Westward Expansion Notes PDF

Westward Expansion Manifest Destiny ​ Manifest Destiny was a widely held belief in the 19th-century United States that the expansion of American settlers across the continent was both justified and inevitable. ​ It expressed the idea that the United States was destined to expand its...

Westward Expansion Manifest Destiny ​ Manifest Destiny was a widely held belief in the 19th-century United States that the expansion of American settlers across the continent was both justified and inevitable. ​ It expressed the idea that the United States was destined to expand its territory from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, spreading its institutions and way of life. ​ Manifest Destiny was often framed as a divine mission or a mandate from God. -​ Supporters believed that Americans had a God-given right to expand and cultivate the land. ​ The ideology of Manifest Destiny was rooted in the belief in the cultural and moral superiority of the American people. ​ ​ The primary geographical focus of Manifest Destiny was westward expansion. -​ This expansion was driven by various factors, including economic opportunities, the quest for land, and the desire for political influence. Push Factors ​ Economic struggles, such as poverty, debt, or lack of job opportunities in the East, pushed individuals and families to seek better prospects in the West. ​ Overcrowding and competition for resources in the East motivated people to move westward in search of more available land and opportunities. ​ Advancements in agricultural technology reduced the need for large labor forces on farms, leading to surplus labor in the East and encouraging migration ​ Religious minorities or groups facing persecution sought refuge and religious freedom in the West, where they could establish their communities. ​ Disputes over land ownership, often arising from changing property laws or the desire for larger tracts of land, pushed individuals to migrate westward. Pull Factors ​ The promise of abundant and inexpensive land in the West attracted settlers looking to establish farms and acquire property.  ​ The allure of economic opportunities, such as the discovery of gold (as in the California Gold Rush) or the potential for profitable farming, attracted migrants seeking wealth. ​ Improvements in transportation, including the development of railroads and the Oregon Trail, made westward migration more accessible and efficient. ​ The West offered the chance for individuals to start anew, away from societal constraints or expectations, allowing for the establishment of new cultural communities. ​ The widely held belief in Manifest Destiny, the idea that expansion across the continent was inevitable and divinely ordained, motivated many to participate in westward migration. ​ The presence of family or community members who had already moved westward encouraged others to join, creating networks of support and familiarity. Empresario System ​ The empresario system was a land grant system established by the Mexican government in the early 19th century to encourage the settlement of Mexican territories, particularly Texas. ​ Empresarios were individuals or agents who were granted the authority to attract and organize settlers to populate and develop specific areas. Objective: ​ The primary goal of the empresario system was to increase the population of sparsely settled regions, bring economic development, and create a buffer against potential threats, such as Native American raids. Empresarios' Responsibilities: ​ Empresarios were responsible for recruiting settlers, ensuring they fulfilled certain requirements set by the Mexican government, and overseeing the establishment of communities. ​ They had to enforce Mexican laws related to land use, language, and religion. Laws of the Empresario System ​ Prohibition of Slavery: ​ The Mexican government explicitly prohibited slavery in its territories, and empresarios were required to enforce this rule among the settlers.  ​ Community Development: ​ Empresarios were tasked with overseeing the establishment and development of communities within their land grants. Tensions with Texas and Mexico ​ Cultural tensions emerged as American settlers, predominantly from the Southern United States, clashed with Mexican authorities over issues like language, religion, and the prohibition of slavery. ○​ Texans were not speaking Spanish, converting to Catholicism, and slavery was growing in Texas. ​ Mexican legislation, such as the 1830 Law of April 6, imposed restrictions on immigration and increased central control. ○​ These measures were met with dissatisfaction from American settlers who had enjoyed a degree of autonomy. Resistance ​ In response to growing discontent, Texan delegates convened the Consultation of 1835 to discuss their grievances and determine a course of action. ○​ This marked an early step towards organized resistance. ​ The Texan Consultation issued a Declaration of Causes, articulating their grievances and justifications for resisting Mexican authority. ○​ It emphasized a desire for the restoration of the Mexican Constitution of 1824. ​ The Texan Army, under the leadership of figures like Sam Houston, began to organize and prepare for more significant military engagements. Significant Battles ​ Battle of