Early Attempt at Modernization - Late Qing Reform (1901-1911) PDF

Early Attempt at Modernization – Late Qing Reform (1901-11) Causes & Aims (pp.238-243) Programmes (pp.238-243) 1. Failure of defending against invasion 1. Educational reforms ~ anti-foreign feeling ran high in China after 19...

Early Attempt at Modernization – Late Qing Reform (1901-11) Causes & Aims (pp.238-243) Programmes (pp.238-243) 1. Failure of defending against invasion 1. Educational reforms ~ anti-foreign feeling ran high in China after 1900 ~ A modern school system was introduced  Boxer Uprising occurred ~ 1901 abolished eight-legged essay  in 1900, Boxer even declared war on foreigners and resulted in ~ 1905 abolished old Civil Service Exam the Eight-Power Expedition ~ 1905 Ministry of Education was set up  China was defeated & signed the Boxer Protocol in 1901. It ~ Thousands of students were sent abroad brought great humiliation to the Qing court. 2. Economic reforms  Cixi admitted that complete reorganization and strengthening ~ set up Ministries of Agr., Ind.& Commerce was needed to save the Qing Dynasty ~ built 10,000 miles of railways in 10 years 2. Rise of regional power ~ 1910 worked out a national budget ~ during the Boxer Uprising, the governors of SE provinces, such ~ 1911 announced a railway nationalization plan as Li Hongzhang & Liu Kunyi, ignored the imperial order & ~ agricultural & industrial academies were set up refused to attack foreigners 3. Social reforms  they signed ‘Mutual Protection Pact’ with foreigners ~ 1902 allowed Manzu-Han intermarriages  it showed that political decentralization was serious ~ 1902 prohibited foot-binding  the Qing government wanted to carry out reforms to stop ~ 1906 banned opium smoking decentralization and consolidate the Manzhu rule 4. Judicial reforms 3. Spread of revolutionary idea ~ 1903 commercial laws & a new criminal code ~ repeated failures of previous reform programmes (e.g. the Self- ~ 1906 Ministry of Justice was set up Strengthening Mov’t & the Hundred Days Reform)+repeated ~ 1906 a new legal system (torture was banned) failures in foreign wars (e.g 1 st & 2nd Anglo-Chinese Wars; Sino- 5. Military reforms Japanese War, etc) ~ 1901 abolished imperial military exam  many Chinese lost hope in the Qing Dynasty & supported Sun ~ 1903 set up Bureau of Military Training Yixian’s revolutionary movement  Beiyang Army was established under Yuan  Cixi therefore carry out extensive reforms to win over people’s ~ Military officers were sent abroad support & stop revolutionary activities ~ New military academies were established 4. Success of Meiji Modernization ~ 1906 set up Ministry of Army ~ Jap grew rich&strong after setting up the constitutional 6. Political reforms monarchy and introducing Westernized reforms ~1901 Ministry of Foreign Affairs was established  she even defeated China in the S-J War in 1894-95 and Russia ~1906 established 11 new ministries to replace Six in the R-J War in 1904-05 Boards (e.g. Civil Office, Revenue, War, etc)  there was an increasing demand in China to learn from Japan ~ Sinecures were abolished  some Chinese officials believed constitutional monarchy could ~1908 a nine-year programme of constitutional make China rich & strong & prolong Manzhu rule preparation 5. Rise of the reformists ~1909 provincial assemblies were set up with an ~ many anti-foreign conservatives were dismissed after the Boxer electoral system Uprising ~1910 national assembly was set up  the Qing court needed the support the reformists ~1911 Cabinet was formed (8 out of 13 were  proposals of Liu Kunyi, Zhang Zhidong were adopted Manzhus) 1  Early Attempt at Modernization – Late Qing Reform (1901-11) Significance for Chi modernization (pp.244-252) 1. Introduction of a modern political institution 4. Creation of modern military forces ~ LQR : introduced unprecedented pol measures e.g. Bureau of Military Training was set up e.g. set out a timetable for constitutional preparation; e.g. New Army of 270,000 was formed by 1911 e.g. issued the Outline of Constitution e.g. Military officers were sent to Japan to learn  people was granted freedom of speech, associations, etc modern military techniques within the limits of law  laid a foundation for building a strong army e.g. National Assembly became the model for a parliament  marked an important step towards China’s e.g. set up provincial & national assemblies in which military modernization electoral system was introduced 5. Establishment of a modern educational  in 1909, gentry like Zhang Jian & Yang Yusi actively system participated in the 1st election of provincial assemblies e.g. abolition of the civil service examination  the 1st time in Chinese history to have elections e.g. abolition the use of eight-legged essays  the