Earth & Life Science Midterm 2 Reviewer PDF

EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE MID TERM 2 weak nuclear force, and REVIEWER electromagnetic force or the fundamental Chapter:...

EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE MID TERM 2 weak nuclear force, and REVIEWER electromagnetic force or the fundamental Chapter: forces. I.​ Universe and the Solar System FORMATION OF Protons and neutrons A.​ Big Bang Theory BASIC ELEMENTS combined to form B.​ The Origin of the Solar System hydrogen nuclei, then C.​ Classification of Planets hydrogen nuclei to II.​ Earth’s Subsystems combine to form A.​ Earth’s System helium nuclei III.​ History of the Earth and the Deformation (Nucleosynthesis) of the Crust RADIATION ERA Most of the energy in A.​ Geologic Time Scale the universe was in the B.​ Pangaea form of radiation. C.​ Plate Tectonics IV.​ Minerals and Rocks MATTER Matter began to DOMINATION dominate (Formation of A.​ Minerals Lithium) B.​ Rocks BIRTH OF STARS Dense clouds of gas CHAPTER I: UNIVERSE AND THE SOLAR AND GALAXIES became the birthplace SYSTEM of stars. (Group of stars became the galaxies) LESSON I: BIG BANG THEORY PROOF OF THE BIG BANG THEORY BIG BANG THEORY HUBBLE’S An indication that ​ Proponents: Alexander Friedmann and OBSERVATION (RED distant galaxies are Georges Lamaitre SHIFT THEORY) receding from earth at ​ 1920 an increasing velocity. ​ 13.7 Gya COSMIC The electromagnetic ​ “There was nothing and nowhere” MICROWAVE radiation left from an ​ Due to random fluctuation in an empty void, BACKGROUND early stage of the there was a great explosion or expansion RADIATION (CMBR) universe. which sent space, time, matter, and energy in all directions. ​ According to the proponents of the big bang theory, all matter and energy in the universe are compact in a point called “Singularity”. TIMELINE OF BIG BANG THEORY INFLATION EPOCH The universe expanded. FORMATION OF THE The universe continued UNIVERSE to expand (gravity, strong nuclear force, 1 DOPPLER EFFECT: REDSHIFT all of the matter moves away from point of origin. COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND RADIATION ​ The Big Bang theory predicts that the early universe was a very hot place and that as it expands, the gas within it cools. Thus, the universe should be filled with radiation that is literally the remnant heat left over from the Big Bang, called the “Cosmic Microwave Background”, or CMB. The ​ There are many everyday examples of the existence of the CMB radiation was first Doppler effect - the changing pitch of police predicted by Ralph Alpherin (1948) together and ambulance sirens, or train whistles and with Robert Herman and George Gamow. It racing car engines as they pass by. In every was first observed inadvertently in 1965 by case, there is an audible change in pitch as Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson at the Bell the source approaches and then passes an Telephone Laboratories in Murray Hill, New observer. Jersey. ​ The CMB radiation was discovered by chance in 1965. Penzias and Wilson, two radio astronomers in the United States, registered a signal in their radio telescope that could not be attributed to any precise source in the sky. CLARIFICATION ABOUT THE BIG BANG ​ Everyone has heard the increased pitch of an THEORY approaching police siren and the sharp ​ There was no explosion in Big Bang Theory decreases in pitch as the siren passes by and ​ The theory gives no explanation where and recedes. The effect arises because the sound how the singularity came to be. waves arrive at the listener’s ear closer ​ There is proof for the Big Bang Theory. together as the source approaches, and further apart as it recedes. STANDARD MODELS ORIGIN OF THE ​ The Doppler red-shift of light observed from UNIVERSE distant stars and galaxies gives evidence that ​ BIG BANG THEORY the universe is expanding (moving away ○​ Georges Lamaitre and Alexander from a central point). This allows for Big Friedmann Bang Theory, because after a “bang” occurs 2  ○​ The universe started from a such as flatness, monopole, and singularity of extreme density and horizon. temperature which rapidly expanded