Gonzales (October 2, 1835): ​ Considered the first battle of the Texas Revolution. ​ Texan settlers successfully resisted Mexican attempts to retrieve a cannon, sparking armed conflict. ​ Capture of Goliad (October 9, 1835): ​ Texan forces, including George Collingsworth, captured Presidio La Bahía (Goliad). Battle of San Antonio de Béxar (The Alamo) (February 23 - March 6, 1836): ​ Texan siege of the Alamo, culminating in the Mexican victory and the death of many Texan defenders, including James Bowie, William B. Travis, and Davy Crockett. Battle of San Jacinto (April 21, 1836):  ​ The decisive battle of the Texas Revolution, where Texan forces under Sam Houston defeated the Mexican army led by Antonio López de Santa Anna, leading to the capture of Santa Anna and securing Texan independence. “Remember the Alamo” -1836 The Battle of the Alamo was a pivotal event during the Texas Revolution, fought between Texan rebels and Mexican forces led by General Antonio López de Santa Anna. Despite valiant defense, the Alamo fell to Mexican forces on March 6, 1836, after a final assault. Most of the defenders were killed, including Travis, Bowie, and Crockett. "Remember the Alamo" became a powerful and emotional battle cry for Texan forces, reminding them of the sacrifice of those who died defending the Alamo. The Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, 1836, became a turning point. The Texan forces, led by Sam Houston, defeated the Mexican army, and Santa Anna was captured. The Texan victory was fueled by the desire to avenge the fall of the Alamo. Outcomes of the Revolution ​ Battle of San Jacinto ​ The decisive Battle of San Jacinto (April 21, 1836) led by General Sam Houston resulted in a resounding victory for the Texan forces. ​ The battle lasted only 18 minutes, and the capture of Santa Anna ensured the independence of Texas. ​ Treaty of Velasco ​ Following the Battle of San Jacinto, a peace treaty, known as the Treaty of Velasco, was signed on May 14, 1836. ​ The treaty recognized the independence of the Republic of Texas and established the Rio Grande as its southern boundary. The Lone Star Republic Republic of Texas: ​ The Republic of Texas was officially established, and David G. Burnet served as the interim president. The republic functioned as an independent nation for nearly a decade. ​ Struggle for Recognition ​ The new Republic of Texas faced challenges in gaining international recognition.  Only a few countries, including the United States, France, and the United Kingdom, formally acknowledged Texas as an independent nation. People of the Texas Revolution Sam Houston ​ A military leader and statesman, ​ Houston served as the commander-in-chief of the Texan forces during the revolution. ​ He led the decisive victory at the Battle of San Jacinto. Davy Crockett ​ A former U.S. Congressman and frontiersman ​ Crockett joined the defenders at the Alamo. ​ He became a legendary figure in American folklore. Santa Anna ​ Antonio López de Santa Anna was the Mexican general and president who led the Mexican forces during the Texas Revolution. ​ He was captured at the Battle of San Jacinto, leading to the signing of the Treaty of Velasco. ○​ This led to the conclusion of the War Election of 1844 Candidates: James K. Polk (Democrat): ​ Former Governor of Tennessee and Speaker of the House. ​ Advocated for territorial expansion, including the annexation of Texas and the Oregon Territory. ​ Strong supporter of Manifest Destiny. ​ Campaign slogan: "54°40' or Fight!" referring to the northern boundary of the Oregon Territory. Henry Clay (Whig): ​ Former Senator, Secretary of State, and Speaker of the House. ​ Known for his role in the Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850. ​ Initially avoided taking a clear stance on the annexation of Texas. Polk’s Appeal ​ Polk emerged as a "dark horse" candidate at the Democratic National Convention, surprising many by securing the nomination. ​ Polk strategically appealed to the expansionist sentiments of the public, emphasizing the annexation of Texas and the Oregon Territory. ​ Prior to the election, the Oregon Treaty was negotiated with Britain, establishing the 49th parallel as the boundary. This diplomatic success bolstered Polk's image. ​ Henry Clay's ambiguity on the annexation of Texas may have cost him support, as it left voters uncertain about his position Annexation of Texas ​ Texas gained independence from Mexico in 1836 and operated as the Republic of Texas for nearly a decade. ​ Texans, particularly those of American descent, sought annexation into the United States for various reasons, including economic ties, protection against potential Mexican reconquest, and the fulfillment of Manifest Destiny. ​ The annexation of Texas became a major issue in the presidential election of 1844. Democratic candidate James K. Polk was a strong supporter, while Whig candidate Henry Clay took a more cautious stance. ​ President John Tyler (a Whig), in the waning days of his presidency, initiated negotiations for the annexation of Texas. ○​ He did this so he could be remembered for the Annexation of Texas and not Polk War with Mexico Cause of the War ​ Territorial Disputes a.​ Border disputes between the newly annexed Texas and Mexico. ​ Manifest Destiny a.​ Belief in the U.S. mission to expand across the continent. ​ Polk's Expansionist Policies a.