Ethics PDF

Lesson 1. MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS Etymology and Meaning of Ethics Ethics  Origin: Derived from the Greek ethos meaning custom  Focus: deals with morality and moral standards  Philosophical branch: Involves inquiries about rightness/ wrong...

Lesson 1. MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS Etymology and Meaning of Ethics Ethics  Origin: Derived from the Greek ethos meaning custom  Focus: deals with morality and moral standards  Philosophical branch: Involves inquiries about rightness/ wrong ness of actions and goodness/badness of traits  Key Topics: includes moral standards, conscience, values, virtues, obligations  Moral Definition: adjective indicating if an act is ethically right or wrong, of if a character is good or bad Moral Standards vs Non-moral Standards Moral Standards  Morally permissible  Morally unacceptable  Potentially threaten/ harmful  Greatly benefit/ helpful to human beings  Promote common good Non-moral Standards  Apply to laws  Unrelated to moral and ethical considerations  Lack of ethical sense o Ex. Etiquettes, statuses, code of professional ethics How Moral Standards are Formed? 1. Cultural Influences: Societal norms, traditions and values shaped what is considered right or wrong within a community 2. Religious Beliefs: many moral standards are derived from religious teachings, which provide frameworks for ethical behavior 3. Philosophical Reasoning: ethical theories, such as utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics, offer systematic approaches to determine moral principles 4. Personal Experiences: Individual experiences and reflections contribute to one’s understanding of morality, influencing personal moral beliefs 5. Social Interaction: Discussions and interactions with others can challenge or reinforce moral views, leading to the evolution of standards over time. 6. Legal Frameworks: Laws often reflect societal moral standards, but thy can also influence moral perceptions by establishing consequences for certain behaviors Key Takeaways Non-moral standards originate from social rules, demands of etiquette and good manners. They are guide of action which should be followed as expected by society Moral standards are base on the natural law, the consequences of one’s action and sense of duty Moral standards are based on natural law , the law of God revealed through human reason or the “law of God written in the hearths of men” Moral standards are based on consequences standards. That which leads to good consequences or result like the greatest good of the greatest number is what is moral Moral standards are also based on non-consequence standards or sense of duty that you wish would be followed by all. Respect for humanity, treatment of others as a human person, an act that is moral, springs from a sense of duty, a sense of duty that you wish is wished by all and applies to all human persons  Lesson 2. DEALING WITH MORAL DILEMMAS Moral  refers to principles or rules of right conduct or the distinction between right and wrong  ex: Honesty vs Deception Dilemma  is a situation where a person is forced to choose between two or more conflicting options, neither of which is acceptable  example: A student discovers that a classmate is cheating on an important exam. Moral Dilemma  A scenario where a choice must be made between competing ethical principles, creating a conflict in moral reasoning, neither of which resolves the situation in a morally acceptable manner.  3 Different Level of Moral Dilemma  Personal Dilemma – arise from individual’s beliefs, values, and relationships, often involving conflicting emotions or principles (ex: cheating on their partner)  Organizational Dilemma – can take many forms and these are the moral problems in the workplace (ex: product defects)  Structural Dilemmas – occur at a societal or systematic level, involving large scale ethical issues influenced by policies, laws or cultural norms (ex: implementing policies) MORAL ASSUMPTIONS: THE FOUNDATION OF MORALITY (Understanding the Basis of Ethical Behavior) Moral Assumptions  is a belief or principle that serves as the foundational basis for determining what is right or wrong in human behavior  Characteristics:   Implicit Nature – often taken for granted; not always explicitly stated  Cultural Variation – varies across different cultures and societies  Influential Role – shapes laws, societal norms, and personal conduct THE ASSUMPTION OF ETHICS OR MORALITY Key assumptions: 1. Universalizability 2. Impartiality 3. Moral Responsibility 4. Human Dignity Moral ---> Ethical Immoral ---> Unethical Amoral  Describes someone or something not influences by moral principles or lacking any moral sense Importance of Moral Assumption  Influence on Society  Conflict Resolution  Personal Development Moral assumptions are crucial for understanding ethics and morality. THE MINIMUM REQUIREMENT OF MORALITY: REASON AND IMPARTIALITY (Understanding Fundamental Elements of Ethical Behavior) Minimum Requirements of Morality  refer to foundational elements that guide ethical decision-making. Reason  Reason in morality refers to the use of logical thinking and critical analysis in making ethical decisions. It involves