in volume. ​ STRING THEORY ○​ Gabriele Veneziano ​ STEADY STATE THEORY ○​ Suggests that the fundamental ○​ Fred Hoyle, Hermann Bondi, building blocks of the universe aren’t Thomas Gold, and Albert Einstein tiny particles like electrons or ○​ Universe is the same at any time and quarks, but instead, they’re tiny, at any place in space. It has no vibrating strings of energy called beginning nor end. Matter is “String” (which are either closed or continually being created to keep the open). universe constant. ○​ “Theory of everything” ○​ Struggled to account for ​ M-THEORY observational evidence such as the ○​ Edward Witten CMB and the discovery of the ○​ M-Theory is a more advanced evolution of galaxies over time. version of string theory. ​ PULSATING THEORY (OSCILLATING ○​ Introduces the concept of “Branes” MODEL) (short for membranes), which are ○​ Paul Steinhardt, Neil Turok, and multi-dimensional objects. While Roger Penrose “Strings” are one-dimensional, ○​ The Universe undergoes a cycle of “Branes” can be two-dimensional, inflation and contraction and would three-dimensional, or even inflate again like it did at the start of higher-dimensional. Big Bang. OTHER THEORIES ​ INFLATION THEORY ○​ Alan Guth, Andrei Linde, Paul Steinhart, and Andy Albrecht ○​ Regarded as an extension of the standard Big Bang Theory ○​ Offered solutions to the unresolved problems of the Big Bnag Theory 3 LESSON II: THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR referred to as interstellar gas and dust cloud; SYSTEM the condensing material could have been caused by a nearby supernova shockwave. DESCARTES’ VORTEX THEORY ​ Rene Descartes PROPERTIES AND CURRENT INFORMATION ​ The Solar System was formed into bodies ABOUT THE SOLAR SYSTEM with nearly circular orbits because of the ​ The orbits of most planets are almost on the whirlpool-like motion in the pre-solar same plane (Flat Solar System). materials. ​ Planetary orbits are nearly circular. ​ Primary Whirlpool Motion: Planets ​ Planets revolve around the sun in ​ Secondary Whirlpool Motions: Satellites “Counterclockwise” direction. ​ Satellites and planets contain almost the BUFFON’S COLLISION THEORY rotational motion of the solar system. ​ George-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon ​ The solar system also contains asteroids and ​ Proposed that the planets were formed by comets. the collision of the sun with a giant comet; ​ NASA’s Webb Captures Dying Stars Final ​ The resulting debris formed into planets that 'Performance’ In Fine Detail. rotate in the same direction as they revolved around the sun. JEANS-JEFFREYS’ TIDAL THEORY ​ Sir. James Hopwood Jeans and Harold Jeffreys ​ Suggested a dualistic theory in which the sun and planets were produced by different mechanics. ​ The theory suggests that the planets are formed from condensed materials form the sun. KANT-LAPLACE NEBULAR THEORY ASTEROIDS ​ Immanuel Kant and Pierre Simon Laplace ​ Made up of rocks and are sometimes ​ The theory suggests that a great cloud of gas referred to as “Minor Planets” and dust, called “Nebula”, began to collapse ​ Atmosphere-free; orbit around the sun. because of gravitational pull; as the cloud ​ Main Asteroid Belt (Located between the contracted, it spun more rapidly. orbit of Mars and Jupiter). ​ The spinning cloud flattens into a ​ Ceres - The First Known Asteroid. pancake-shaped object with a bulge in the center, as the nebula collapses further, local COMETS regions contract on their own due to gravity ​ Composed mainly of ice (Frozen water and - which eventually become suns and planets. gas) and nonvolatile dust. ​ Kuiper Belt (Final Frontier) - Location of SOLAR NEBULAR THEORY short-term comets (i.e. Halley’s Comet) ​ The solar system was formed as a result of ​ Oort Cloud - Long-period Comets. the condensation of hydrogen gas and dust 4 LESSON III: CLASSIFICATION OF PLANETS ​ HELIOCENTRIC THEORY ○​ Nicolaus Copernicus proposed the TERRESTRIAL JOVIAN PLANETS heliocentric theory. PLANETS ○​ The Sun Lies at the center and all the planets, including the Earth, rotate Inner Planets; Gas Planets; and revolve around it. Earth-like Jupiter-like ○​ The Catholic Church