​ President James K. Polk's desire to acquire California and New Mexico. Polk’s Quest for California ​ Polk wanted to fulfil Manifest Destiny ​ California was wanted by Polk because of the following reasons ○​ Natural ports and harbors (San Diego, San Francisco) ○​ Direct trade access with Asia ○​ More land = more resources ​ Control over California would enhance U.S. national security by securing important naval bases and preventing potential European powers from establishing a foothold on the Pacific Coast. Tensions Rising ​ Texas Border Dispute ​ Mexico claimed the Nueces River as the border, while the U.S. insisted on the Rio Grande. ​ U.S. Troop Movement ​ U.S. troops, commanded by General Zachary Taylor, were stationed near the disputed border, leading to tensions. ​ Thornton Affair ​ In April 1846, a clash between Mexican and American forces, known as the Thornton Affair, heightened hostilities. Declaration of War “American Blood on American Soil” ​ President Polk, in his message to Congress in May 1846, stated that "American blood had been shed on American soil" and requested a declaration of war. ​ The war was controversial; Whigs like Abraham Lincoln (yes, that one) opposed it, viewing it as an unjust aggression. ○​ Because it was claimed by Mexico, they believed that the US had invaded. Zachary Taylor Early Life: ​ Zachary Taylor was born in Virginia in 1784 and grew up in Kentucky. ​ He came from a family with a military background. ​ Mexican-American War: ​ Taylor played a crucial role in the early stages of the Mexican-American War. ​ Commanded the U.S. forces at the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma in 1846, achieving victories against Mexican forces. ​ After defeating Mexican forces, Taylor's forces occupied northern Mexico, including the key city of Monterrey.  ​ Would become the 12th President Stephen Kearny ​ Western Expedition (1845): ​ Kearny led an expedition to the West in 1845, reaching Santa Fe, New Mexico, and helping secure the territory without significant conflict. ​ Mexican-American War: ​ Kearny played a key role in the war, leading the U.S. Army's Army of the West. ​ He played a significant role in the conquest of California, securing it without significant resistance. ​ Occupation of California: ​ Kearny's forces, along with the help of American residents in California, secured the territory for the United States. Winfield Scott ​ Military Career: ​ Scott had a distinguished military career, including service in the War of 1812 and the Black Hawk War. ​ Mexican-American War: ​ Scott played a crucial role in the later stages of the Mexican-American War. ​ Commanded U.S. forces in the successful amphibious assault on Veracruz in 1847. ​ Capture of Mexico City: ​ Scott's forces continued their advance, culminating in the capture of Mexico City in September 1847. ​ The victory solidified U.S. control over Mexico and played a significant role in ending the war. Bear Flag Revolt ​ Occurred during the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). ​ California was under Mexican control, and tensions rose as the war progressed ​ Started on June 14, 1846, in Sonoma, California. ​ A group of American settlers, led by Ezekiel Merritt and William Ide, declared California's independence from Mexican rule. ​ The rebels captured General Mariano Vallejo, a Mexican military commander, to prevent resistance. ​ U.S. forces, under the command of John C. Frémont, arrived, and the Bear Flaggers joined the American forces. Civil War Generals in the War Ulysses S. Grant: ​ Mexican-American War: Grant served as a lieutenant in the Mexican-American War, participating in several battles, including the Battle of Monterrey. ​ Civil War: Grant became the Commanding General of the Union Army during the Civil War and played a crucial role in the Union victory. Robert E. Lee: ​ Mexican-American War: Lee distinguished himself as a military engineer during the Mexican-American War. He served under General Winfield Scott. ​ Civil War: Lee became a Confederate general and commanded the Army of Northern Virginia, becoming one of the most iconic figures of the Confederacy. George McClellan: ​ Mexican-American War: McClellan served as a lieutenant in the Mexican-American War, gaining experience in reconnaissance and mapmaking. ​ Civil War: McClellan became a major general in the Union Army and later served as the commander of the Army of the Potomac. Stonewall Jackson (Thomas J. Jackson): ​ Mexican-American War: Jackson served as a first lieutenant in the Mexican-American War but did not gain significant recognition. ​ Civil War: Jackson became one of the Confederacy's most skilled and effective generals, earning the nickname "Stonewall" for his steadfastness in battle. George Pickett: ​ Mexican-American War: Pickett served as a second lieutenant in the U.S. Army during the war. ​ Civil War: Pickett is best known for leading the ill-fated Pickett's Charge at the Battle of Gettysburg as a Confederate general. William Tecumseh Sherman: ​ Mexican-American War: Sherman served as a second lieutenant and saw action in several battles.  ​ Civil War: Sherman played a crucial role as a Union general, known for his "March to the Sea" campaign. Military Campaigns ​ Taylor's Campaign: Zachary Taylor's successful campaigns in northern Mexico, including the Battle of Buena Vista. ​ Kearny's Campaign: Stephen Kearny's conquest of New Mexico and California. ​ Scott's Invasion: Winfield Scott's amphibious invasion at Veracruz and subsequent capture of Mexico City. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) ​ Recognition of the Rio Grande as the southern border of Texas. ​ Cession of California and New Mexico to the U.S. (Mexican Cession). ​ U.S. payment of $15 million to Mexico. ​ Protection of rights for Mexican citizens in the ceded territories. West Coast - California Gold Rush & Oregon Trail California Gold Rush ​ The Gold Rush began in 1848 when gold was discovered at John Sutter's sawmill in Coloma, California. ​ James W. Marshall, a carpenter working for Sutter, found gold in the tailrace of the mill. ​ News of the discovery spread rapidly, attracting people from around the world. ​ The population of California skyrocketed as gold seekers, known as "forty-niners," flocked to the region. ​ The Gold Rush triggered one of the largest and most diverse mass migrations in history. ​ People from various backgrounds, including Americans, Europeans, Asians, and Latin Americans, came in search of fortune. ​ The rapid influx of people led to the creation of boomtowns, which often grew quickly and faced challenges like lawlessness and inadequate infrastructure. ​ Notable boomtowns include Sacramento, San Francisco, and Virginia City Oregon Trail ​ The Oregon Trail was a key route for pioneers migrating from the Midwest to the fertile lands of the Oregon Country in the 19th century. ​ Pioneers were motivated by various factors, including the prospect of free land through the Donation Land Claim Act and the desire for a better life in the West. ​ The trail stretched over 2,000 miles from Missouri to Oregon, crossing challenging terrains such as mountains, rivers, and deserts. ​ Pioneers faced hardships, including harsh weather, disease, and encounters with Native American tribes. Pioneers ​ Pioneers organized themselves into wagon trains for mutual support and protection during the arduous journey. ​ Pioneers faced hardships, including harsh weather, disease, and encounters with Native American tribes. ​ Pioneers were motivated by various factors, including the prospect of free land through the Donation Land Claim Act and the desire for a better life in the West. Compromise of 1850 Background ​ The Compromise of 1850 was a series of legislative measures aimed at addressing the contentious issue of slavery in the territories acquired from Mexico after the Mexican-American War. ​ It was proposed by Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky and guided through Congress by Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois. Missouri Compromise ​ Admission of Missouri (1820): ​ The Missouri Compromise was enacted in 1820 as a response to Missouri's request for statehood, addressing the issue of maintaining a balance between slave and free states. ​ Slavery Line: ​ The compromise drew a line across the Louisiana Territory at 36°30'N, stating that slavery would be prohibited north of this line in the territories formed from the Louisiana Purchase. ​ Admission of Maine: ​ To maintain a balance, Maine was admitted as a free state at the same time as Missouri, ensuring an equal number of slave and free states in the Union. Wilmot Proviso ​ The Wilmot Proviso was proposed in 1846 by Congressman David Wilmot of Pennsylvania during the Mexican-American War. ​ It aimed to address the issue of slavery in the territories acquired from Mexico by prohibiting slavery in any territory acquired as a result of the war. ​ The Wilmot Proviso stipulated that "neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist" in any territory obtained from Mexico. ​ It sought to prevent the expansion of slavery into the newly acquired territories and to ensure that they remained free. Key Provision #1 (California) ​ California was admitted to the Union as a free state, meaning slavery was prohibited within its borders. ​ This upset the balance of power between free and slave states in Congress, as it added another free state. Key Provision #2 (Utah and New Mexico) ​ The territories of New Mexico and Utah were organized under the principle of popular sovereignty, allowing settlers in each territory to decide the slavery question for themselves. ​ This provision essentially repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which had prohibited slavery in territories north of latitude 36°30'. Key Provision #3 (Texas) ​ Texas ceded its claims to vast territories in exchange for the federal government assuming its debts. ​ This resolved boundary disputes with New Mexico and provided compensation to Texas. Key Provision #4 (Slavery in the Capital) ​ The slave trade (but not slavery itself) was abolished in Washington, D.C., although slavery remained legal in the district. ​ This was seen as a compromise between Northern and Southern interests regarding the status of slavery in the nation's capital. Key Provision #5 Fugitive Slave Law ​ A more stringent Fugitive Slave Law was enacted, requiring citizens to assist in the capture and return of escaped slaves. ​ This provision was deeply unpopular among abolitionists and sparked controversy and resistance in Northern states.