Ethics Reviewer PDF

Chapter 1: What is Ethics? 1.1 Importance of Ethics According to Leano Jr. & Gunta-on 1. people can determine the difference between right What is Ethics?...

Chapter 1: What is Ethics? 1.1 Importance of Ethics According to Leano Jr. & Gunta-on 1. people can determine the difference between right What is Ethics? from wrong, good and bad; The concept is derived from the Greek word 2. people can eliminate actions that do not conform “ethos” which may mean tradition, habit, character, to what is right; or attitude. 3. people will be very careful to the actions and Ethics or moral philosophy can be provisionally decisions to make; described as the empirical study of moral decisions. 4. people will not be disturbed of the internal and It is a discipline concerned with what is morally external factors of not doing the right thing; good and evil, right and wrong. 5. establish good habits of characters of a person; It is a systematic analysis of the nature of human 6. come up to rational decisions in facing an ethical actions. It is concerned about the correctness and dilemma; wrongness of the act. An act is deemed to be right 7. it makes a person responsible in the family, school or wrong, based on the intent, circumstances, or and society; character of the act itself 8. a person becomes sensitive to the needs of others Ethics is divided into 2: Normative and Meta more than himself or herself; and Normative ethics, by definition, examine whether 9. reminds a person to fully need conscience in a particular act should or should not be carried out. decision making and a person can acknowledge the There are two fields of normative ethics: moral actions made philosophy and applied ethics or practical ethics. 1.2 Moral vs Non-Moral Standard a. Moral philosophy deals with moral ideas Countries and nations rich or poor, developed and such as what human beings "must do or how underdeveloped have their own set of laws, policies, human beings should be." This also deals with cultures, traditions, customs, and beliefs. It may be our moral obligation, the meaning of the act, acceptable to other countries but not acceptable to or the purpose of the act. others b. Applied ethics is a philosophy that People need to recognize the difference between discusses strong and basic moral issues linked moral principles and non-moral ones, to define the to abortion. basic ethical values that can direct our actions. Meta-ethics is a discipline that relies on meaning. Moral standards normally promote the , that is, the It is a science that is seeking to address non- moral welfare and well-being of human beings, animals, questions about morality. and the environment. Moral standards are a blending of norms and values. Therefore, norms plus values pertain to moral standards. Norms as standards are ETHICS basic guidelines regarding human acts. GOOD and EVIL/BAD RIGHT and WRONG Characteristics Moral Standards HIGHEST ORDER OF DISCIPLINE 1. Moral standards entail serious harm or benefit. Examples of this are the following: theft, the murde NORMATIVE ETHICS META ETHICS of innocent people, respect others, a feeding program for the poor, etc. Moral Philosophy Meaning 2. Moral standards are not determined by authority Moral Ideas Non-Moral Questions figures. Moral values should always be upheld, eve on Morality though they are at odds with self-interest. Cheating Moral Obligation on examination is an example. It’s not because Questions, students are afraid of the teacher, instructor, or Moral Question Interpretations and professor but the students know that is a wrongful Justifications on act. Applied/Practical Moral Statements 3. Moral standards should be adopted over other Ethics Purpose values, including self-interest. Moral standards Strong and Basic Significance of should always be retained even if they are at stake Moral Issues Moral Facts with self- interest. 4. Moral standards are focused on objective considerations. The basis of considerations and decisions must not be favorable only to a particular person or group. Anyone who commits mistakes an wrongful acts then is punished accordingly. 3. the religious values that our forefathers taught us; 5. Moral standards are perceived to be universal. 4. the values we learned from school; Moral standards believed to be universal as it is 5. the moral conduct, ways and habits of those applicable anywhere and anytime. Telling the truth people around us; is a universal standard. 6. the direct and implied cultural norms; 6. Moral standards are correlated with different 7. our life experiences; and feelings and vocabulary. If anyone doesn't live up 8. our critical thinking in these experiences. to the norm or standards, he will feel guilty, bad, and wrong. The same is true when someone else does not live up to the expectations, norms, and Chapter 2: What are the Moral Dillemas standards, others may feel disgusted at this person. 