was opposed to Mercury, Venus, Earth, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, this model because it was against the Mars Neptune church’s beliefs. Dense, Rocky, and Hydrogen and Helium CHAPTER II: EARTH’S SUBSYSTEMS Metallic Materials WHY EARTH IS HABITABLE? ​ Atmosphere DWARF PLANETS ​ Energy ​ Orbits the Sun ​ Water ​ Has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to ​ Nutrients assume nearly-round shape. ​ Magnetic Field ​ Has not cleared the neighborhood around it. ​ Temperature ​ Not a satellite. ​ Habitable Zone Apparent Daily Motion - Celestial Objects (Stars, Planets, Moon, Sun) appear to move around the sky each day. LESSON I: EARTH’S SYSTEM MODELS OF THE UNIVERSE SYSTEM ​ GEOCENTRIC THEORY ​ A set of things working together as parts of ○​ Developed by Plato and Aristotle a mechanism or an interconnecting network. ○​ Refined by Claudius Ptolemy ○​ States that all the planets, stars, and CLOSED SYSTEM the sun revolves around the Earth. ​ Is that in which only the exchange of energy ○​ Earth-centered Model is allowed but the exchange of matter is not ○​ The Catholic church believed this allowed. model because God placed Earth at the Center. 5 ATMOSPHERE ​ CRUST ​ Contains all of the Earth’s Air and is divided ○​ Outermost layer of Lithosphere. into the following: ○​ The thinnest layer. (32-40 KM) ○​ Troposphere ○​ Stratosphere ○​ Mesosphere ○​ Thermosphere ○​ Ionosphere ​ MANTLE ○​ Second layer of the Lithosphere. ○​ About 3,700 C ​ Nitrogen 78%, Oxygen 21%, Argon 0.9%. ○​ Biggest and takes up 84% of the ​ Gasses like CO2, Nitrous Oxides, Methane, Earth (2,900 KM) and Ozone are “Trace Gases” that account ​ CORE for about a tenth of one percent of the ○​ Innermost layer of Lithosphere. atmosphere. ○​ Made of Iron and Nickel. ​ Functions: ○​ It has the oxygen that we need to HYDROSPHERE breathe ​ Contains all of the Solid, Liquid, and ○​ It filters the Sun’s rays. Gaseous water on Earth. ○​ It traps heat, allowing Earth to have a ○​ Surface Water comfortable temperature. ○​ Underground Water ○​ Important for Water Cycle. ○​ Water Vapor ○​ Protects us from Small Meteors ○​ Cryosphere - Contains all of the ○​ Weather planet’s ice. LITHOSPHERE BIOSPHERE ​ Consists of the Three Layers of the Earth. ​ Collection of all Earth’s life forms, distributed in major life zones known as “Biomes”. 6 CHAPTER III: HISTORY OF THE EARTH AND ​ Latest Eon: Phanerozoic Eon. The THE DEFORMATION OF THE CRUST emergence of Homo Sapiens Sapiens occurs in the Phanerozoic Eons. LESSON I: GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE ERAS GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE ​ Long ​ It is the “Calendar” for events in Earth ​ The Phanerozoic Eon is subdivided into History. eras. ​ It subdivides all time into named units of ​ Very significant events are used to set abstract time called—in descending order of boundaries of eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, duration—EONS, ERAS, PERIODS, AND and Cenozoic. EPOCHS. ​ The geologic time scale divides up the PERIODS history of the earth based on life-forms that ​ Short have existed during specific times since the ​ Eras are divided into periods. creation of the planet. EPOCHS ​ Shortest ​ The Cenozoic period is subdivided into 7 epochs. HADEAN EON ​ Hell on Earth (4.6-3.9 Gya) ​ Formation of earth from the planetesimals scattered in the early solar system. ​ Earth was a magma ocean. ​ Iron Catastrophe - Nearly all matter in the planet was molten, molten iron sank too deep to form earth’s core, leaving behind the mantle. ​ Gases bubbled up from the magma ocean to form a toxic unbreathable atmosphere. (N2, CH4, H2O, CO, CO2, SO2) ​ Earth had no permanent crust because the magma ocean constantly swallowed it, and meteor impacts constantly pulverized and EONS melted whatever crust was formed. ​ Longest ​ The shower of meteor and asteroid impacts ​ It is the largest subdivision in time intervals is called Late Heavy Bombardment Period. of earth’s history. ​ They are measured in Million Years. ​ Earliest Eon: Hadean Eon. 7 ARCHEAN EON PHANEROZOIC EON ​ Birth of the Earth’s Crust, Oceans, and Lifer ​ Explosion of Life (5.4 