts, analyze complex moral dilemmas, and develop a framework for making thoughtful and principled decisions in both personal and professional contexts. At the end of this course, you should be able to:  develop the ability to critically analyze and evaluate various ethical theories and moral principles, applying them to real-world situations to make informed and reasoned ethical decisions:  apply different ethical framework and ethical concepts to diverse scenarios in personal, professional, and societal contexts; and  cultivate a sense of ethical leadership and social responsibility, recognizing the impact of ethical behavior on individuals, organizations, and society, and demonstrating the ability to act with integrity and accountability in their professional and personal lives. 3 Module 1 – Understanding Morality and Moral Standards Module 1: Understanding Morality and Moral Standards Morality is a fundamental aspect of human life, shaping our interactions and guiding our decisions. This module, "Understanding Morality and Moral Standards," delves into the core principles of moral philosophy, examining the nature of moral standards and their significance in our daily lives. Through this module, students will explore the importance of rules, distinguish between moral and non-moral standards, and navigate moral dilemmas. By engaging with these concepts, students will develop a nuanced understanding of morality and its application in various contexts. The following are the content of this module: Lesson 1: The Importance of Rules, Moral & Non-Moral Standards, and Moral Dilemmas Lesson 2: Culture and Freedom as the Foundations of Moral Acts Lesson 3: The Filipino Character and Universal Values MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES In this module, you should be able to: 1. articulate what is expected of them throughout the course, including key assignments, participation requirements, and evaluation criteria; 2. explain why rules are crucial in various contexts, including personal, social, and professional settings, and how they contribute to orderly and ethical behavior; 3. differentiate between moral standards, which pertain to ethical judgments about right and wrong, and non-moral standards, which relate to other forms of norms or criteria; 4. describe what constitutes a moral dilemma and understand it as a significant moral experience involving conflicting ethical principles or values; 5. distinguish between a genuine moral dilemma, which involves a conflict between moral values, and a false dilemma, which is a misleading or oversimplified choice that does not accurately reflect the complexity of moral issues; and 6. illustrate and provide examples of the three levels of moral dilemmas, which may include personal, interpersonal, and societal dimensions, and explain their implications for ethical decision-making. 4 Module 1 – Understanding Morality and Moral Standards Lesson 1: The Importance of Rules, Moral & Non-Moral Standards, and Moral Dilemmas In this lesson you should be able to: 1. to state what are expected of you in the course; 2. to explain the importance of rules; 3. distinguish between moral and non-moral standards; 4. explain moral dilemma as a moral dilemma as a moral experience; 5. distinguish between a moral dilemma and a false dilemma; and 6. illustrate the three levels of moral dilemmas. Moral & Non- Moral Rules Moral Dilemmas Standards This map shows the relationship of mankind’s rules, dilemma, and standards 5 Module 1 – Understanding Morality and Moral Standards CORE CONTENTS ENGAGE: What I Already Know Activity 1: Engaging into What I Know Instruction: Concisely answer the following questions below. 1. What do you understand about rules? ______________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ 2. What common rules you personally like to follow? Why? ______________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ 3. Do you think those rules are or can be the standard rules? Explain briefly. ______________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ EXPLORE: Playing the Concept Activity 2: Discovering Rules Instruction: Read and comprehend the texts and contexts presented below, space is provided for taking down notes. The Importance of Rules Rules are important to social beings. Just imagine the chaos that results from the absence of rules. What happens when students and professors alike come to school in any attire they want? Imagine what happens when in the classroom everyone wants to talk at the same time. Let's go out of the classroom for more examples. What if there were no traffic rules? Rules can be expanded to include the Philippine Constitution and other laws. What if there were no Constitution and other laws of the land? Rules are meant to set order. Rules (the Philippine Constitution and other laws included) are meant for man. The greatest Teacher, Jesus Christ, preached emphatically, "The Sabbath is made for man and not man for the Sabbath". The law of the Sabbath, i.e. to keep it holy and observe rest, is meant to make man whole by resting and by giving him time to thank and spend time in prayer and worship for his own good. For the sake of order in society, everyone is subject to rules. In a democratic country like the Philippines, we often hear the statement "No one is above the law," including the highest official of the country. We are all subject to rules or else court chaos. 