evaluating  situations based on evidence and rational thought rather than emotions or biases. Impartiality  Impartiality refers to the principle of treating all individuals equally and without bias when making moral judgments. It demands that personal interests, relationships, and emotions do not influence ethical decisions. Reason and impartiality are interrelated in moral decision-making. Together, they help to produce moral judgments that are not only sound but also just, fostering trust in ethical systems and promoting social harmony. Lesson 3. STANDARDS OF MORAL VALUATION BASED ON THE SELF 3 SENSES OF THE SELF by BULAONG Jr. et al (2018) 1. Subjectivism  Individual thinking person is at the heart of all moral valuations  The person is the one confronted with the situation and is burdened with the need to make decision or judgement  From this POV, subjectivism leaps to the more radical claim that the individual is the sole determinant of what is morally good or bad, right or wrong Example: “No one can tell me what is right and wrong.” “No one knows my situation better than myself” “I am entitled to my own opinion” “It is good, if I say that it is good”  Criticism  Subjective moral judgements are based on personal opinions which can be biased or irrational   Subjectivism can lead to a situation where there are no objective moral truths, making it difficult to justify moral judgements or resolve conflicts  Subjectivism may overlook the importance of social norms, values, and expectations in shaping moral behavior 2. Psychological Egoism  a theory that describes the underlying dynamic behind all human actions  as a descriptive theory, it does not direct one to act in a particular way. Instead, it points out that by nature, humans are self- interested and are after their own satisfaction and therefore in all their undertaking that they are ultimately looking for self- fulfillment and satisfaction, aware or unaware  As such, the ego or self has its desires and interests, and all actions are geared towards the satisfaction of theses interests  The act no matter how it appears to be other-oriented, it is by nature an act that is self-serving. 3. Ethical Egoism  Differs from psychological egoism in that the latter does not suppose that all actions undertaken are self serving  Is a position that self-interest and personal ends are the single overriding concern.  Is totally driven by selfish motive with no interest or concern for another.  Totally motivated by self-satisfaction and nothing more. CULTURE AND ITS ROLES IN MORAL BEHAVIOR Culture  is a broad term that encompasses the shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that characterize a particular group or society. It is the way of life that is passed down from one generation to the next, shaping everything from language and religion to art and food  Culture is everything   Shapes and forms the person more particularly in terms of moral development. Along the personal identity, the human person also develops moral identity which can be defined as “the degree to which being moral person is important to an individual” (Hardy & Carlo, 2005)  A historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a system on inherent conceptions expressed in symbolic forms through which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge and attitudes toward life (Geertz, 1973) Moral Behavior  Refers to actions that align with principles of right an wrong, reflecting ethical standards and values within a society. It encompasses how individuals acts based on their understanding of fairness, justice an empathy.  Factors that influence a personal moral behavior o Family o Church o School o Mas s Media Cultural Elements Symbols: Objects, images or gestures that represent something else; ex: national Flags, religious icons, logos Language: system of communication used by a particular community or country; ex: spoken language, sign language, dialects Norms: unwritten rules or expectations for behavior within culture; ex: social etiquette, dress codes, manners Values: core beliefs or principles that guide behavior and decision making; ex: individualism vs collectivism, respect for elders, importance of education Laws: formal rules established by a governing authority that re enforced to maintain order and protect citizens; ex: criminal laws, civil right laws, traffic regulations The Role of Culture in Moral Development  The pattern of the person’s life is conditioned by the moral standards present in his or her culture.  Culture defines the normative principles and behavior of the society  Culture sets the restrictions and boundaries in the lives of people as they relate and live in their community.  Culture helps generate the character and identity of its people and that includes their moral character.  Culture identifies the authorities. Lesson 4. CULTURAL RELATIVISM Cultural Relativism  is the theory that one must understand beliefs, values, and practices in relation to the other’s culture and not judge hum by another standards.  This is the concept which is most frequently used within anthropology  It encourages people to understand and tolerate things because, after all, what is “right” or “wrong” depends on culture. Why is Cultural Relativism Appealing?  