Earth Science Reviewer 1st Quarter PDF

EARTH SCIENCE REVIEWER 1ST QUARTER 1. Does the moon make Earth a livable planet? The moon moderates our home planet’s wobble on its axis, leading to a relatively stable climate; the moon exerts a gravitation pull on Earth. 2. What are the factors that make Earth habitable? TEMPERATU...

EARTH SCIENCE REVIEWER 1ST QUARTER 1. Does the moon make Earth a livable planet? The moon moderates our home planet’s wobble on its axis, leading to a relatively stable climate; the moon exerts a gravitation pull on Earth. 2. What are the factors that make Earth habitable? TEMPERATURE, ATMORSPHERE, NUTRIENTS, ENERGY 3. A system is an interconnected set of components that are linked through interconnections that function to create an outcome. 4. All of the systems on Earth are classified as open systems. However, the Earth system as a whole is considered a closed system because there is a limit to how much matter is exchanged. 5. Closed system – is a system in which there is only an exchange of heat or energy and no exchange of matter. OUR EARTH SYSTEM HAS 4: BIOSPHERE, HYDROSPHERE, ATMOSPHERE, GEOSPHERE BIOSPHERE – composed of all living things HYDROSPHERE – composed of all water in any form ATMOSPHERE – composed of gases in varying amount; serves as the Earth’s blanket GEOSPHERE – compromises the geologic forms such as hills and mountains 6. Characteristics of minerals: naturally occurring, solid, inorganic, orderly crystalline structure, has definite chemical composition. 7. Rocks are considered to be a combination of one or more minerals. 8. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERAL:  CRYSTAL FORM - The external appearance of a mineral, known as its crystal form, reflects its internal atomic arrangement. Crystals are solid, homogeneous structures with an orderly array of atoms and can vary in size. LUSTER - This property describes the appearance of a mineral when light is reflected from its surface. Is it shiny or dull: does it appear as like a metal or like glass? COLOR - The color of a mineral is its most noticeable feature but often unreliable for identification. Many minerals can appear in various colors due to impurities or additional chemicals that alter their expected color. STREAK - The streak of a mineral, its color in powdered form, is more reliable for identification than its outward color, especially for minerals with metallic or earthy luster. This is obtained by rubbing the mineral on a streak plate, revealing its true internal color. HARDNESS – This refers to a measure of the resistance of a mineral to abrasion or scratching. - Uses Mohs Scale to measure the mineral’s hardness. (DIAMOND is the hardest. TALC is the softest mineral.) CLEAVAGE – A mineral that exhibits cleavage consistently breaks, or cleaves, along parallel flat surfaces called cleavage planes. FRACTURE - Minerals that don’t exhibit cleavage break with fractures, such as quartz with its conchoidal fracture. Fractures can be smooth and curved, splintery, fibrous, or irregular, and are generally rougher and duller than cleavage surfaces, aiding in mineral identification. Cleavage and fracture are different ways in which minerals break: ⮚ Cleavage: Minerals break along smooth, flat surfaces, creating distinct planes of weakness. ⮚ Fracture: Minerals break irregularly and roughly, without preferred planes. SPECIFIC GRAVITY - Specific gravity is the ratio of a mineral’s weight to the weight of an equal volume of water (specific gravity of 1.0). Most rock-forming minerals have specific gravities between 2.6 and 3.4, while ore minerals range from 5 to 8. High specific gravity helps identify minerals like barite and galena, with the average being around 2.7.  9. The eight most abundant elements found in Earth's continental crust (Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminum, Iron, Calcium, Sodium, Potassium, and Magnesium) also compose the bulk of minerals. True-False: FALSE 1. All minerals exhibit cleavage. TRUE 2. Rocks are aggregates of one or more minerals. TRUE 3. Most minerals are economically important. TRUE 4. Most minerals have a higher specific gravity than water. TRUE 5. The micas exhibit sheet-type cleavage. TRUE 6. A mineral can be composed entirely of one element. TRUE 7. Nearly 4,000 minerals have been named FALSE (diamond) 8. The hardest naturally occurring mineral is corundum. TRUE 9. The Mohs scale is used to describe the mineral property of a diamond. FALSE 10. Solid ice is a mineral. OTHER PROPERTIES OF MINERAL: Magnetism – Some minerals are attracted to a magnet. (E.g. Magnetite) Taste, Odor, Feel – some minerals have well defined taste, odor, and feel. Reaction with Acid – can be used to help identify some carbonate minerals and zeolites. Specific Gravity – heaviness of the mineral Density – measure of the mass of the certain volume of the sample minerals. The minerals are grouped according to their chemical compositions: 1. Silicate Minerals: The most abundant group of minerals. It contains oxygen and silicon atoms. 