6 Module 1 – Understanding Morality and Moral Standards Rules are not meant to restrict your freedom. They are meant to help you grow in freedom, to grow in your ability to choose and do what is good for you and for others. If there are rules or laws that restrict your ability or strength to do good, they are suffocating laws and they are not good laws. They ought to be abolished. Any rule or law that prevents human persons from doing and being good ought to be repealed. They have no reasons to exist. In fact, if you are a rule or a law-abiding citizen, you don't even feel the restricting presence of a rule or law because you do what the law or what the rule states everybody should do. Looking from a higher point of view, this is the state when one acts not because rules demand it but because one sees he has to act that way. It is like saying one no longer needs the rule or law because one has become mature and wise enough to discern what ought to be done. This is an ideal state which the ancient Chinese sages (Confucius, Lao Tzu) referred to as state of no-more rules, no-more laws, because people discern what is right or good and do what is right or good without thinking or a rule or law; people are no longer in need of a government because they can govern themselves. It is a state where one owns the moral standard not just abide by the moral standard. Etymology and Meaning of Ethics The term "ethics" comes from the Greek word "ethos" meaning "custom" used in the works of Aristotle, while the term "moral" is the Latin equivalent. Based on the Greek and Latin etymology of the word "ethics", ethics deals with morality. When the Roman orator Cicero exclaimed, "O tempora o mores" (Cicero, 1856) (Oh, what time and what morals), he may have been trying to express dismay of the morality of his time. Ethics or moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy which deals with moral standards, inquiries about the rightness or wrongness of human behavior or the goodness or badness of personality, trait or character. It deals with ideas, with topics such as moral standards or norms of morality. conscience, moral values and virtues. Ethics is a study of the morality of human acts and moral agents, what makes an act obligatory and what makes a person accountable. "Moral" is the adjective describing a human act as either ethically right or wrong, or qualifying a person, personality, character, as either ethically good or bad. Moral Standards or Moral Frameworks and Non-Moral Standards Since ethics is a study of moral standards, then the first question for the course is, what are moral standards. The following are supposed to be examples of moral standards: "Stealing is wrong." "Killing is wrong." "Telling lies is wrong." "Adultery is wrong." "Environment preservation is the right thing to do". "Freedom with responsibility is the right way." "Giving what is due to others is justice". Hence, moral standards are norms or prescriptions that serve as the frameworks for determining what ought to be done or what is right or wrong action, what is good or bad character. In the Activity phase of this Lesson the following can be classified as moral standards:  Do not lie.  Don't steal.  Don't cheat others.  Don't kill. 7 Module 1 – Understanding Morality and Moral Standards Moral standards are either consequences standards (like Stuart Mill's utilitarianism) or non- consequence standards (like Aristole's virtue, St. Thomas natural law, or Immanuel Kant' good will or sense of duty). The consequence standards depend on results, outcome. An act that results in the general welfare, in the greatest good of the greatest number, is moral. To take part in a project that results in the improvement of the majority of people is, therefore, moral. The non-consequence standards are based on the natural law. Natural law is the law of God revealed through human reason. It is the "law of God written in the hearts of men." To preserve human life is in accordance with the natural law, therefore it is moral. Likewise, the non-consequence standard may also be based on good will or intention, and on a sense of duty. Respect for humanity, treatment of the other as a human person, an act that is moral, springs from a sense of duty, a sense of duty that you wish will apply to all human persons. On the other hand, non-moral standards are social rules, demands of etiquette and good manners. They are guides of action which should be followed as expected by society. Sometimes they may not be followed or some people may not follow them. From time to time, changes are made regarding good manners or etiquette. In sociology, non-moral standards or rules are called folkways. In short, non-moral actions are those where moral categories cannot be applied. Examples of non-moral standards are rules of good manners and right conduct, etiquette, rules of behavior set by parents, teachers, and standards of grammar or language, standards of art, standards of sports set by other authorities. Examples are "do not eat with your mouth open;" "observe rules of grammar," and "do not wear socks that don't match."  In the Activity phase of this Lesson, the following are non-moral standards:  No talking while your mouth is full.  