Cultural Relativism is so appealing because it encourages the understanding. Tolerance, and open-mindedness.  It teaches people to see cultural practices from the perspective of those within that culture, thereby reducing ethnocentrism: judging another culture by our own standards  It encourages respect for diversity, teaching people not to make snap judgements or impose their beliefs on others Consequences of Cultural Relativism Positive  Increased tolerance  Social Harmony  Better Communication   Protection of Cultural Diversity Negative  Moral Relativism  Barrier to Socia Progress  Conflict with Universal Rights  Difficulty in Legal and Ethical Standards Difficulties of Cultural Relativism  Cultural Relativism encourages understanding but poses challenges, such as difficulty condemning harmful practices, inconsistent moral standards, and potential justification or harmful traditions. It conflicts with universal human rights and complicates balancing respect for cultural diversity with necessary critiques of injustice  Cultural relativism cannot be absolutized because doing so would lead to several problematic consequences and contradictions:  Moral Inconsistency  Lack of Universal Standards  Cultural Exchange and Evolution  Ethical Paradox  Interconnectedness of Cultures Lesson 5. UNDERSTANDING THE FILIPINO CULTURE Filipino culture is not monolithic, it is comprising a rich blend of indigenous, colonial, and contemporary influences. As globalization reshapes cultural landscapes, understanding the essence of Filipino culture becomes crucial for maintaining identity and fostering pride in heritage. Difficulties of Identifying Filipino Culture ❖ Diverse Influence – the cultural landscape of the Philippines is shaped by various influences throughput history, including indigenous practices, Spanish colonization, American rule, and neighboring Asian cultures. This results in a rich but complex cultural identity. (ex: fiestas) ❖ Regional Variations – each 7000 island of the Philippines has its own customs, languages and traditions, making it challenging to define a singular Filipino culture. ❖ Colonial History – many cultural practices today are a mix of pre- colonial beliefs and colonial influences creating a layered identity ❖ Globalization – media and technology has affected traditional practices leading to dilution of cultural identity Source of Cultural Identity Language  A vital aspect of cultural identity and reflects community values and heritage  Is not just a means to communicate but also carries cultural nuances, traditions and histories, reinforcing regional identities within the broader Filipino context Traditions and Festivals  Festival serves as celebration of local culture, religious beliefs, and community spirit, reinforcing cultural identity.  These celebrations serve as a reminder pf cultural heritage, fostering a sense of belonging and continuity within the community Food  Filipino cuisine is known for its diversity and flavor that show a part of cultural identity. Meals often symbolize family and community (ex: Lechon – abundance) Family Values  Strong familial ties are central to Filipino culture. Respect for elders and close-knit family structures paly a crucial in social organization.  Such values emphasize community support and solidarity, highlighting the interconnectedness and defines Filipino culture Religion and Spirituality  Filipino culture integrates spiritual beliefs with local customs, reflecting a unique blend of faith and tradition Being Critical About our Practices Cultural Reflection – engaging in critical reflections about cultural practices encourages individuals to evaluate their relevance and impact on society. (ex: “Mano po”) Preservation vs Progress – preserving cultural heritage is essential but adapting practices to align with modern values is equally important to address societal changes Consumerism – the commercialism of cultural practices can dilute their significance, prioritizing profit over authenticity Social Issues – critical examination of practices like “utang na loob” reveals potential challenges, such as perpetuating inequalities and unhealthy obligations withing families Cultural Appropriation – understanding the line between appreciation and appropriation fosters respect for cultural significance, encourages ethical engagement with cultural practices CULTURE AND ITS ROLE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR Culture plays a fundamental role in shaping our moral beliefs and behaviors. It encompasses the values, norms, customs, and traditions that guide how individuals and communities perceive right and wrong. Through socialization, individuals internalize these cultural elements, which influence their ethical decision making and interactions with others. Cultural Elements Values and beliefs – values are core principles that guide behavior while beliefs are conviction on what is true. Norms and Customs – norms are unwritten roles governing behavior and customs are established practices Rituals and traditions – rituals re formalized actions while traditions encompass practices passed through generation Language and Communication – language shapes expression and influence moral reasoning