2. Non-Silicate Minerals: Make up only 5% of Earth’s crust. Does not contain silica-oxygen tetrahedral. Non-Silicate Minerals: 1. Carbonates: These minerals have one carbon atom combined with three oxygen atoms to form the carbonate ion, CO₃. These ions combine with metal cations to form carbonate minerals. 2. Oxides: This class includes minerals where the oxide anion is bonded to one or more metal cations. 3. Halides: These minerals include the halogen elements of chlorine, fluorine, bromine, and iodine combined with one or more metals. 4. Sulfides: An important group of minerals that includes the majority of ore minerals for nickel, lead, iron, copper, cobalt, zinc, and silver. 5. Sulfates: Compounds made of sulfur combined with oxygen and any metal, and naturally occurring salts of sulfuric acid. 6. Phosphates: These are naturally occurring salts of phosphoric acid, with the chemical formula H₃(PO₄).: 7. Native Element Minerals: These are naturally occurring minerals that include semi non-metals, metal elements, and metallic alloy minerals. 10. Igneous rocks form when magma cools and solidifies through crystallization. - The size of the crystals depends on the cooling rate: faster cooling results in smaller crystals, while slower cooling allows for larger crystals to form. Classification of Sedimentary Rocks ⮚ Detrital sedimentary rocks form from the accumulation of materials derived from pre-existing rocks, transported as sediments through mechanical and chemical weathering. Common examples include shale, siltstone, sandstone, conglomerate, and breccia. ⮚ Chemical sedimentary rocks form when dissolved substances precipitate from pre-existing rocks through inorganic or organic processes. This can happen directly through inorganic means or indirectly through the life processes of organisms like snails and clams, which produce calcium carbonate, giving these rocks a biochemical origin.  ⮚ Metamorphic rocks form from igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks through changes in mineral composition and texture due to high temperature and pressure. - The degree of metamorphism is reflected in the rock’s texture and mineralogy, ranging from low-grade (slight changes, like shale to slate) to high-grade (substantial changes that obliterate original features). AGENTS OF METAMORPHISM: ⮚ HEAT ⮚ PRESSURE OR STRESS DUE TO CONFINING PRESSURE AND DIFFERENTIAL STRESS DURING MOUNTAIN BUILDING ⮚ CHEMICALLY ACTIVE FLUIDS (MAINLY WATER AND OTHER VOLATILES) which promote recrystallization by enhancing ion migration Limestone is the most common and most abundant chemical sedimentary rock, which is made up mostly of calcium carbonate. The 2 types of metamorphism include regional metamorphism and contact metamorphism. Heat is the most important factor that provides the energy to drive the reactions that result in the recrystallization of minerals. Mining: The process of extracting minerals from a rock seam or ore, which is a natural rock or sediment containing one or more valuable minerals. Modern Mining Technology: Geophysical Techniques: Utilizes methods to measure the magnetic, gravity, and sonic responses of rocks. Purpose: Helps locate prospective mineral ore bodies by analyzing the properties of rocks above and around the ore. Methods of Mining: A. Surface Mining: Used to extract ore minerals near the surface of the earth. Blasting: Controlled use of explosives and gas exposure to break rocks. 1. Open-pit Mining: o Most common type of surface mining. o Involves creating a large pit in the ground through blasting and drilling. o Used to mine gravel, sand, and rock. 2. Strip Mining: o Involves removing a thin strip of overburden (earth or soil) above a desired deposit. o The removed overburden is dumped behind the deposit. o The desired deposit is extracted, and the process is repeated in parallel strips. o Used for coal, phosphates, clays, and tar. 3. Dredging: o Mining materials from the bottom of bodies of water, including rivers, lakes, and oceans. B. Underground Mining: Used to extract rocks, minerals, and other valuable materials found beneath the earth’s surface. Tunnel Creation: Miners create tunnels to reach ore minerals.  Cost and Safety: More expensive and dangerous compared to surface mining due to the need for explosive devices to remove minerals from the surrounding rocks. Mineral Processing: The process of extracting minerals from the ore, refining them, and preparing them for use. Primary Steps: 1. Sampling: o Removal of a portion representing the whole for analysis. 2. Analysis: o Evaluates the valuable components in an ore. o Includes chemical, mineral, and particle size analysis. 3. Comminution: o Separation of valuable components through crushing and grinding. o Begins with crushing ores to a particular size and finishes by grinding them into a powder form. 4. Concentration: o Separation of valuable minerals from raw materials. 