Wear black or white for mourning; never red.  The males should be the one to propose marriage not females.  Observe correct grammar when writing and speaking English.  Submit school requirements on time.  If you are a male, stay by the danger side (roadside) when walking with a female.  Go with the fashion or you are not "in."  When you speak pronounce words correctly.  Focus the microscope properly,  Maintain a good body figure. An indicator whether or not a standard is moral or non-moral lies in it compliance as distinguished from its non-compliance. Non-compliance with moral standards causes a sense of guilt, while non-compliance with a non-moral standard may only cause shame or embarrassment. Classification of the Theories of Moral Standards 8 Module 1 – Understanding Morality and Moral Standards Garner and Rosen (1967) classified the various moral standards formulated by moral philosophers as follows: 1) Consequence (teleological, from tele which means end, result, or consequence) standard states that an act is right or wrong depending on the consequences of the act, that is, the good that is produced in the world. Will it do you good if you go to school? If the answer is right, because you learn how to read and write, then going to school is right. The consequence standard can also be a basis for determining whether or not a rule is a right rule. So the consequence standard states that the rightness or wrongness of a rule depends on the consequences or the good that is produced in following the rule. For instance, if everyone follows the rule of a game, everyone will enjoy playing the game. This good consequence proves the rule must be a correct rule. 2) Not-only-consequence standard (deontological), holds that the rightness or wrongness of an action or rule depends on sense of duty, natural law, virtue and the demand of the situation or circumstances. The rightness or wrongness of an action does not only depend or rely on the consequence of that action or following that rule. Natural law and virtue ethics are deontological moral standards because their basis for determining what is right or wrong does not depend on consequences but on the natural law and virtue. Situation ethics, too, is deontological because the rightness or wrongness of an act depends on situation and circumstances requiring or demanding exception to rule. Rosen and Garner are inclined to consider deontology, be it rule or act deontology, as the better moral standard because it synthesizes or includes all the other theory of norms. Under this theory, the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on (or is a function of) all the following: a) consequences of an action or rule, what promotes one's greatest good, or the greatest good of the greatest number; b) consideration other than consequences, like the obligatoriness or the act based on natural law, or its being one's duty, or its promoting an ideal virtue. Deontology also considers the object, purpose, and circumstances or situation of the moral issue or dilemma. What Makes Standards Moral? The question means what obliges us to follow a moral standard? For theists, believers in God's existence, moral standards are commandments of God revealed to man through prophets. According to the Old Testament, the Tên Commandments were revealed by God to Moses. One who believes in God vows to Him and obliges himself/herself to follow His Ten Commandments. For theists, God is the ultimate source of what is moral revealed to human persons. How about non-theists? For non-theists, God is not the source of morality. Moral standards are based on the wisdom of sages like Confucius or philosophers like Immanuel Kant. In China, B. C., Confucius taught the moral standard, "Do unto others what you like others to do unto you" and persuaded people to follow this rule because it is the right way, the gentleman's way. Later, Immanuel Kant, the German philosopher, formulated a criterion for determining what makes a moral standard moral. It is stated as follows: "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law." (1993) In other words, if a maxim or standard cannot pass this test, it cannot be a moral standard. For instance, does the maxim "Stealing is wrong" pass this test? Can one will that this maxim be a universal maxim? The answer is in the affirmative. The opposite of the maxim would not be acceptable. Moral standards are standards that we want to be followed by all, otherwise, one would be wishing one's own 9 Module 1 – Understanding Morality and Moral Standards ill fortune. Can you wish "do not kill" to be a universal maxim? The answer has to be yes because if you say "no" then you are not objecting to someone killing you. Thus, the universal necessity of the maxim, what makes it a categorical imperative is what makes it obligatory. "Stealing is wrong" means "one ought not steal" and "Do not kill" means "one ought not kill." It is one's obligation not to steal or kill. Ultimately, the obligation arises from the need of self-preservation. The Origin of Moral Standards: Theist and Non-Theist Related to the question on what makes moral standards moral is how do moral standards arise or come into existence? A lot of new attempts to explain the origins of morality or moral standards have been made. The theistic line of thought states