The Role of Culture in Moral Development Socialization Processes – Cultural socialization is how individuals learn and internalize their culture’s values and norms Cultural Identity Formation – Cultural identity influences how individuals perceive themselves and their moral beliefs Moral Frameworks and Ethical Decision Making – culture provides frameworks for interpreting ethical dilemmas and making moral choices Influence of Community and Relationships – the social environment, including community values and relationships, significantly impacts moral development THE MORAL DEVELOPMENT STAGES OF THE MORAL AGENT Levels and Stages of Moral Development (by Lawrence Kohlberg) Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality  Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation – at his stage, moral reasoning is primarily based on the fear of punishment.  Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange – moral reasoning is guided by self-interest and the idea of mutual benefit. Level 2: Conventional Morality  Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships – individuals make moral decisions based on what pleases or helps others, seeking approval and maintaining relationships  Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order – moral reasoning is based on respect for authority, laws and rules Level 3: Post Conventional Morality  Stage 5: Social Contracts and Individual Rights – individuals understand that laws are social contracts that can be changes for the greater good/ They recognize the importance of individual rights and the need for fairness and justice in society  Stage 6: Universal Principles – at this highest stage of moral development, individuals base their moral reasoning on universal ethical principles, such as justice, equality and human behavior. They act according to their conscience even if it conflicts with the social norms. Lesson 6. THE MORAL AGENT AND CONTEXT Moral agent  a person who ahs the power to distinguish right from wrong and to be held accountable for his/ her own action.  Have ethical responsibility not to cause unreasonable harm Moral Agency  Is assigned only to those who are often held accountable for their actions Cross Points  are forces outside an individual’s control that influence their character, thoughts, and moral judgements  Four Cross Points according to Ramon C Reyes o Physical – genetic endowments with its limitations and strengths which are not an individual’s own choosing that impacts natural development o Interpersonal – how individuals are brought up in the family influence an individual’s character, manner and his/her thinking and mindset. One’s personality is shaped by the people around especially by those who influence the person during the early years of existence  o Social – the shaping of individual personality accommodates those brought about by the larger society. The culture and the values in it are inevitable forces that impact the way perceive the world and judge it o Historical – events with crucial importance shape an entire nation and every individual living in that society manifested in their everyday attitude and manner of perceiving new experiences FEELINGS AND MORAL DECISION MAKING Feeling  Nominalization of the verb to feel  Used in English to describe the physical sensation of touch through either experience or perception  In psychology, feelings is for the conscious subjective experience of emotion Moral Decision Making  An essential asset for human’s integration in social context. Emotional processes contribute to moral judgment by assigning affective value to the moral decision-making scenario , thus guiding the distinction between acceptable and inacceptable behaviors Role of Emotion in Moral Actions Moral Emotions  Inner Emotions – directed negative emotions like guilt, embarrassment, and shame often motivate people to act ethically  Outer Emotions – directed negative emotion that aims to discipline or punish such as anger, disgust or contempt to those who hav acted unethically. Feelings and Institutions or Moral Emotions plays a major role in most of the ethical decisions people make ❖ Decisions vary depending on the feeling (happy or sad) ❖ What we say are sometimes influenced by our feelings ❖ Emotional decision making can affect not just the outcome of the decision, but also the speed at which you make it. Anger can lead to impatience and rash decision-making, if you are excited, you might make quick decisions without considering the implications as you surf the wave of confidence and optimism about the future. The 7-Step Moral Reasoning Model (Scott B. Rae, PH.D) 1. Gather the facts – to clarify an ethical dilemma is to make sure the facts are clear 2. Determine the ethical issues – ethical interests are stated in terms of legitimate competing interests or goods. The competing interests are what creates dilemma. Moral values and virtues must support competing interests for an ethical dilemma to exist. If you cannot identify the underlying values/ virtues, then you do not have an ethical dilemma. Often people hold these positions strongly and with passion because of the value/ virtue beneath them. 3. Determine what virtues/principles have a bearing on the case – in an ethical dilemma, certain values and principles are central to the competing positions. Identify those and determine of some should be given more weight than others. 