Earth Science Reviewer (Made by ToasTy) PDF

Made by ToasTY EARTH SCIENCE REVIEWER LESSON: 2 SUBSYSTEMS Factors that makes Earth habitable:...

Made by ToasTY EARTH SCIENCE REVIEWER LESSON: 2 SUBSYSTEMS Factors that makes Earth habitable: Earth, one of the inner planets, is approximately 4.56 billion years (Can support life) old and the only planet known to support life. It operates as a Temperature:\ Life thrives in a range of -15˚C to 115˚C, closed system, receiving energy from the Sun but returning only a allowing liquid water to exist. portion to space. Biogeochemical cycles facilitate the recycling of Earth’s materials. Water: Liquid water is essential for dissolving and transporting materials. Atmosphere: A layered gas envelope, primarily composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and trace amounts of other gases. Key layers Atmosphere: Earth's atmosphere traps heat, contains include the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and vital gases, and protects against harmful radiation. thermosphere. Energy: Sufficient light and chemical energy support Hydrosphere: The liquid component of Earth, covering 70% of its metabolic processes. surface, with 98% being saltwater. Distance from the Sun: Earth is in the Goldilocks Zone, Geosphere: The solid part of Earth, where geological processes like providing optimal temperatures for life. volcanism and mountain building occur. The lithosphere is its outermost layer. Magnetic Field: It shields the planet from harmful solar radiation. Biosphere: The living component, encompassing all ecosystems and interactions between organisms and abiotic factors. Nutrients: Essential chemical components are readily available for organisms. MINERALS AND ROCKS Characteristics of a mineral Biogeochemical cycles and geological processes, such as the water cycle and volcanism, transport and Natural Occurring A solid Chemical composition replenish essential chemicals and nutrients. These systems, including volcanic activity and atmospheric Inorganic Inorganic Orderly crystalline structure interactions, facilitate the flow of nutrients within Earth’s ecosystems. Naturally Occurring: Minerals formstructure through natural processes like volcanic eruptions, liquid precipitation, and weathering. Synthetic Greenhouse Gases: The greenhouse effect keeps materials, such as lab-made diamonds and rubies, are not true Earth warm; without it, the planet would be over minerals. 60°F colder. Key greenhouse gases include water vapor, methane, and carbon dioxide. Solid: True minerals must be solid at Earth’s surface temperatures; liquids and gases lack a characteristic crystal Greenhouse Gases: The greenhouse effect keeps structure. For example, ice is no longer a mineral when it melts. Earth warm; without it, the planet would be over 8. **Plate Tectonics**: Earth's lithospheric plates 60°F colder. Key greenhouse gases include water Inorganic Processes: Materials from organic activity (e.g., leaves, shield the surface from the intense heat of the core, vapor, methane, and carbon dioxide. bones) are not minerals. Fossils may become mineralized over while convection currents in the mantle drive their time, as their organic tissues are replaced by inorganic materials. movement. Plate Tectonics: Earth's Earth's lithospheric plates shield Chemical Composition: Most minerals are compounds of two or 8. **Plate Tectonics**: lithospheric plates more elements, like halite (NaCl). Some consist of a single the shield the surface from the intense heat of thewhile surface from the intense heat of the core, core, element, like graphite (C). Minerals are defined by their chemical convection currents while convection in the in currents mantle drive their the mantle drive their formulas, with quartz represented as SiO2. movement. movement. Earth supports life through several key factors: a temperature range Orderly Crystalline Structure: Minerals have a regular, repeating that allows for liquid water, an atmosphere that traps heat and arrangement of atoms called crystal structure. For example, halite protects from radiation, and sufficient light and chemical energy for forms cubic crystals due to the right-angle bonds between sodium metabolism. Positioned in the Goldilocks Zone, it’s optimally (Na) and chlorine (Cl) atoms. distanced from the Sun. The strong magnetic field shields against solar radiation, and essential nutrients are readily available. Biogeochemical cycles, like the water cycle and volcanism, help transport and replenish these nutrients. The greenhouse effect, Through organic and inorganic processes, minerals are aided by gases such as water vapor and carbon dioxide, maintains formed. A Few naturally occurring substances called warmth, while plate tectonics protect the surface from the core's mineraloids have characteristic chemical compositions heat. but are amorphous (having no definite shape). Opal is an example.  