moral standards are of divine origin while 20th century thinkers claim state that they simply evolved. The issue is: Are moral standards derived from God, communicated to man through signs or revelation, or did they arise in the course of man's evolution? With the Divine source concept, moral standards are derived from natural law, man's "participation" in the Divine law. The moral principle, "Do good and avoid evil" is an expression of natural law. Man's obliging himself to respect the life, liberty, and property of his fellowman arises from the God-given sacredness, spirituality, and dignity of his fellow man. It arises from his faith, hope, and love of God and man. With the evolutionary concept, the basics of moral standards - do good, avoid evil have been observed among primates and must have evolved as the process of evolution followed its course. Are these theist and non-theist (evolutionary) origin of moral standards reconcilable? The evolutionist claims that altruism, a sense of morality, can be observed from man's fellow primates- the apes and monkeys and, therefore, it can be said that the altruism of human persons evolved from the primates. However, the evolutionist cannot satisfactorily argue, with factual evidence, that the rudiments of moral standards can be observed from the primates. Neither can it be scientifically established that the theist view, that man's obliging himself to avoid evil, refrain from inflicting harm on his fellowman, is a moral principle implanted by God in the hearts of men. But the concept of creation and evolution are not necessarily contradictory. The revelation of the norms of Divine origin could not have been instant, like a happening "in one fell swoop." It could have happened gradually as man evolved to differ from the other primates. As the evolutionists claim, creation may be conceived as a process of evolution. Hence, the biblical story of creation could have happened in billions of years instead of six days. Meaning of Moral Dilemma A moral dilemma is a problem in the decision-making between two possible options, neither of which is absolutely acceptable from an ethical perspective. It is also referred to as ethical dilemma. The Oxford Dictionary defines ethical dilemma as a "decision-making problem between two possible moral imperatives, neither of which is unambiguously acceptable or preferable. It is sometimes called an ethical paradox in moral philosophy." (Oxford Dictionary) Based on these definitions, moral dilemmas have the following in common: 1) "the agent is required to do each of two (or more) actions which are morally unacceptable; 2) the agent can do each of the actions; 3) 10 Module 1 – Understanding Morality and Moral Standards but the agent cannot do both (or all) of the actions. The agent thus seems condemned to moral failure; no matter what she does, she will do something wrong (or fail to do something that she ought to do). This means that moral dilemmas are situations where two or more moral values or duties make demands on the decision-maker, who can only honor one of them, and thus will violate at least one important moral concern, no matter what he or she decides to do. Moral dilemmas present situations where there is tension between moral values and duties that are more or less on equal footing. The decision-maker has to choose between a wrong and another wrong. The decision-maker is a deadlock. In the case of The Pregnant Lady and the Dynamite, there were two options use the dynamite and kill the pregnant woman but save the other 5 or don't use the dynamite and all the 5 will get drowned except the pregnant woman whose head is out. To have a genuine dilemma, one of the conflicting solutions should not override the other. For instance, "... the requirement to protect others from serious harm overrides the requirement to repay one's debts by returning a borrowed item when its owner so demands." Hence,... "in addition to the features mentioned above, in order to have a genuine moral dilemma it must also be true that neither of the conflicting requirements is overridden" (McConnell, T. 2019). This means that none of the conflicting requirements is solved by the other. The persons involved in the dilemma are in a deadlock. They find themselves in a "damn-if-you-do and damn- if-you-don't" situation. Another example of a moral dilemma is the story from the Bible about King Herod. On his birthday, his stepdaughter, Salome danced so well in front of him and the guests at his party that he promised to give her anything she wanted. Salome consulted her mother about what she should wish for, and decided to ask for the head of John the Baptist on a platter. The king now had a choice between honoring the promise to his stepdaughter, or honoring the life of John the Baptist. And Herod chose to have John the Baptist beheaded. The king had inadvertently designed a moral trap for himself, a dilemma where whatever he decided to do would be morally wrong. Meaning of a False Dilemma On the other hand, a false dilemma is a situation where the decision- maker has a moral duty to do one thing, but is tempted or under pressure to do something else. A false dilemma is a choice between a right and a wrong. For example, a lawyer or an accountant can face an opportunity to prioritize self-interest over the client's