4. List of alternatives – determine possible courses of action for your dilemma 5. Compare alternatives with the virtues/principles – weight principles and virtues making sure that there is good reason for each weighting 6. Consider consequences – take the alternatives and work out positive and negative consequences and estimate how beneficial each positive and negative consequences is 7. Make decision Virtue Ethics  a philosophical approach that treats virtue and character as the primary subjects of ethics, in contrast to other ethical systems that put consequences of voluntary acts, principle or rules of conduct, or obedience to the divine authority in the primary role.   Accommodates the natural concern many of have with being good person  Acting well vs acting rightly  Describes actions in the virtue and vice terms o “Torture is cruel” o “Paying back your debts is just” o “Speaking up in that situation is courageous”  Ansocmbre suggests that this is a great improvement over “morally wrong” (or right). Because this language still informs us about what we ought and ought not to do. Aristotle: defines virtue as a mean between two extremes: excess and deficiency. This mean is not a simple midpoint, but rather a nuanced balance determined by reason and practical wisdom. GEM, Anscombre and Peter Greatch: modern ethics should focus more on virtues rather than outcomes Philippa Foot: emphasized that the virtues are traits that contribute to good life What is VIRTUE? Virtue 1. Good-making Property  Makes one good “qua” human  Human by nature are social and rational beings and virtues helps in fulfilling human nature  Important for achieving good life or eudaimonia 2. Goodness of the Rational Will  Concerns reasons and rational choice  Not a mere pre-reflective inclination to do well  This implied that virtues is something more than what nice children are capable of having 3. A corrective  Supplement human beings where they find natural temptations, deficiencies of motivation, or tendencies towards vice  o Justice is corrective where we want to keep things we don’t deserve or distribute things (like punishment) in way that others don’t deserve o Courage is corrective where we have the tendency to be overcome by fear o Charity a corrective where we tend to be selfish or uncaring of others  This suggest that knowing the virtues depends on knowing what human nature is like Happiness and Ultimate Purpose ☺ Aristotle shows that ethics that a person’s every act is directed toward a particular purpose or aim (“telos” – Greek) ☺ The good is the telos or purpose for which all acts seek to achieve ☺ Aristotle is aware that one does an act not only to achieve a particular purpose but also believes such purpose can be utilized for a higher goal or activity. The different goods that one pursues create a hierarchy of teloi. ☺ General criteria in order for one to recognize the highest good of man 1. The highest good of man must be final. It should not be utilized for the sake of achieving higher end 2. The ultimate telos of a person must be self-sufficient ☺ Wha is the highest goal for Aristotle? What goal is both final and self- sufficient?  HAPPINESS or EUDAIMONIA Arete (Virtue) as Moral Excellence  Achieving the highest purpose of a human person concerns the ability to function according to reason and to perform an activity well or excellently.  The excellent way of doing thing is called virtue by greeks  According to Aristotle, “For one swallow does not make a summer, nor does one day; and so too one day, or a short time, does make a man blessed and happy” Two Ways By Which One Can Attain Intellectual Excellence 1. Philosophical wisdom deals with attaining knowledge about the fundamental principles and truths that govern the universe 2. Practical wisdom is excellence knowing the right conduct carrying out a particular act. One can attain wisdom that can provide us with a guide on how to behave in our daily lives  Aristotle suggests that although the rational functions of a person's (moral and intellectual) are distinct from each other it is necessary for humans to attain the intellectual virtue of practical wisdom in order to accomplish a morally virtuous act  Having practical wisdom or the excellence in knowing what to act upon does not make someone already morally virtuous. Knowing the good is different from determining and acting on what is good.  This distinction draws a sharp contrast between Aristotle's understanding of the dynamics of knowledge and action from that of Socrates’ view that knowledge already contains the ability of choice or action.  It seems that for Socrates, moral goodness is already within the realm of intellectual excellence. Knowing the good implies the ability to perform morally virtuous acts. Virtue as the Golden Mean (Nicomachean Ethics)  Aristotle defines virtue as a disposition  He said that virtue is something we have to develop. For instances we are not born with courage, so you developed this by disposing yourself by doing courageous acts.  