Ma to Present) (3.9 - 2.5 Gya) ​ PALEOZOIC ERA ​ Our planet had cooled enough to allow ○​ The Cambrian explosion resulted in magma at the surface to form rigid planets the appearance of many life forms: of rocks. ​ The first Vertebrates ​ By 2.7 Gya, cratons were formed, these ​ Amphibians were long lived blocks of durable ​ Reptiles continental crust. ​ Insects ​ Convective currents of magma moved plates ​ Gymnosperms and caused plate subduction. These led to ○​ Fish diversified, and the first aquatic the release of mantle plumes and formation animals occupied land. of volcanic arcs. ○​ During the CARBONIFEROUS ​ Protocontinents were formed. PERIOD, Earth became dominated ​ Active volcanism increased the supply of by VAST FOREST. As a result, the gas, including water vapor, which atmosphere reached its highest accumulated in the atmosphere. oxygenated state in geologic history. ​ As the earth continued to cool down, water ○​ Towards, PERMIAN PERIOD, the vapor condensed and fell onto the planet as CARBONIFEROUS FOREST water. At around 3.8 billion years, water had ECOSYSTEM COLLAPSED, accumulated, leading to the formation of leading to the extinction of many oceans, and rivers. species of plants and animals. (PERMIAN EXTINCTION) PROTEROZOIC EON ○​ The land masses formed ONE ​ Transition to the Modern World (1.5 - 5.4 SUPERCONTINENT called Ma) PANGAEA. ​ Cyanobacteria became widespread and contributed to the increased oxygenation of ​ MESOZOIC ERA the atmosphere. During this time period, ○​ The FIRST DINOSAURS and oxygen in the atmosphere was 15% more MAMMALS appeared. than what it is today. ○​ Dinosaurs and gymnosperms ​ Separated protocontinents merged to form occupied different niches and large continents. Fast moving plates colonies leading to increased stabilized and formed large plates. diversity. They also spread, ​ Earth came to be abundant in bacteria and occupying different parts of the archaeans. supercontinent. ​ By 1.8 Gya, Eukaryotes appeared, and by ○​ The FIRST ANGIOSPERMS the end of the Proterozoic era, the first appeared. animals appeared. ○​ Some 175 Mya, PANGAEA began to BREAK APART. ○​ A mass extinction event (K-T EXTINCTION or K-Pg EXTINCTION) occurred at around 65 Mya. At the end of the 8  CRETACEOUS PERIOD, a giant ​ It was surrounded by a single ocean called asteroid crashed close to the PANTHALASSA. YUCATAN PENINSULA (CENTRAL AMERICA). The crater CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY is called the CHICXULUB ​ Alfred Wegener developed this theory in CRATER. Nearly 75% of all the 1915. He published his book “THE ORIGIN species of animals and plants OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS”, which become extinct. contained the theory on continental drift. ​ The continental drift theory states that ​ CENOZOIC ERA continents were once a single landmass, then ○​ Angiosperms and insects coevolved, slowly and gradually moved to reach their leading to the flourishing of insects present-day positions. and the emergence of angiosperms as the dominant plant form. GEOLOGICAL FIT EVIDENCE ○​ Mammals expanded and occupied ​ It is the matching of large-scale geological different land regions (age of features on different continents. The mammals). coastlines of South America and West ○​ The FIRST HOMINIDS appeared. Africa seem to match up. Scientists have found that rocks on the east coast of South RECAP America are the same as rocks found on the Hadean Eon- Hell on Earth west coast of Africa. Archean Eon- Birth of the Earth’s Crust, Oceans, and Life Proterozoic Eon- Transition to the Modern World Phanerozoic Eon- Explosion of Life Paleozoic Era- appearance of many life forms, including booming of forests, permian extinction, Pangaea, also called “Ancient Life” Mesozoic Era- Dinosaurs and mammals appeared, spread of gymnosperms, angiosperms appeared, breaking apart of Pangaea, mass extinction, also called “Middle Life” Cenozoic Era- booming of angiosperms and insects, THE EVIDENCE OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT mammals expanded, first THEORY hominids appearance, also called “Recent Life” 1.