Made by ToasTY CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS Classification of Sedimentary Rocks Sedimentary rocks are classified into two groups based on their material sources. Detrital sedimentary rocks form from ROCK CYCLE the accumulation of materials derived from pre-existing rocks, transported as sediments through mechanical and chemical weathering. Common examples include shale (the most abundant), siltstone, sandstone, and conglomerate or breccia. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: These rocks form when dissolved substances from pre-existing rocks are precipitated through inorganic or organic processes. Precipitation can occur directly from inorganic processes or indirectly through biological activity, such as water-dwelling organisms like snails and clams producing calcium carbonate, giving them a biochemical origin. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks: These rocks form when dissolved substances from pre-existing rocks are precipitated through inorganic or organic processes. Precipitation can occur directly from inorganic processes or indirectly through Igneous Rock biological activity, such as water-dwelling organisms like snails and clams producing calcium carbonate, giving them a Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of biochemical origin. magma through a process called crystallization. Crystal size is influenced by the cooling rate: faster cooling results in smaller Metamorphic Rocks: Metamorphic rocks, meaning "changed crystals, while slower cooling allows for larger crystals due to form," originate from igneous, sedimentary, or other more time for crystal growth. The texture of igneous rocks is metamorphic rocks. Metamorphism involves changes in classified into four types: mineral composition and texture due to high temperature and pressure, transforming pre-existing rocks. The degree of 1) fine-grained metamorphism is reflected in the rock's texture and 2) coarse-grained mineralogy, ranging from low-grade (slight changes, e.g., shale to slate) to high-grade (substantial changes that obliterate 3) porphyritic original features). 4) glassy. Texture refers to the size and arrangement of crystals in the rock. Importance of Minerals to Society - Mining techniques have revealed numerous mineral deposits, providing significant benefits. Minerals and metals are vital in cosmetics, metal equipment, glass production, energy, and construction. Libyan cosmetics - Ores are mixed with unwanted rocks and minerals called contain elements like lead and nickel, while durable metals gangue, which can be separated through mechanical or like copper and titanium are widely used. manual processes (Hassan 2010). In glass-making, quartz and gypsum are essential, and - Metallurgy extracts metals in pure form, using a substance uranium powers nuclear energy despite health risks. For called flux to remove impurities. construction, granite and copper (preferred for plumbing) are key materials. Jewelry has evolved from functional items to - Key metallurgical processes include: decorative pieces, with gemstones like diamonds and rubies Crushing and Grinding: Ores are pulverized into fine prized for their beauty. Overall, minerals play a crucial role in powder. societal progress and development. Ore Dressing: Impurities are removed from the ore. How Ore Minerals are Found, Mined and Processed for Human Use Hydrolytic Method: Ores are washed over a vibrating table, allowing denser particles to settle and impurities to be Ores are natural rocks or sediments containing valuable washed away. minerals, primarily metals, that can be mined and sold Magnetic Separation: Crushed ore is passed over a conveyor (Thalhammer 2008). They form over millions of years with a magnetic wheel to attract magnetic particles, leaving through three main processes: internal, hydrothermal, and non-magnetic ones behind. surficial. Internal processes involve geological activities like volcanic eruptions bringing ore to the surface. Hydrothermal Froth Flotation: Crushed ore is mixed with water and processes occur when seawater circulates through Earth's chemicals to separate valuable minerals from gangue. crust and deposits minerals around hydrothermal vents. Roasting and Calcination: The final methods involve heating Surficial processes involve the accumulation of ore through concentrated ore; roasting occurs in oxygen for sulfide ores, erosion (Evans 1993). while calcination heats carbonate or hydrated oxides Additionally, meteorites can deposit ore minerals on Earth, without air. These processes extract metals like copper, zinc, containing significant amounts of iron. Common surface and iron from ores such as chalcocite, galena, and sphalerite minerals include quartz, mica, and olivine, while various Utilizing: After extraction, metals are further purified or rocks like granite and basalt are found in the crust (Williams mixed in facilities like copper refineries and steel mills, while 2013). The ocean floor also hosts ore minerals and Volcanic Massive Sulfide (VMS) deposits, rich in resources such as gold ores are primarily used in