2.0 Definition of Moral Dilemma A moral dilemma is a situation in which a decision- Non-Moral Standards maker must give preference to one moral principle Non-moral standards, on the contrary, apply to laws over another. Dilemmas occur when, confronted which are not related to social or legal considerations. with a challenging situation, two or more of that Perhaps these criteria are not kind of values disagree with the understanding of the or, by their very definition, decision-maker, or when one assesses the moral Examples of non-moral standards are the following: option of another etiquette a decorum, propriety means reverence for moral dilemma may arise as a result of a prior the formal criteria governing conduct in a civilized personal mistake. It's called a self-inflicted dilemma society. According to Kurie & Albin (2007), a moral statutes is a written law passed by a legislative dilemma is a situation in which people assume that body they should morally do one thing and that they code of professional ethics, a set of guidelines should morally do another thing, and occasionally a intended to help practitioners differentiate between third thing or even a fourth thing, but they're not right and wrong to guide their decision-making. doing any of these mutually contradictory choices together. The ethical dilemma or a moral dilemma as expounded by Figar & Dordevic, (2016) is a situation whereby a person has to make a decision. The definitions characterized moral dilemma or ethical dilemma as: ➤ Making an option to one moral value over the other; Moral and Non-Moral Standards ➤ A situation where moral values are equally Legality and morality are distinct, but often significant; people are confused about these terms. We believe ➤ A scenario where a person has a strong that what is moral is also legal and that what is moral reason in action, but not equally strong immoral is not good. Not all that is lawful is moral reason in acting in another way; moral. ➤ A state where a person should morally do one, two, or more and have difficulty in 1.3 How Moral Standards are Formed deciding any of those conflicting choices. Morals are shaped by the beliefs of an individual. Moral Dilemma Every human being experience struggling to Values are the basis of the capacity of an make a decision especially if there is an urgency to individual to distinguish between right and wrong. make a choice. Morals build on this to form concrete, context- Weighing what is good and moral. driven rules that regulate the actions of an Thinking which is the best between and among individual. choices, and perhaps at stake or in a hot sit when They are formed from the experience of a person's choosing. life and are subject to opinion. The choice may be favorable to some, however, Factors How Moral Standards are Influenced not favorable to others. 1. the moral values or principles that we conform It gets individual stress of judging as to whether with, in our rearing; the decision is good or not in travailing 2. the character and manners that imbibed with us by circumstances. A moral dilemma or ethical means of birthright; dilemma applies to our personal life, in a job, in a profession, education, and some others 2.1 Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas they are expected to do, they often adapt their tasks to personal interests instead of system-wide goals that 1. Organizational Moral Dilemma often lead to problems. Yet when people 's duties are refers to a situation that causes an to over defined, they comply with their positions and negatively or positively to an ethical issue that procedures in a bureaucratic manner. They specifically affects staff, and society, as well as follow job requirements as to how much the service or corporate ethics and customers. product fails. It includes also the leaders' ethical actions in preserving financial reporting integrity. D. Excessive Autonomy vs Excessive Interdependence Unrealistic and conflicting goals. A leader ○ When individuals or groups are too independent, must have realistic and very clear goals so that they are always isolated. On the other hand, if the units his or her subordinates understand what the and responsibilities are too closely connected, people organization is going through, hence, they can are absentminded from work and waste time or work together thoroughly until they reach the excessive coordination. goals of the organization. Example: Unethical leadership/bad leadership behavior. A leader of the organization must act Solutions: with candor, be an example to his subordinates, ✓ Must have well-distributed jobs and the laws, with upright moral values. He or she doesn’t policies, rules, and regulations must be balanced engage in abuse of leadership authority, through lateral approaches. accepting inappropriate gifts and other related ✓ Must have an implicitly defined job description, unethical leadership. roles, and duties to evade from gaps and overlaps. 