interest. What to Do When Faced with a Moral Dilemma Ultimately, dilemmas are conflicts in the application of moral standards. The question is which moral standards must be followed? In a state of emergency, necessity demands no moral law. You have to decide based on your best judgment or choose based on the principle of lesser evil or greater good or urgency. There are 24 moral dilemmas listed by Pixi's blog. Refer to 25 Moral Dilemmas, Pixi's Blog (retrieved/http://psychopixi.com/author/pixil) 11 Module 1 – Understanding Morality and Moral Standards The Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas A. Individual This refers to personal dilemmas. It is an individual's damn-if-you-do-and-damn-if-you-don't situation. The case of Heinz as given in the Activity phase of the lesson is one of the best known individual dilemmas of Kohlberg's (1958). Kohlberg's dilemma questions were as follows: "Should Heinz have stolen the drug." (Mackinnon, B., etal 2015) If he did not steal the drug that would mean his wife's death. He was torn between stealing the drug and saving his wife. The dilemma is faced by an individual who is torn between 2 obligations to save the wife or obey the law. So this an example of an individual dilemma. B. Organizational An organizational dilemma is a puzzle posed by the dual necessities of a social organization and members' self-interest. It may exist between personal interests and organizational welfare or between group interests and organizational well-being... (Wagner, J. 2019) The example of the Catholic school in the Activity phase of the lesson shows the dilemma between the goal of the school to give quality education for the poor and so must charge the lowest tuition fee possible and yet to keep quality faculty the school must raise their salary and consequently, must raise tuition. Organizational dilemmas may likewise occur in business, medical, and public sector. The following hypothetical case highlights the story of Mr. Brown, a 74-year old man who is seriously ill of metastatic lung cancer. Mr. Brown completed a full course of radiation therapy as well as chemotherapy for treatment of his cancer, and he is now hospitalized with severe shortness of breath and pneumonia. His physician has managed the symptoms associated with the lung disease, including chest pain, fever, infection, and respiratory distress, but believes that there are no other options available to aggressively treat the underlying cancer.... Both Mr. Brown and his wife clearly state that they 'want everything done.'.... The dilemma here lies in the conflicting concerns: a) the financial problems of Mr. Brown and his wife, b) the hospital concern of focusing its attention on this hopeless patient when there are other cases which have still possible remedies, c) the other hospital patient's concern, particularly their need of the medicine used by Mr. Brown, c) the concern of the medical staff, et al. Organizational dilemmas arise due to different opposing concerns between various groupings in an organization. C. Structural The case of the principal whether to be participatory or non- participatory in school affairs but due to her not so favorable experience of attempting to be participatory ended up to one-woman rule is an example of a structural dilemma. 12 Module 1 – Understanding Morality and Moral Standards Below are more examples of structural dilemma.  Differentiation Versus Integration in Structural Dilemma Different divisions have their own different culture and so coordination between divisions or bringing them together for becomes more difficult. With decentralization, local governments have become more empowered to direct their affairs just as schools have become empowered to address their problems or are given opportunity to localize the given curriculum. In effect, local governments and schools have likewise become more differentiated and so it becomes more difficult to integrate them for a unified structure. Local governance and schools’ curricula have become more complex. There is need for costlier coordination strategies. Any attempt to introduce reform in society or government creates structural dilemma. For instance, promoting or introducing universal health care, which is tantamount to socialized health care, gives rise to a structural dilemma, that is, a conflict of perspective of sectors, groups and institutions that may be affected by the decision. Why would those who contribute less to the social fund enjoy the same benefits as those who contributed big amounts of premium? In a study on the prices of medicines in the Philippines, it was established that "patients are buying medicines from the private sector at many times their international reference price" (Ateneo de Manila University 2019). If the government intervenes by introducing price control, the drug stores may lose so much that they may close shop. If the government does not do anything at all, the patients will continue to suffer because they may not be able to afford the high prices of medicines.  