jewelry. gabbro, basalt, and serpentine. Region X has five mining sites: Gango and Libona Ore is a nonrenewable resource essential for infrastructure (Bukidnon), Barangay Tumpagon and Pigsag-an (Cagayan and industry, leading to increased demand for new deposits. de Oro), Nangcaon (Opol, Misamis Oriental), and Miners explore globally, including ocean depths, to find Rogongon (Iligan City). Miners use methods like these resources. In the Philippines, the mining industry is tunneling, panning, and flushing. Tunneling is for significant, with the country holding the largest copper-gold underground extraction, while panning separates gold deposits and ranking fifth in mineral richness for gold, using water. Flushing removes impurities with high- copper, nickel, and chromite. velocity water. In 2018, it was the second-largest producer of nickel ore, Gold panning along rivers pollutes the Iponan River primarily exporting to China. Key mining regions include ecosystem, impacting aquatic life. Many miners use Northern and Southern Mindanao, with about 40 metallic indigenous methods for purification, with 57% in Gango and 62 non-metallic mines, though only 1.4% have mining using leaves and vinegar, despite some still using permits as of 2016. Mining methods include surface mining mercury. (e.g., strip and open-pit mining) and underground mining Leaching, using chemicals like cyanide, extracts metals (e.g., shaft and drift mining). but can contaminate water sources. Electrolysis is used for aluminum extraction from bauxite. The Philippine Mining Act of 1995 (R.A. No. 7942) supports mining, emphasizing health and safety.  ENERGY-FOSSIL FUELS Human Activities Affecting Soil Quality and Quantity: Fossil fuels are energy sources derived from the fossilized 1. Deforestation: Removal of trees leads to erosion remains of ancient plants and animals, buried and and nutrient loss. transformed in the Earth’s crust over millions of years. 2. Agricultural Practices: Intensive farming can Composed mainly of hydrocarbons—carbon and hydrogen— deplete soil nutrients and lead to compaction. fossil fuels include coal and oil (petroleum or crude oil). 3. Urbanization: Construction and land development disrupt soil structure and contribute - Coal: A non-renewable fossil fuel in solid form, originating to pollution. from ancient plant and animal matter, composed mainly of Soil Protection and Conservation Methods: carbon. It can be extracted through: Forest Protection: Preserving forests enhances soil formation - Surface Mining: Removing layers of rock and soil to access and quality through decomposition. coal deposits. Buffer Strips: Permanent vegetation strips reduce erosion - Underground Mining: Using heavy machinery to cut coal from water and wind, protecting stream banks. from deep deposits. No-Till Farming: Keeping crops in place prevents soil exposure - Oil (Crude Oil/Petroleum): A non-renewable liquid fossil fuel and erosion. composed mostly of hydrocarbons, originating from ancient marine organisms. It can be extracted by: Fewer Concrete Surfaces: Minimizing concrete allows water to reach the soil, aiding its health. - Drilling on land or at sea. Windbreak Areas: Planting shrubs and trees slows wind, - Strip mining for tar sands and oil shale. reducing soil erosion. - Used to produce fuels (propane, kerosene, gasoline) and Terrace Planting: Utilizing land topography to manage water materials (plastics, paints). flow protects soil and promotes moisture retention. - Natural Gas: An odorless, colorless hydrocarbon gas mainly Plant Trees: Tree roots stabilize soil, preventing erosion and made of methane (CH4), originating from ancient organic enhancing soil quality. remains. It can be: Crop Rotation: Alternating crops helps maintain soil fertility - Conventional: Extracted from porous rock beds or oil and prevents pathogen buildup. reservoirs via drilling. Water the Soil: Regular watering nourishes soil and protects - Unconventional: More difficult to extract, requiring against erosion. techniques like fracking. Maintain pH: Keeping soil pH between 6 and 7 ensures HUMAN ACTIVITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT nutrient availability for plants. What is Soil? No Soil Compacting: Avoid walking on wet soil to prevent Soil is the organic and inorganic material on Earth's compaction; use designated paths. surface that supports plant growth. It forms slowly through weathering processes. Control Storm Water: Managing excess water prevents flooding and allows for water reuse in gardens. Why is Soil Necessary? Monitor Growth: Regularly checking plant health can indicate Soil is essential for sustaining life, providing nutrients for soil quality issues. plants, purifying water, recycling organic materials, and serving as a habitat for various organisms. Despite its importance, soil quality is threatened by degradation processes like erosion, nutrient loss, salinization, pollution, compaction, and subsidence.  