2. Individual Moral Dilemma ✓ Must have a clear-cut expectation of the tasks in pertains to a situation where individuals a wide range of goals confront with several factors such as peer, ✓ Must have a well-balanced interdependence and personal financial and social status which may coordination. all ethical. due to peer pressure, an individual engages in a certain scenario in which may change their Chapter 3: Freedom as Foundation for behavior and attitude Moral Acts 3. Structural Moral Dilemma 1. Kant’s Philosophy on Freedom The structural moral dilemma is that selecting a Freedom is the right to control one's action based proper system of responsibilities and on reason, not desire. relationships, which is a continuing universal Simplified to the definition of autonomy. The term challenge. Autonomy derives from the Greek term, which A. Differentiation vs Integration translates into self-legislator. ○ The conflict between the distribution of reason should be used to decide how people will jobs and the organization of numerous activities behave generates a classic dilemma. The more the principle, then, is not to live by the animalistic complicated a task structure, the more difficult it rules forced on them from birth, but rather to live is to sustain a centered, tightly coupled by the laws that you enforce on yourself. organization. When complexity grows, the The state can not legally enforce any specific company needs more complicated and expensive definition of happiness on its people. management techniques. Laws, regulations, and libertarian freedom is not absolute, but in fact, it is directives need to be balanced by lateral the subjugation of oneself to one's wish. approaches. There is only one inherent right, "says Kant," freedom (independence from being limited by the B. Gap vs Overlap option of another) to the degree that it can coexist with ○ When the main tasks are not explicitly the freedom of each other following universal law". defined, the critical job will slip through gaps. In Freedom is not the only reason for the ideals that a similar manner, functions and activities can underlies the state. In Theory and Practice, Kant makes overlap, causing conflict, wasting time, and equality the first of three concepts, such as the freedom unintended duplication of responsibilities. of a human being as a member of a state, the dignity of each person as a subject, and the freedom of any C. Lack of Clarity vs Lack of Creativity member of the commonwealth as a resident. ○ When employees are not clear about what Immanuel Kant accentuates the following philosphy on A. Good Will and Duty freedom: Kant started his ethical philosophy by arguing 1. Individuals have the right to choose one's that the only virtue that can be uncontroversially conduct based on reason, not desire. good is good will. 2. Individuals have to abide by the rules that they Kant started his ethical philosophy by arguing follow. that the only virtue that can be uncontroversially 3. Individuals are independent from being limited good is good will. by the option of others to the extent Good will is unique as it is always good and that they may coexist with each other's freedom retains its moral values even though it fails to under universal rule. achieve its moral intentions. Kant found good will 4. Equality is the most among the various to be a common moral concept that openly wishes freedoms and freedom is the only inherent to use certain virtues for moral purposes. power.The three conceps of freedom are the freedom of a human being as a member of a state, good will is a wider conception than the will of the dignity of each person as a subject, and the obligation. freedom of any ➤ A will which acts out of obligation can be member of the commonwealth as a resident. described as a will which overcomes barriers to 5. Individuals have an autonomous right to be the preservation of moral law. happy in their own way, and the ➤ Dutiful will is thus, a special case of good intervention of another's freedom means forcing will which is evident under unfavorable others to be happy. conditions. Philosophy on Freedom Kant believes that only actions committed concerning obligation have moral meaning. ➤ Individuals are independent from being limited by the option of others to the extent that they may coexist with each other's freedom under universal B. Perfect and Imperfect Duties rule. Having applied the categorical imperative, ➤ The three concepts of freedom are the freedom of duties emerge because failure to perform them a human being as a member of a state, the dignity of will either result in a contradiction of each person as a subject, and the freedom of any conception or a contradiction of will. The member of the commonwealth as a resident. former are categorized as perfect tasks, and the ➤ Individuals have an autonomous right to be latter as imperfect. happy in their own way, and the intervention of ➤ The perfect duty is always true. There seems another's freedom means forcing others to be happy. to be a perfect duty to tell the truth, so we must never lie. Kant's Philosophy on Freedom ➤ Imperfect duty requires flexibility. Beneficence is an imperfect duty because we ➤ right to choose one’s conduct, based on are not obligated to be absolutely helpful at all reason, not desire times, but should choose the times and places in ➤ abide by the rules they follow which we are. ➤ limited independence due to the choice of Kant believes that perfect duty is more others. Coexistent with each other’s freedom important than an imperfect duty: when a under universal rule. conflict of duty arises, perfect duty must be ➤ equality is the first and foremost among the carried out. various freedoms and freedom is the only inherit power. C. Categorical Imperative ➤ autonomous right of the people to be happy in Categorical imperative command their own way intervention of another’s