Gap Versus Overlap There may be gaps and overlaps in roles and responsibilities, If key responsibilities are not clearly assigned, there may be gaps or overlaps in important tasks. If there are gaps, organizations end up with no one doing the responsibility. If there are overlaps, things become unclear and may lead to more confusion and even conflict and worse wasted effort and perhaps even resources because of the unintended overlap. Here is an example. A patient in a teaching hospital called her husband to report how disturbed she is and how sleepless she was during the night. At night, she couldn't sleep because hospital staff kept waking her up, often to repeat what someone else had already done. This is an overlap of nurse duty. Conversely, when she wanted something, her call button rarely produced any response. This is a gap. There is a gap as to who according to rule is supposed to respond to the buzzer. (www.humancapitalreview.org/content/default.asp?Article_ ID528# To illustrate further the consequence of gap and overlap, here is a story to show what happens when there is a gap or overlap. A boy wanted his pants shorter. So he went to his mother to ask him to shorten it. His mother was busy computing grades and told her son to ask his sister to do it. His sister was busy reviewing for the final exams and asked her brother to ask their elder brother to do it. But his older brother was also busy with his school project and so could not also attend to it. The boy highly frustrated went to sleep. His pants were beside him. After finishing her grades, Mother peeped into her son's room, saw the pants and remembered her son's request. So she took a pair of scissors and shortened them. Before she went to bed, the sister also remembered her brother's request. Full of remorse she went to her younger brother's room, saw the pants, got a pair of scissors and shortened them, too. The older brother finally completed his school project and suddenly 13 Module 1 – Understanding Morality and Moral Standards remembered his brother's asking for help to shorten the pants. So he went to his younger brother's room, got a pair of scissors and cut them, too. When the younger brother woke up, he was surprised to see a pair of extremely short shorts. The pants which he wanted to make just a little bit shorter ended up too short to him! That is what happens when there are gaps or overlaps in an organization. The gaps leave an important thing in an organization undone. The overlap results in unnecessary and counterproductive, redundant procedures which ultimately lead to waste of resources.  Lack of Clarity Versus Lack of Creativity. If employees are unclear about what they are supposed to do, they often tailor their roles around personal preferences instead of system wide goals, frequently leading to trouble. Most McDonald's customers are not seeking novelty and surprise in their burgers and fries. But when responsibilities are over defined, people conform to prescribed roles and protocols in "bureaucratic" ways. They rigidly follow job descriptions regardless of how much the service or product suffers and so end up uncreative. "You lost my bag!" an angry passenger shouted, confronting an airline manager. The manager's response was to inquire, "How was the flight?" "I asked about my bag," the passenger said. "That's not my job," the manager replied. "See someone in baggage claim." The passenger did not leave as a happy airline customer. www. humancapitalreview.org/content/default.asp?Article_ID528# The job of the manager was overdefined and made the manager uncreative and inefficient. Her job in relation to the airline system wide goals was neither clear and so ended up giving the wrong answer that turned off the airline passenger.  Flexibility versus Strict Adherence to Rules You accommodate by bending rules to help someone or you stick strictly to rules no matter what and so unable to help someone who is thrown into a helpless situation. Or you may become being too accommodating that all rules are no more. Your jobs are defined so clearly that you will stick to them even if circumstances are such that by sticking to your job description the service or product that your organization provides suffers.  Excessive Autonomy Versus Excessive Interdependence This refers to being too isolated versus too much coordination. To illustrate: When individuals or groups are too autonomous, people often feel isolated and disconnected. School teachers working in self-contained classrooms and rarely working with other teachers may feel lonely and unsupported. Yet, efforts to create closer teamwork have repeatedly failed because of teachers' difficulties in working together. In contrast, if units and roles are too tightly linked, people are distracted from work and waste time on unnecessary or too much coordination. IBM lost an early lead in the personal computer business in part because new initiatives required so many approvals from levels and divisions alike that new products were 14 Module 1 – Understanding Morality and Moral Standards over designed and late to market. Hewlett Packard's ability to innovate in the late 1990's was hindered by the same problem. (www.humancapitalreview.org/content/default. asp?Article_ID528#) Structural dilemma is the dilemma arising from conflicting concerns among various sectors of society. In the first instance of differentiation versus integration, the dilemma is how to enforce a decision, policy, or rule intended for everybody among many different or unique groups or individuals. In the second, the dilemma arises because of either gaps or overlaps in the procedure of implementation of certain projects or policies among involved agencies like the FBI and CIA in the U.S.A. or like the NBI and the INP in the Philippines. GAPS creates serious consequences. Read about the unforgettable Mamasapano massacre in Mindanao, Philippines.  