​ GEOGRAPHICAL - The mountain ranges of Buenos Aires, Argentina match the LESSON II: PANGAEA mountain ranges of South Africa. 2.​ PLANT AND ANIMAL FOSSIL PANGAEA 3.​ MINERAL AND OIL ​ A massive supercontinent that formed 4.​ PALEOCLIMATE (+ GEOGRAPHICAL between 320 million and 195 million years MATCH) - There are distinct scratch ago. 9  patterns left on rocks by ice sheets as they TYPES OF TECTONIC MOVEMENT slid past the surface rocks called GLACIAL STRIATIONS. 5.​ SEAFLOOR SPREADING LESSON III: PLATE TECTONICS PLATE TECTONICS ​ The theory of continental drift suggests that all the land masses on earth were once part of one super continent. PLATE ​ CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY TECTONICS states that the earth’s surface ○​ Two tectonic plates come together. is broken into numbers of SHIFTING PLATES OR SLABS. ​ DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY ​ The theory of plate tectonics revolutionized ○​ Two tectonic plates are moving away the earth sciences by explaining how the from each other. New crust is formed movement of geologic plates causes when the plates move away from mountain building, volcanoes, and each other. earthquakes. ​ It is also called LITHOSPHERIC PLATE, a ​ TRANSFORM PLATE BOUNDARIES massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid ○​ Two tectonic plates slide past each rock, generally composed of both other. continental and oceanic rock. TYPES OF TECTONIC PLATE TECTONIC DIVERGENT CONVERGE PLATES NT Continental- Rift Valleys Mountain Continental Ranges Oceanic- Rift Valleys; Volcanic Oceanic underwater Islands mountain ranges or mid-ocean ridges ​ OCEANIC PLATES Continental- Rift Valleys Trenches ○​ Lie under oceans. They’re denser Oceanic compared to continental crust, meaning they have more mass per LAND FORMATIONS OF TECTONIC unit volume. MOVEMENT ​ CONTINENTAL CRUST ○​ Is just the opposite. It’s located under 1.​ RIFT VALLEYS land masses and is less dense than ​ It is a lowland region that forms where oceanic plates. Earth’s tectonic plates move apart, or rift. 10  4.​ TRENCH ​ Ocean trenches are long, narrow depressions on the seafloor. One plate eventually slides beneath the other, a process known as SUBDUCTION. 2.​ MID-OCEAN RIDGES ​ These underwater mountains, or mid-ocean ridges, are formed from volcanic activity. They occur where two of the plates that 5.​ FAULT LINES make up the Earth’s crust are moving apart. ​ Transform boundaries often result in As the plates spread, magma rises up landforms such as fault lines and rift valleys. between the cracks and cools and hardens. These occur when tectonic plates slide past each other horizontally. ​ The SAN ANDREAS FAULT in CALIFORNIA is a well-known example of a landform created by a transform boundary. 3.​ VOLCANIC ARC ​ It is a chain of volcanoes, hundreds to thousands miles long, that forms above a subduction zone. An ISLAND VOLCANIC ARC forms in an ocean basin via CHAPTER IV: MINERALS AND ROCKS ocean-ocean subduction. LESSON I: MINERALS EARTH MINERAL ​ Refers to substances or objects that are extensively used in many geological and biological processes on the surface of the planet. They are, essentially, the materials 11 from which earth’s crust is made and the ​ Has a CRYSTALLINE sources of energy for human society. There structure - The internal are 4 of them: arrangement of its atoms, ○​ MINERALS - Are naturally ions, or molecules is orderly occurring inorganic solids that have arranged in the form of a a crystalline structure and definite lattice. Atoms, ions, or chemical composition. It is a molecules have a fixed building block of rocks. pattern that repeats its ​ HOMOGENOUS - It is made intervals called crystal lattice. of components that are the same in structure and in ○​ ROCKS - Are naturally formed chemical properties. When aggregates of minerals or you pound a mineral with a mineral-like substances (CALCITE, hammer, it breaks into tiny LIMESTONE, GRANITE, COAL similar fragments. (Contains no mineral)) ​ SOLID - Its shape is definite ○​ SOIL - A mixture of decomposed and stays as it is unless organic matter and broken down physically deformed by force. rocks and minerals. ○​ WATER - It is a clear, colorless, ​ NATURALly-occuring - It is odorless, and tasteless liquid which formed by processes found in is a molecule made from hydrogen nature, but chemists do and oxygen. MANUFACTURE MINERALS in laboratories MINERAL IDENTIFICATION “PHYSICAL called SYNTHETIC CHARACTERISTICS” MINERALS. 