freedom, unconditionally. exemplifies, forcing others to be happy. Irrespective of our wishes or desires, a categorical imperative binds us as everyone has a 2. Kant’s Philosophy on Morality responsibility not to lie, regarless of conditions the idea that reason should be used to decide and even though it is in our interest to do so. how people will behave. He did not attempt to recommend concrete action but advised that D. Universalizability reason should be used to decide how to When anyone acts, it's a maxim, or a principle. behave. Below are the main Kant’s For Kant, an act is only permissible if one can philosophy on morality. have the principle that allows an action to be the universal law by which everybody acts.  another, always at the same time as an end and 1. Goodwill and Duty never simply as a means.” it is always good and maintain moral values. It Kant argued that rational beings should never is a moral concept that freely seeks to use values be viewed simply as a means to ends; they must for moral reasons. also be viewed as ends themselves, demanding good will is more of a conception rather than equal regard for their own logical motives. obligation. A will that acts out of duty can be defined as a will that overcomes the obstacles to the 3. Kant’s Philosophy on Justice and Fairness protection of moral law. It is not to say that * Kant’s corollary meaning of justice and fairness actions carried out purely in compliance with are the following: duty are pointless (they still merit praise and ○ Justice involves external acts through which an encouragement), but that extra regard is accorded individual may directly or indirectly influence to activities carried out on duty. others. ○ Justice does not affect the desires, wishes, or 2. Perfect and Imperfect Duties needs of others. Kant differentiate perfect and imperfect duties. ○ Justice is concerned primarily with the nature Perfect duties for Kant is always true and it is more of interpersonal relationships and not with their important than imperfect duties. substance. Telling the truth is an example of a perfect duty. If there is a conflict between the two then perfect duty must be given importance. In contrast, for Kant flexibility is indispensable in imperfect duty. As a human being, an individual can help the needy but still he or she cannot do it all the time. Therefore, in perfect duty, it is a must to do what is good while imperfect duty you do good but it is not an obligation to do so. 3. Categorical Imperative The categorical imperative for him is a rule of Equity Equality behavior that is unconditional or absolute for all 3.1 Taxation in the Philippines: agents or persons whose truth or argument does The Rules Embodied Under the Law not depend on any purpose or end. Taxation policy in the Philippines is regulated primarily Conversely, a hypothetical imperative is a rule by the Constitution of the Philippines and the three of behavior relating to a person the idea that only Republic Acts. if he or she desires a certain end and has decided (1) Constitution: Article VI, Section 28 of the to act on that desire. Constitution provides that "the rules of taxation In other words, in categorial imperative, the shall be uniform and equal" and that "a democratic action to be done does not depend on the result system of taxation shall be established by the or desire or not conditioned by desire. However, Congress." in hypothetical imperative, the basis of the action (2) National law National Internal Revenue Code to be done is what I want and the means to get it enacted as Republic Act No. 8424 or the Tax 4. Universalizability Reform Act of 1997 nd subsequent laws amending Besides,universalizabilitywassetoffbyKant. it; most recently, the Law of the Republic No. The theory of universalizability centered on the 10963 or the Law on Tax Reform for Acceleration action to be acceptable or permissible, this theory and Inclusion was amended must be applied to all citizens without any (3) Local laws: the major sources of revenue for contradictions. local government units ( LGUs) are taxes imposed Meaning, when someone commits a crime he or under the Republic Act No. 7160 or the Local she will be punished regardless of social and Government Code of 1991 and those imposed on economic standing. revenues levied under state law. The law must be applicable to all. (4) Taxes levied at national level are collected by the Office of Internal Revenue ( BIR), whereas 5. Humanity as an End in Itself those levied at local level ( i.e. provincial, city, “Act in such a way that you treat humanity, municipal and barangay) are collected by the whether in your own person or in the person of Office of Internal Revenue ( BIR).  