5. Dewatering: o Converts concentrated minerals into usable forms. o Involves filtration, sedimentation, and drying of solid materials. Fossil Fuels: Energy sources derived from the fossilized remains of once-living plants and animals from millions of years ago. Formation: Remains of dead plants and animals were buried and fossilized in the Earth’s crust. Found beneath the Earth’s surface. Composition: Composed mainly of hydrocarbons (high content of carbon and hydrogen). Types of Fossil Fuels:  Coal Oil (including petroleum) Natural Gas Coal: Type: Non-renewable fossil fuel. Form: Solid rock. Origin: Dead plant and animal matter accumulated over millions of years. Composition: High carbon content. Extraction Methods: o Surface Mining (Strip Mining): Removal of rock and soil layers to access coal deposits. o Underground Mining: Use of heavy machinery to extract coal from deep underground. Oil / Crude Oil (Petroleum): Type: Non-renewable fossil fuel. Form: Liquid. Composition: Mostly hydrocarbons. Origin: Remains of ancient marine organisms like plants, algae, and bacteria. Extraction Methods: o Drilling: On land or at sea. o Strip Mining: For tar sands oil and oil shale. Uses: Transformed into fuels like propane, kerosene, gasoline, and used in making plastics and paints. Natural Gas: Type: Non-renewable fossil fuel. Form: Odorless, colorless hydrocarbon gas. Composition: Mostly methane (CH₄). Origin: Remains of plants, animals, and microorganisms from millions of years ago. Extraction Methods:  o Conventional Natural Gas: Found in porous rock beds or oil reservoirs, extracted through drilling. o Unconventional Natural Gas: Requires special stimulation due to difficulty or expense in extraction. Formation Process: Origin: All fossil fuels originated from the remains of living organisms that lived millions of years ago. o Coal: Formed from vegetation. o Oil: Formed from marine organisms. Over millions of years, these remains were buried deeper beneath the Earth’s surface. As the remains were buried deeper, they experienced extreme heat and pressure. High pressure and temperature resulted in the formation of fossil fuels. Modern Extraction and Uses: Fossil fuels are drilled and extracted for human use. Coal: o Used in power plants to generate electricity. Oil: o Refined and transformed into usable fuels like gasoline. Natural Gas: o Used as fuel and a source of energy for electricity. Types of Energy Resources: Renewable Energy Resources: o Natural sources of energy that can be replenished over time. o Often called clean energy. o Examples: Solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal, biomass. Non-Renewable Energy Resources:  o Energy resources that deplete and cannot be replenished. o Examples: Coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear energy 1. Geothermal Energy: o Derived from the Greek words “geo” (earth) and “therme” (heat). o Energy from the heat within the Earth. o Utilizes the Earth’s internal heat, which increases with depth due to the hot core composed mainly of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni). 2. Hydroelectric Energy: o Energy generated from the movement of water. o Typically involves the use of dams to harness the energy of flowing water to generate electricity. Earth’s Structure: Layers: o Crust: The outermost layer. o Mantle: Beneath the crust. o Outer Core: Semi-liquid layer. o Inner Core: Solid layer, composed mostly of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni). Temperature: Increases as you go deeper into the Earth due to the hot core. Geothermal Energy: Energy from the heat within the Earth. Derived from the Earth’s internal heat, which increases with depth. The heat from the core melts materials in the mantle, creating magma. Magma can push through the Earth’s crust, leading to volcanic eruptions and hot springs. Hydroelectric Energy: Energy derived from the flow of water. The term “hydro” comes from the Greek word for water. Kinetic Energy: The energy of motion. Flowing water possesses kinetic energy. - The kinetic energy of moving water is harnessed and converted into electricity. Geothermal Energy Generation Process ⮚ Heat Source: o Earth’s core generates extreme heat. o Heat melts materials in the mantle, forming magma. ⮚ Magma and Water Interaction: o Magma heats water trapped in rock formations beneath the Earth’s surface. o Heated water turns into steam. ⮚ Steam Extraction: o Wells are drilled 1 to 2 miles deep to access steam or hot water. o As hot water rises, pressure drops, converting it to steam. ⮚ Energy Conversion: o Steam: Powers the turbine, converting kinetic energy to mechanical energy. o Turbine: Connected to a generator, converting mechanical energy to electricity.  ⮚ Electricity Distribution: o Generated electricity flows to step-up transformers to increase voltage for long-distance travel. o Electricity is then distributed through pole transformers and power lines to homes. ⮚ Cooling and Recycling: o Used steam is cooled in a cooling tower, condensing it back to water. o Water is injected back into the Earth via an injection well to sustain the process. ⮚ Geothermal Heat Pumps: Use heat just beneath the Earth’s surface. Provide heat for buildings or heat water Hydroelectric Energy Generation Process 1. Water Source and Dam: o A dam raises the water level to create a drop and stores water in a reservoir. o The higher the water level, the greater the potential energy. 2. Conversion to Kinetic Energy: o As water flows or drops down, potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. 