DIFFERENT TYPES OF WASTE Kinds of Waste: Solid Waste: Comprises solid materials like plastics, styrofoam, paper, scrap iron, and sludge from treatment plants. Liquid Waste: Includes liquids such as chemicals, oils, sewage, and wastewater from industrial and agricultural processes. Gaseous Waste: Consists of gases from operations like chopping and dissolution, including volatile radionuclides. Treatment methods include electrostatic precipitation and wet Several wastes disposal practices in the country include scrubbers to reduce emissions. concentrate and contain or also known as isolation specifically for solid waste. Landfills and dumps minimize the impact of waste in the environment. Landfill is a place to dispose waste material by burying or covering over with soil and becoming an extending usable land after a few years. Dump is an excavated piece of land for waste storage and regulated by the government. A dump is smaller than a landfill. Other useful options are composting, resource recovery and energy recovery.  Made by ToasTY EARTH SCIENCE REVIEWER (2) Color: Color is the most noticeable feature of a mineral, but it TERMS TO REMEMBER can be an unreliable diagnostic property since many minerals 1. inorganic processes- are found naturally in the occur in various colors due to impurities. These impurities can ground after the burial of the living materials e.g. introduce unexpected colors. For example, quartz can be salt or calcium carbonate (from shells and corals found in shades like pink, purple (amethyst), milky white, and reefs). even black, depending on the presence of different chemical 2. crystal structure – the atoms of a mineral must elements. be arranged in a definite pattern such as quartz Streak: Streak refers to the color of a mineral in its powdered 3. chemical composition – a mineral is composed form, which may differ from its outward color. This property is of two or more elements. particularly useful for identifying minerals with metallic or earthy luster. To obtain the streak, a mineral is scratched on an unpolished piece of white porcelain known as a streak plate, which is harder than most minerals. Rubbing the mineral produces a powder, and when the excess is blown away, the true color remains. Streak provides insight into the mineral's internal color, making it a more reliable identification method than color alone. Hardness: Hardness measures a mineral's resistance to abrasion or scratching. Geologists use the Mohs scale, which ranks 10 minerals from hardest (10) to softest (1). This scale helps identify minerals based on their ability to withstand wear. Cleavage: Cleavage refers to a mineral's tendency to break Minerals consist of an ordered array of atoms that form a along parallel flat surfaces known as cleavage planes. This specific crystalline structure, resulting in the regular characteristic results in consistent breakage patterns. Examples shapes known as crystals. Rocks are combinations of one of minerals that exhibit cleavage include halite, calcite, and or more minerals. The growth of crystals is influenced by fluorite. competition for space, leading to several defining features: Fracture: Fracture describes how minerals break when they do Crystal Structure: Regular geometric shapes with smooth not exhibit cleavage. For example, quartz breaks with a faces. conchoidal fracture, displaying smooth, curved surfaces like Orderly Arrangements: Repeating internal structures. broken glass. Other minerals may fracture into splinters or fibers, such as asbestos, while most have irregular, rough PROPERTIES Consistent Shapes:OF MINERALS Each mineral forms the same fractures that appear duller than cleavage surfaces. Different Physical Properties of Minerals crystal shape. types of fractures include fibrous, splintery, and irregular, each Basic Minerals are Crystalby identified Shapes: Six fundamental their distinctive physicaltypes exist. properties, aiding in the identification of specific minerals. which ariseCrystallographic Axes:composition from their chemical Used to determine the and crystalline crystalproperties structure. include color, luster, streak, "Ore" refers to metallic minerals like hematite (iron) and structure. These galena (lead), as well as nonmetallic minerals like fluorite cleavage, hardness, and chemical composition. and sulfur, which are mined for their valuable Crystal Form: This reflects the orderly arrangement of atoms substances. Minerals are classified by properties, within a mineral. Crystals can vary in size and often display chemical composition, or uses. smooth, geometric shapes, although such well-formed crystals are rare in nature. Luster: Luster describes how a mineral reflects light, indicating whether it is shiny or dull and resembling metal or glass. Minerals with a metallic appearance, like pyrite, exhibit metallic luster. Nonmetallic lusters are categorized using terms such as vitreous (glassy), pearly, silky, resinous, and earthy (dull). Some minerals may have a sub-metallic luster, appearing somewhat metallic while still being classified as nonmetallic.