Under the 1987 Philippine Constitution mentioned 7. Culture is a combination of the skills, talents, above, "the rules of taxation shall be uniform and capacities, and artifices brought about by a group of equal." people to look at, relay messages, and respond to the According to Law Dictionary.com, (2015) realities of social life. "Uniformity in taxation means equity in the burden 8. Culture is the attributes and observation of a of taxation, which can not occur without uniformity particular group of people which includes language, in the mode of assessment as well as in the rate of religion, social behavior, etiquette, fashion, music, taxation. and arts. It must also be applied to all property subject to 4.1 Influences of Culture in Moral Development taxation so that all property can be taxed alike and (Leano & Gubia-on, 2018) equally. On the other hand, equity is the principle that 1. Culture is always social and communal by which taxes should be equal and should be based on the the relationship of the people towards one another willingness of different individuals to pay, which is and their experence as people are the culture's generally related to their income meadow. To analyze the provisions, an individual should Laws, norms, values, and attitudes serve pay an income tax based on his or her salary as a binding force to enhance their received with a certain percentage and the property relationships. From that perspective then can be taxed according to assessed value and rates culture influence the moral development of the property. An individual as well canbe taxed of the members of the community. based on his/her capacity to pay taxes. 2. The culture defines the normative principles and behaviors of society. Chapter 4: What is Culture? How does it Define our Moral Behavior? This refers to the definition or the principles and behaviors tp be maintained, preserved, According to Kohak (1984), culture is at the and changed for the benefit and best interest root of human alienation from the environment. of the members of the community. Cole (2019) defined culture as a concept that From the relationshio and experence of the refers to a broad and diverse collection of often members of the community where the intangible areas of social life. community itself would be able to form Lederach, (1995) introduced culture as the certain normative princibles and behaviors collective knowledge and schemes generated by to be relaved and to be taught to the a group of people to perceive, view, convey, members or that community and react to the social realities around them. Zimmerman explicated (2017) culture as the 3. A culture, as best exemplified in the experience characteristics and awareness of a specific of the people, develops restrictions and sets community of people, including language, boundaries and limitations as they live and relate religion, food, social behavior, etiquette, with one another. fashion, music, and the arts. Laws, rules, principles, and norms will be the guidelines for the members or the What is Culture? community to behave accordingly and ir From the definitions above of culture, several nor then they wil be subiecito the characteristics were drawn: punishment or sanction embedded in their 1. Culture is an analects of items with cultural or culture historical interest. This shows that there will be an awareness 2. Culture is a remark of peoples' choices and of the moral development of the members admiration of beauty. of the community. 3. Culture is in harmony with the environment and an individual has a role to play on it. 4. As culture helps in generating the character and 4. Culture is wider in scope as it includes beliefs, identity of its people, it also includes their moral ideals, communication, language systems, character. behaviors, and commonality of people within a Culture shapes the character and identity of group. the people in the community through the 5. Culture embraces material objects that are norms, standards, rules, regulations, and significant to a particular group or society. laws. 6. Culture is related to the social structure and If the community is traditional or modern in economic aspects of society. character then that is the wav the members of  the communitv will learn and experience out or conclusions based on the norms of one's own course. not all have good community. implications The concept of cultural relativism also means 5. The culture identifies the authorities or the governing that any opinion on ethics is subject to the indivuduals or groups perspective of each person within their particular culture. The authorities serve as the maker, interpreter, Cultural relativism (CR) is a moral theory that and implementer of the laws, rules, and contends that there are no objective universal regulations that they have in the community. moral rules, and the moral rules that do exist are In the family, the parents have the moral culturally bound. authority over their children which is also essential for the moral development of the The definitions of cultural relativism stated above are members of the family summarized to the following: 1. In cultural relativism, no one can judge a society Characteristics of Filipino Culture by their standards in the principle of right or wrong, 1. The Filipino people are very resilient eccentric or natural. 2. Filipinos take pride in their families 2. People must understand other societies’ cultures. 3. Filipinos are very religious 3. In cultural relativism, the aim is to strengthen our 4. Filipinos are very respectful knowledge and interpretation of the 5. Filipinos help one another practices and cultural traditions that are not part of б. Filipinos value tradition our culture and that not uncommon 7. Filipinos have the longest Christmas celebration to other cultures. 