3. Turbine Operation: o The kinetic energy of the moving water powers the turbine blades, causing them to spin. o This converts kinetic energy into mechanical energy.  4. Electricity Generation: o The turbine is connected to a generator, which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy (AC). 5. Voltage Transformation: o A transformer increases (steps up) the voltage of the generated electricity to ensure it can travel long distances. 6. Electricity Distribution: o High-voltage electricity is transmitted through power lines. o Transformers step down the voltage to suitable levels for community use. o The electricity continues to step down until it reaches homes and businesses. WATER Importance and Uses of Water Human Body Composition: 60% of the human adult body is water. Brain and Heart: 73% water. Lungs: 83% water. Skin: 64% water. Muscles and Kidneys: 79% water. Bones: 31% water. Earth’s Water Supply: Saltwater: 97.50% of Earth’s water is saltwater, which is not suitable for human consumption due to high salt content. Freshwater: Only 2.5% of Earth’s water is freshwater. Human Consumption: Freshwater: Essential for household and personal use, agriculture, and industries. Saltwater: Toxic to humans; too much salt can cause cell shrinkage and kidney failure. o Out of the 2.5% freshwater supply, 68.90% is locked up in icecaps and glaciers and is not accessible to humans. o Only about 31.10% of the freshwater supply, or about 1% of the Earth’s entire water supply, can be easily accessed by humans in underground aquifers, rivers, streams, and lakes. Water Cycle: o The water cycle replenishes the supply of water on Earth. o Three Major Processes:  ▪ Evaporation: Water turns into vapor and rises into the atmosphere. ▪ Condensation: Water vapor cools and forms clouds. ▪ Precipitation: Water falls back to Earth as rain, snow, sleet, or hail. WASTE Types of Waste 1. Liquid Waste: o Commonly found in households and industries. o Includes dirty water, organic liquids, wash water, waste detergents, and rainwater. o Wastewater may contain valuable organic substances and nutrients for agriculture. o Can be hazardous due to chemicals or pathogens, such as liquid waste blood from hospitals. 2. Solid Waste: o Plastic Waste: Bags, containers, jars, bottles, and other household products. Not biodegradable but many types can be recycled. o Paper/Card Waste: Packaging materials, newspapers, cardboards, and other products. o Tins and Metals: Appliances, product packaging, paint cans. o Ceramics and Glass: Figurines, jalousie, wine or liquor bottles. Glass can be recycled indefinitely. 3. Organic Waste: o Includes food waste (raw peelings, stems), garden waste (grass clippings, branches, leaves), manure, and rotten meat. o Organic waste decomposes into manure by microorganisms but should not be disposed of in landfills due to methane release. 4. Hazardous Waste: o Cannot be disposed of in regular garbage. o Includes products labeled WARNING, CAUTION, POISONOUS, TOXIC, FLAMMABLE, CORROSIVE, REACTIVE, or EXPLOSIVE.  o Examples: Batteries, fluorescent bulbs, electronics, small appliances, oil, gasoline, and auto fluids. o Improper disposal can contaminate groundwater, damage plumbing, and release toxins into the air and soil. Health and Environmental Impacts of Improper Waste Disposal 1. Introduction Modernization and progress have led to increased pollution of land, air, and water. Rising global population and demand for essentials result in more daily waste generation. 2. Waste Collection and Disposal Waste is collected by municipalities and transported to landfills and dumps. Inefficient practices and lack of resources can lead to improper waste management. 3. Health Hazards Infectious Diseases: Improperly managed waste, especially excretions and household waste, can spread infectious diseases. Vectors: Unattended waste attracts flies, rats, and other creatures that spread diseases. Odor and Hygiene: Decomposing wet waste releases bad odors, leading to unhygienic conditions and health problems. Water Contamination: Waste dumped near water sources can contaminate water bodies and groundwater, leading to toxic substances entering the food chain through plants and animals. Medical Waste: Improper disposal of hospital and medical waste (e.g., syringes, bandages) can create major health hazards. 4. Environmental Impact Methane Emissions: Decomposing garbage releases methane, a potent greenhouse gas contributing to climate change. Methane is produced by anaerobic bacteria in landfills with high moisture. Loss of Biodiversity: New landfill sites require clearing large areas of vegetation, displacing species and leading to biodiversity loss. Pollution: Poorly managed landfills can produce leachate, a toxic liquid pollutant containing heavy metals, chemicals, pesticides, and solvents, which can contaminate groundwater. 5. Mitigation Strategies Reduce, Reuse, Recycle: Practicing the three R’s helps minimize waste and its environmental impact. Everyone can contribute to making the world a safer and healthier place. Proper waste management is crucial to prevent health hazards and environmental pollution.  Awareness and efficient waste disposal practices can mitigate these risks.