The golden mean is a concept put forward by Aristotle that asserts that virtuous moral behavior can be identified as a mean or middle ground between two extremes one of excess and one of deficiency  Lesson 7 THE NATURAL LAW THEORY  A legal theory that recognizes law and morality as deeply connected, if not one or the same  Natural law theorists believe that human laws are defined by morality, and not by an authority figure, like a king or a government  HISTORY o Thomas Aquinas was a catholic priest (Dominican friar), philosopher a theologian who lived from c.1225-1274. He was an intellectual and religious revolutionary, living at a time of great philosophical, theological, and scientific development  THE NATURAL LAW IN ETHICS o The natural law approach to solving ethical dilemmas begins with the basic belief that everyone has the right to live their life THE CONTEXT OF AQUINAS’ ETHICS  Thomas Aquinas’ framework is a combination of Aristotelian philosophy and Christian theology  Focuses on how humans can achieve true happiness and moral fulfilment  The Goal: A union of God in human life is equivalent to beatitude or perfect happiness  Natural Law: He created the principle the principle fundamental of natural law: “GOOD IS TO BE DONE AND EVIL AVOIDED”  Human Nature: Human beings are both composed of rational and animalistic elements  VIRTUES: THEOLOGICAL AND CARDINAL o Theological Virtues – Faith, hope, and charity (love for others) o Cardinal Virtues – prudence (wisdom), justice (fairness), fortitude (courage), and temperance (self-control) o Moral Reasoning – involves discerning specific actions that align with natural law CRITICISMS OF NATURAL LAW  Cultural Relativism – a diversity of moral beliefs across cultures. For instance, some practices may be accepted but also condemned by others  Lack of Essential Human Nature – Kai Neilsen, a philosopher, contends that the intends that the idea of a shared human nature is unfounded. Critics also suggests that the concept of a shared human nature is flawed This shows how different cultures have varying beliefs: deeply rooted in their unique histories, values, and social structures.  Metaethical Challenges – critics also raise metaethical concerns regarding how Natural Law theorists define moral facts and their origins  Legal Implications – an inherent connection between law and morality, suggesting that laws must align with moral principles to be considered valid Kants’s Deontology  Divine Command Theory – what’s good and what’s not are determined by a deity  Natural Law Theory – says that morality comes from us but only because we are made by God, who preloaded us with moral sensibilities  Immanuel Kant – 18th century German philosopher  Kant’s deontology is a moral theory that focuses on following rules, duties, regardless of the consequences of an action  Deontology – focuses on the intention. It disregards the consequences or the after effect of the act  For Kant, the morality of a human act depends on whether it fulfills a duty or not. And it is our duty to take these right actions.  The word “deontology” comes from the Greek word deon, which means “duty”. o Perfect Duty – these are absolute obligations that must always be followed (do not lie) o Imperfect Duty – these duties that allow for flexibility in how they are fulfilled (develop one’s talent)  KANTIAN ETHICAL PRINCIPLES o In the medical context for Kant, it is always wrong to lie. It says that medical investigators should not lie to their patients o People should be treated as ends and not as means o That we also have a duty to treat ourselves as ends and to preserve our dignity and worth as human beings o That an action is right so long as it satisfies the categorical imperative o The distinction between perfect and imperfect duties suggest that some rights should be recognized  Criticisms of Kantian Ethics o No clear way of resolving cases of confliction duties o Categorical imperatives fail to establish duties in cases involving maxims that cannot be willed to become a universal law for subjective reasons o The problem related to the notion that we have a duty to treat others as a rational beings or persons UTILITARIANISM  Is an ethical theory that focuses on the outcomes of our actions  This idea makes utilitarianism result oriented or “consequentialist”  First developed by Jeremy Betham and John Stuart Mill  the main appeal of utilitarianism lies in its practicality  Principle of Utility o it indicates that an action is morally right if it tends to produce more happiness/ pleasure than unhappiness/pain o Jeremy Bentham also introduces the concept of the HEDONIC CALCULUS – a method for determining the moral value of an action by weighing the pleasure and pain it creates o Factors to consider in Hedonic Calculus: 1. Intensity – how the intense the pleasure is 2. Duration – how long the pleasure or pain is 3. Certainty – how likely the action is to result in pleasure or pain 4. Extent – how many people are affected  Principle of the Greatest Number o Emphasizes that we should make decisions that benefits the majority of people, even if it means some individuals may be negatively effected o Phrase “the greatest good for the greatest number” summarizes this principle o Also known as the TYRANNY OF THE MAJORITY