8. Filipinos love art and architecture 4. Cultural relativism is a moral theory that claims 9. Filipinos are hospitable people the idea of no objective universal moral rules that would apply to every culture and it varies Weaknesses of Filipino Character depending on the culture of the society. 1. Extreme personalism The Filipinos always try to give an Ethnocentrism the belief that your culture is natural interpretation of the actions or they take things and correct while other people's cultures are personally. They say thank you with incorrect, unnatural, or inferior. "but" (compliment-criticism-compliment) 2. Extreme family centeredness Explanation: The Filipinos have very high family protection Ethnocentric people think the ways they do whether in good or poor condition and things is the way things should be done, and circumstance (consentidor) (overprotected) every other culture's way of doing things is 3. Lack of discipline unsavory or undesirable. 4. Passivity and lack of initiative They are rather complacent (relax) but they Ethnocentrism can be a contributing factor to often have a sense of urgency. prejudice, racism, and xenophobia. In all The Filipinos have a positive personality, but a these instances, you're considering yourself lack of self-confidence and a deep desire to and your culture to be the best compared to achieve their goals all others. Bahala na system 5. Colonial mentality Explanation: 6. Kanya-kanya syndrome 1. Judging other countries' diets 7. Lack of self-analysis and reflection 2. Expecting others to speak English Filipinos are superficial and dreamy. They lack 3. Thinking you don't have an accent self-evaluation and reflection of the situation 4. Judging cultural dress 5. Colonial imperialism Module 5: Cultural Relativism 6. Assimilationism Cultural Relativism Thus, morality can only be understood based Cultural relativism means that we do not judge a society by our own criteria of what is right or on what is culturally acceptable or not, in the wrong, odd or natural. Rather, we will make an society where we belong. effort to understand the cultural traditions of other communities in their own cultural context. Cultural relativism is the desire to consider a culture on its own terms and not to make Advantages of Cultural Relativism 4. It eliminates the idea that reform or change can be a good thing. 1. It creates learning opportunities that could make Any of the greatest thinkers and teachers to be humanity stronger. followed in history will all be deemed wrong in a The cultural difference allows people to learn as system of cultural relativism. Then there is no need they can compare their respective cultures and to change hearts and minds, as they are all held to from those differences, they can improve their their standards. Extend that in the workplace, and lives. suddenly unsafe working conditions, low to no pay, 2. It eliminates the concept of separate, but equal. and sexual slavery all become reasonable choices. Across culture, there are groups of people who The benefit of cultural relativism is that it teaches have common beliefs and values, but who face acceptance to individuals. The drawbacks are that prejudice, injustice, and differences depending on this is a philosophy that is based on the belief that the classes they belong to. This will eliminate the humans eventually do the best thing to do. Perhaps idea of being different yet equal by cultural in the future, such a method would work. Before relativism. society can grow up and learn from each other, 3. It creates a system of niche expertise. there is a great deal of potential for harm in this People will concentrate on the things they do idea. (Lombardo, (2015) https://visionlaunch.com/ better when cultural relativism is stressed. There cultural-relativism-pros-and-cons/) will no longer be a need to strengthen the points of weakness since the weakness of one individual Example: is the strength of another. Individuals will have to In the case of Islam, for instance, to marry five reflect on their strengths instead of their times are allowed if the man is capable to support weaknesses. them while in Christianity, it is punishable by the 4. It encourages respect. law if any man or woman are married twice as it is Different cultures have different backgrounds bigamous and perspectives to support civilization. With The moral standards of every society differ from cultural relativism, these interactions and the other and for that reason, any culture should be viewpoints contribute to the common good, as it respected by anyone. We cannot say that it is right helps us to benefit and learn from each particular or wrong because that culture permits them to do viewpoint in their way. so and the other societies' cultures would view the same that is right or wrong or vice versa. Disasdvantages of Cultural Relativism 1. There will be actions taken that would be Pros and Cons of Cultural Relativism defined by some as “violent,” “unsafe,” or Pros “wrong.” It creates learning opportunities that could Since each person can set his or her moral code make humanity stronger. of conduct, there will be those who choose to Iteliminatestheconceptofseparate,butequal. perform acts that the majority of people will Itcreatesasystemofnicheexpertise. interpret as wrong. Murder, robbery, child abuse, Itencouragesrespect. all of these will become legally viable acts if that Cons person's morality described them as being good. Therewillbeactionstakenthatwouldbedefinedb 2. It is based on a concept that people are perfect. ysomeas “violent,” “unsafe,” or “wrong.” We may all like to think that we're perfect but Itisbasedonaconceptthatpeopleareperfect. the fact is that we're all far from it. The theory of Itcreatesapersonalbias. cultural relativism is based on the premise that It eliminates the idea that reform or change society can be perfect. Perhaps we're going to be can be a good thing. one day, but that day is certainly not today. 