Centralized versus Decentralized Decision Making In decentralized decision making, organizations can respond to change more rapidly and effectively because the decision makers are the people closest to the situation. However, top managers may lose some control. This is the dilemma of tight over-centralization or diffusing authority which is loose. Structural Dilemma in a World Organization Like the UN Succinctly put, a structural dilemma in a world organization like the UN is the problem of the balance between world order and national sovereignty restated as the balance between the measure of international authority essential to the establishment of an organized common peace and the continued freedom of action of the separate members of the world community or the balance between interdependence and independence. (Jenks, 1971) Source: digitalcommons.law.uga.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article-2186&context-giicl Some Structural Dilemmas of World Organization C. Wilfred Jenks** Georgia Journal of International & International & Comparative Law Volume 3 1973 Issue 1 Resolving Moral Dilemmas The following offer some techniques in resolving moral dilemma: One way is to think of available alternative options revealing that the dilemma does not really exist. This happens where there are available alternative options. For instance one is experiencing a dilemma between stealing or not stealing otherwise his family will either die of hunger or survive. The creative moral agent will try to think of other alternatives, like "alternative means of income or support such as social safety net, charity, etc." Another way is "choosing the greater good and lesser evil" or...," Or one may apply the situation ethics approach, following the rule, one must do only what he can where he is. Do not resort to extraordinary or supernatural means. Joseph Fletcher offers some principles in resolving moral dilemma. He uses Kant's "ought implies I can" rule. If I ought to do something, then I can do it. By contraposition, if I cannot do something, then I cannot be obliged to do it. Or by implication, either I cannot be obliged to do something or I can do it. In other words, one is only obliged to do something if and only if he can do it. So Fletcher says, "do what you can where you are." Or quoting St. Augustine's, "Dilige, et quod vis fac" (love and do what you will). The extent of one's 15 Module 1 – Understanding Morality and Moral Standards obligation and responsibility is the extent of one's ability and the measure of the "extent" is one's capacity for love. Here is a situation: You are a father of seven children. On your support, seven children plus your wife depend. You work in the mines and receive only a minimum wage. After working like a "carabao" in the mines, you need to ease your pains with a bottle of gin before you lie down to rest and sleep. You also need to eat food sufficient enough to replace your wasted energy. Hence, you spend for wine, food, and cigarette. Minus these expenses, the balance of your wage is just enough for the food of your children. Nothing is left for their education, and other expenses. Question: Should you be faulted for not being able to sacrifice enough by giving up your needs, so that your dependents can have something left for their education? You love your family, but you have a need you cannot give up. Is your case what Fletcher wants to picture? Your obligation ends where your capacity for love ends. Love is supposed to be unconditional, no limits of sacrifice or boundaries. But your love is human, you are only human. "You can only do what you can where you are:" Others can sacrifice more by giving up their gin and cigarette and eat less expensive food. Yes others can, but can one be faulted for not being like the others, not having the strength to overcome a vice? Can one not argue that the extent of his ability is the limit of his responsibility? On the other hand, can it not be said that resorting to human frailty is just a convenient or comfortable way of justifying one's lack of moral will? That may be easier said than done, although it is possible for one who has virtue as his moral strength. But what can be said of one who has no moral virtue or strength to sacrifice with the discomfort of self-giving? Endless condemnation? That would be un-Christian. Write your notes here: 16 Module 1 – Understanding Morality and Moral Standards In this lesson you have learned that:  rules and Standards are essential guidelines that govern behavior in various contexts, while standards—both moral and non-moral—help shape how we evaluate actions and decisions;  moral standards are principles that dictate what is considered right and wrong based on ethical considerations. They help individuals make decisions that align with societal values and personal integrity;  non-moral include criteria based on practicality or preferences, such as legal rules or personal tastes, which do not necessarily involve moral judgments;  Importance of rules is that it maintains order, provide predictability, and help resolve conflicts by setting clear expectations for behavior; and  moral dilemmas are situations where individuals face conflicts between moral principles, making it challenging to determine the right course of action. Understanding and analyzing moral dilemmas help in developing critical thinking and ethical decision-making skills. Books Barbour, I.G. (1971). Telhard process metaphysics. E. Cousins, Ed. New York: Newman Press. Bentham, J. (1789). An Introduction to the principles of morals and legislation. Dover Publications. Brinkerhoff, D. B. and White L.K. (1989), Essentials of sociology. New York: West Publishing Company Buber, M. (1957). 