1.​ COLOR - Are colored because certain wavelengths of incident light are absorbed, ​ INORGANIC Substance - and the color we perceive is produced by the This means that the chemical remaining wavelengths that were not composition of minerals does absorbed. Some minerals are colorless. This not contain carbon bonded means that none of the incident light has hydrogen atoms. Substances been absorbed. that contain a combination of 2.​ STREAK - The color revealed mineral’s CARBON “C” and powder.Streak is a more reliable property HYDROGEN “H” are NOT than color because streak does not vary. INORGANIC. Minerals that are the same color may have a different colored streak.The streak of ​ Definable CHEMICAL hematite across an unglazed porcelain plate composition - We can write a is red-brown. particular chemical formula 3.​ LUSTER - Luster describes how a mineral's for a mineral like SiO2, surface reflects light and how the interior of Fe3O4, CaF2, etc. the mineral may refract or bend light. Some minerals have a metallic luster; some have a non-metallic luster. 12  cooling and solidification of molten (melted) rock. The word igneous derives from ignis, the Latin word for “fire.” Molten rock material is known as magma until it is erupted onto the surface when it then is termed lava. There are two broad types of igneous rocks: INTRUSIVE (PLUTONIC) ROCKS - Intrusive igneous rocks solidify within Earth. These rocks are also known as plutonic rocks—named for Pluto, the Roman god of the underworld. Intrusive igneous rocks are generally wholly crystalline and characterized by large crystal sizes visible to the naked eye because they cool slowly. EXTRUSIVE (VOLCANIC) ROCKS - Extrusive igneous rocks are erupted onto the surface or into 4.​ HARDNESS - It is a measure of the relative the atmosphere. Extrusive igneous rocks are also ability of a mineral to resist scratching. It is termed volcanic rocks—named for Vulcan, the measured by using MOHS HARDNESS Roman god of fire. Volcanic rocks have generally SCALE. smaller crystal size and usually have a 5.​ CLEAVAGE AND FRACTURE - very-fine-grained or glassy groundmass that formed CLEAVAGE is the way minerals break. It due to rapid cooling at the time of eruption. refers to the mineral break along the planes of weakness among in its atomic structure. 2.​ SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - Sedimentary When the break does not happen along the rocks are types of rock that are formed by planes of weakness, the break is called a the accumulation or deposition of mineral or FRACTURE. organic particles at Earth's surface, followed by cementation. Sedimentation is the LESSON II: ROCKS collective name for processes that cause these particles to settle in place. Common ROCKS sedimentary rocks include sandstone, ​ Rock is a naturally-formed, non living Earth limestone, and shale. These rocks often start material. Rocks are made of collections of as sediments carried in rivers and deposited mineral grains that are held together in a in lakes and oceans. When buried, the firm, solid mass. A rock may be made of sediments lose water and become cemented grains of all one mineral type, or a mixture to form rock. of different minerals. ​ SAND is a SEDIMENT. 3.​ METAMORPHIC ROCKS - Metamorphic rocks started out as some other type of rock, TYPES OF ROCKS but have been substantially changed from 1.​ IGNEOUS ROCKS - are “fire-born,” their original igneous, sedimentary, or meaning that they are formed from the earlier metamorphic form. Metamorphic 13  rocks form when rocks are subjected to high heat, high pressure, hot mineral-rich fluids or, more commonly, some combination of these factors. ROCK CYCLE ​ It is a continuous process where rocks are constantly being formed, altered, and recycled over millions of years. This cycle is driven by the Earth’s internal heat, pressure, and the actions of the wind, water and ice. 14