3. It creates a personal bias. End Note! Cultural relativism is a worthy goal. Societies Knowing the advantages and have a natural prejudice against them, which disadvantages of cultural relativism, we pushes certain people down to lift people. All able to balance the cultures of societies cultural relativism does move accountability from despite the differences. a group perspective to an individualistic From the reality of differences, we can perspective. Promoting a particular set of morals is adjust, change our perspectives and learn the focal point rather than the promotion of a from the strengths and weaknesses of each collective set of morals.  culture to improve ourselves. 7. Benevolence: helpfulness; honesty; forgiveness; loyalty; responsibility; friendship To better understand the 8. Tradition: accepting one's portion in life; people as what and who they are, their humility; devoutness; respect for tradition; roots, their moral standards, acceptable moderation and unacceptable or permissible or 9. Conformity:self-discipline;obedience prohibited in their societies then we 10. Security: cleanliness; family security; national need to embrace their cultures to security; stability of social order; reciprocation of determine the trends or situations favors; health; sense of belonging to develop. Schwartz also tested an eleventh possible Module 6: Universal Values universal value, 'spirituality', or 'the goal of finding meaning in life’, but found that it does not What is Universal Value? seem to be recognized in all cultures. The word "value" means something that a person or a group believes has a value that merits UN Chapter of Universal Values being sought, promoted, or privileged. This can be “The values of peace, freedom, social progress, a thing a state of mind, or a behavior that results equal rights and human dignity, enshrined in the from those things Charter of the United Nations and in the Universal or states of mind Declaration of Human Rights, are no less valid today than when, over half a century ago, those It can be be understood in two ways. First, documents were drafted by representatives of because everyone finds it important. Second, many different nations and cultures.” when all people have reason to believe it has -Kofi Annan value. In the Millenium Declaration according ot is a concept that it is not obvious to define Annan, “all states reaffirmed certain fundamental because a principle relates to morality or ethics. values as being essentials to international All people have certain values that come from relations in the twenty-first century”: freedpm, within them and direct their actions—values equality, solidarity, tolerance, respect for nature can differ from person to person. and shared responsibility.” Looking at the fundamental values mentioned above and the provisions under the Charter of the United Nations, countries of all nations and cultures must apply these principles to maintain peace and security in the world If all nations in the world despite differences in races, colors, international standings, cultures, religions, customs, traditions, set aside their respective self-interests, peace and security in the whole world will evidently possible. Basic Universal Human Values Schwart’s Concept of Universal Values 1. Happiness- refers to good fortune; pleasure; 1. Power: authority; leadership; dominance, social contentment; joy. power, wealth 2. Peace- a freedom from disturbance; 2. Achievement: success; capability; ambition; tranquility. It is a state or period in which influence; intelligence; self-respect. there is no war or a war has ended. A state 3. Hedonism: pleasure; enjoying life of mutual harmony between people or 4. Stimulation: daring activities; varied life; groups, especially in personal relations exciting life 3. Freedom state of being free or at liberty, 5. Self-direction: creativity; freedom; freedom from control, interference, independence; curiosity; choosing your own obligation, restriction, hampering conditions goals 4. Safety state of being safe; freedom from the 6. Universalism: broadmindedness; wisdom; occurrence or risk of injury, danger, or loss. social justice; equality; a world at peace; a 5. Intelligence capacity for learning, world of beauty; unity with nature; protecting reasoning, understanding, and similar forms the environment; inner harmony of mental activity; aptitude in grasping  truths, relationships, facts, meanings, etc. supported by and anchored on the following Filipino 6. Respect - os a formal expression or gesture of values and