1 and Thou, R. G. Smith (trans.) New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. Dubain, A. J. (2006). Essentials of management. Thomson: Southwestern. Dy, M. J. (2001). Philosophy of man: Selected readings. Quezon City: Goodwill Trading Co., Inc. Fletcher, J. (1966). Situation ethics. London: SCM Press. Fletcher, J. (1967). Moral responsibility: Situation ethics at work. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. Gadamer, H.G. (1966). Readings in philosophy of man, Vol. II, Ateneo de Manila University, Philosophy Department Garner, R.T. & Rosen, B. (1967). Moral philosophy: A systematic introduction to normative ethics and meta- ethics. New York: MacMillan Publishers. 17 Module 1 – Understanding Morality and Moral Standards George, V. A. (2008). Paths to the divine: Ancient and indian. Washington DC: CRVP Press Gorospe, V. (1974). The Filipino search for meaning: Moral philosophy in Philippine setting. Manila: Jesuit Educational Association Hornedo, F. (1972). The philosophy of freedom. Baguio City: St. Louis University Kay, W. (1970). Moral development: A psychological study of moral growth and development from childhood to adolescence. London: Allen and Unwin Kohlberg, L. (1981). Essays on moral development: The philosophy of moral development. San Francisco, CA: Hargers & Row. Mackinon, B. & Fiala, A. (2015). Ethics theory and contemporary issues. Stanford: Cengage Learning Mercado, L. (1977). Elements of philosophy. Tacloban: Divine Word University Publication. Rae, S., Scott, B and Wong, K. L. (1996). A model for moral decision-making. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Raths, L. Harmin, M & Shore, S. (1978). Values and teaching, Columbia, OH: Merril Sahakian, W. & Sahakian, M. (1990). Realms of philosophy. Schenkman Publishing Co. Sartre, J.P. (2007) Existentialism is humanism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Scholte, J. (2005), Globalization: A critical introduction. 2nd ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan Taliaferro, C. (2009). Philosophy of religion. Minnesota, USA. Oneworld Publications Tillich, P. (1952). The courage to be. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, Van Peurson, C.A. (1972). Phenomenology and analytical philosophy. Pittsburgh, Pa: Duquesno University Press. Yang, S.K. (). Is ethics possible without religion? https://aww.smalaysiakini.com JOURNAL and e-References: Adams, R. (1993). Moral arguments for theistic belief. philosophy.faculty.ucsd.edu/faculty/rameson/courses/adams.phil/reading.pdf. Baverlain, M and Wallish, S. (2009), How the digitalize age stupefies young Americans and jeopardizes our future. Leadership and Management in Engineering, 9(2) Berg, T. (2018) What is moral conscience? Homilectic pastoral. Retrieved from https://www.hprweb.com/2012/01what-is-moral-conscience Brabander, R. (1970), Christianity in the modern world. Sapientia Aedificat. Baguio City: St. Louis University. Corpuz, B. (1986). The Filipino sense of right and wrong. St. Louis University Journal, XVIII (1) 1-18. 18 Module 1 – Understanding Morality and Moral Standards Fernandez, E. (1988). Sin viewed from the perspective of the fundamental option theory and fletcherian situation ethics: Points of convergence and divergence. Saint Louis University Research Journal, XIX (1) Gorospe, Fr. Vitaliano S. The Filipino Norm of Morality, https://www.scribd.com/ document/48553093/THE- FILIPINO-NORM-OF-MORALITY. Retrieved:2018-27-12. Hiebert 1985, 213 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Guilt Shame Fear_spectrum_of_ cultures McConnel, T. (2019). Moral dilemmas (Standford encyclopedia of philosophy) https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-dilemma Purt, J. (2019), Defining moments: Share an experience that has shaped your values. https://www.theguardian.com/profile/jenny-purt Purt, Jenny, "Defining Moments: Share an Experience That Has Shaped Your Values," The Guardian.com. Retrieved. 2019-01-12. Rachela, James. (1990). Created from animals: The moral implications https:// philpapers.org/rec/RACCFA Rae, S. (2009). Moral choices: https://philpapers.org/rec/RAEMCA Rae, Scott, Moral Choices, Making Ethical Decisions. Retrieved 01/31/2019. See also Rac, Scott B., and Kennan L. Wong, "A Model for Moral Decision Making" Chapter 16 in Beyond Integrity: A Judeo-Christian Approach to Business Ethics Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1996. Rashdall, H. Sorley W.R; Tylor, AE. An exposition and critique of the moral argument for the existence of God, https//www.worldcat.org/title/8527704

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