Filipino traits and values. greeting, esteem, or friendship: 7. Equality – is the state or quality of being equal; Filipino Values correspondence in quantity, degree, value, rank, Values are those aspects in life that include or ability: promoting equality of opportunity in customs, traditions, etc., which the people regard as the workplace. necessary and important in their dealings with one 8. Justice – is the quality of being just; another righteousness, equitableness, or moral rightness: to uphold the justice of a cause. Pakikisama 9. Nature – is the material world, especially as One of the Filipino values is ‘pakikisama’ or surrounding humankind and existing sense or togetherness. It refers to doing somebody independently of human activities. a good deed. 10. Health – is the general condition of the body or It is not only practiced in neighbourhood but mind with reference to soundness and vigor: also at work and school. Helping other people good health; poor health. soundness of body or even in small little way may show ‘pakikisama.’ mind; freedom from disease or ailment to have Is having and maintaining ‘good public one's health; to lose one's health relations.’ Just like other Filipino values, ‘pakikisama’ can work either positively or Human Dignity destructively. Dignity is the state or quality of being worthy of Because of ‘pakikisama,’ may submit to group honor or respect. It is the importance and value opinion, overgenerous praise one another, using that a person has, that makes other people respect metaphorical language rather than candid terms, them or makes them respect themselves. concealing negative feelings or unhappy spirits underneath a pleasant demeanor, smiling even ○ It must be preserved so that the respect of when things go wrong. others is maintained. Any act or action to be done by an individual will be reflected in his or her personality. Utang na loob ○ Only one big mistake can ruin a good ‘Utang na loob’ or debt of gratitude is very reputation for anyone. People must be very important to Filipinos. It is recognizing and careful of his or her action and words to be returning the favor to that person in the same said. measure who help them in times of need The 1987 Philippine Constitution Article 2 Filipinos may have ‘utang na loob’ if other Section 11 provides, “The state recognizes the people help them during sickness, medication, dignity of every human person and guaranteed sending their children to school, finding a job, full respect for human right.” or they were saved in a life threatening situation. Once Filipinos surpass those ○ This implies that any person in whatever challenges in life, they will return to the capacity, economic and social status, rich or person whom they have debt of gratitude to poor, educated or uneducated deserve to be give back the favor they received or they will respected by anyone. help that person in times of need. ○ It is in the inner self of a person, an innate However ‘utang na loob’ may not be good if character built and developed day by day of the person is forced to do something even anyone. Whatever action to be done will reflect against his/ her will or against the law just to on whom and who you are. pay the debt of gratitude. The person will do this to avoid being reproved or having confrontations, clashes and conflicts with the Module 7: The Filipino Way person whom they have ‘utang na loob.’ Filipino Moral Characters: Strengths and Weaknesses Filipino cultural morality especially that which Hiya concerns social ethics, centers on ideally having a ‘Hiya’ may be observed to Filipinos in “smooth interpersonal relationship” (SIR) with accepting the food that are offered to them. Even others. though they are hungry, they will feel sense of The definition of “smooth interpersonal shame accepting the food given to them or they relationship” in Philippine culture is principally will say that they are not yet hungry. They also feel ‘hiya’ in approaching higher authorities like school principal, teachers/  professors, deans, and executives. They will look someone whom they think have the courage to approach higher authorities On the other hand, ‘kahihiyan’ maybe observed in the Filipino families. They try to avoid doing things that may dishonor their family’s name and reputation. If problems arise in the family, as much as they could, they will hide it within the family because for them, the stink of a member will be the stink of the whole family Amor Propio ‘Amor Propio’ has been characterized as the high degree of sensitivity that makes a person intolerant to criticism and causes him to have an easily wounded pride Concerning this Filipino value, some observe that Filipinos learn to withstand a loss of face in some situations, particularly when they perceive themselves to be a fault, but it is devastating to be publicly criticized, insulted, belittled, or humiliated or to lose one’s self-respect. ‘amor propio’ comes from the person’s tendency to protect his or her dignity and honor. Because of pride or amor proprio, for instance, a person may refuse offers even if he/she wants to accept them. Filipino Traits Trait is a distinguishing feature or character of a person or a group of people. Hospitality Close family ties Respect for elders