first step towards China’s pol. modernization this inculcated people with independent 2. Establishment of a modernized legal system thinking & critical judgement ~ LQR : set up Office for the Revision of Law to revise the e.g. set up universities, secondary & primary existing legal code schools nationwide e.g. the setting up of the Great Qing New Criminal Code,  by 1909 52,000 new schools were set up the Great Qing New Civil Code with 1.5 million students  these codes made the trials fair and just e.g. sending a large no. of students abroad e.g. in 1906 Ministry of Justice took charge of the  no. of Chinese students in Japan, influenced administration of justice by western thoughts, reached 30,000 in 1908 e.g. the Supreme Court was only responsible for court  marked an important step towards China’s hearings educational modernization  this system embodied Western judicial independence  paved way for the cancellation of extraterritoriality in China 2 3. Encouraging the economic modernization 4. Enhancing quality of people ~ LQR : set up Ministries of Agr., Ind. & Commerce ~ LQR : stamped out unhealthy social conducts e.g. encouraging entrepreneurs to set up business e.g. lifting the ban on Manzu-Han  industries experienced rapid development intermarriages  around 300 factories & mines were set up (1902-11) e.g. free women from foot-binding e.g. set up citizen and commercial laws e.g. set up female normal school & female  private property was protected by law, investments were primary schools in 1907 encouraged e.g. abolished slavery in 1910 e.g. developed a nationwide railway network  helped wipe out the dispirited social  by 1910, merchant-run railway companies set up in 15 atmosphere and promoted social equality provinces, constructing a total of 422 km of railways  the Chinese economy was moving ahead with modernization 3  Early Attempt at Modernization – Late Qing Reform (1901-11) Limitation (pp.244-252) Reasons for failure (pp.244-252) 1. Unfulfilled promises of constitutional reform 1. Lack of capable leaders ~ Outline of Constitution granted the Qing emperor ~ Manzhu leaders were corrupt and incompetent (e.g. supreme power BUT Ronglu) ~ the National Assembly & provincial assemblies had ~ enthusiastic reformers were executed or imprisoned limited power + ~ Kang Youwei & Liang Qichao were forced to leave ~ the gov’t was not obliged to execute the decisions made by ~ Li Hongzhang died in 1901 & Liu Kunyi died in 1902 the National Assembly + ~ Cixi & Guangxu died in 1908 ~ Provincial governors could veto the motions proposed by ~ Zhang Zhidong died in 1909 the provincial assemblies ~ Yuan Shikai was forced to retire by Prince Chun  all these showed pol reform was only a cover up over Qing  no leading figure to take charge of reform programme court’s intention of maintaining autocratic rule 2. Lack of popular support 2. Ceaseless revolutionary movements ~ the abolition of civil service exam made the local ~ some LQR policies favoured the spread of rev. thought gentry lose hopes of becoming government officials e.g. students & military officers who were sent abroad  they no longer supported the gov’t exposed to Western ideas ~ the 3-year-old Puyi succeeded to the throne in 1908 e.g. many officers in the New Army advocated rev. ideas  people lost confidence in constitutional experiment  1911 Revolution  they turned to support the revolutionaries 3. Stagnant growth of industry & commerce 3. Lack of sincerity ~ the setting up of factories was in small scale ~ Cixi only wanted to make use of reforms to limit  hardly compete with foreign businessmen + provincial power and prolong Manzhu rule ~ China lost its tariff autonomy e.g. LQR made Manzu officials in the central gov’t  foreign trade deficit was 100 million taels on average & increased sharply while Han officials only accounted for climbed to over 200 million taels (1900-1911) less than 1/3 of high ranking positions 4. Unable to cultivate loyal armed forces e.g. long period for preparing Constitution (9-year ~ Beiyang army was trained by Yuan Shi Kai preparation)  Yuan planned his trusted subordinates there to strengthen  e.g. 8 members of Cabinet were Manzhus, etc & most his control over the New Army were Manzhu princes  the Army refused to pledge loyalty to the Qing gov’t  more Chinese supported revolutionary mov’t 5. Incomprehensive education reform 4. Lack of funds ~ many teachers were not trained by modern edu system ~ heavy indemnity (e.g. Boxer Protocol : 450 million  most schools continued to adopt the old curriculum taels of silver) + foreign loans  heavy burden e.g. out of 30 weekly classes in primary schools, 12 were e.g. Qing gov’t had to annually repay 46-47 million taels about Confucian classics of reparations & loans in their final years ~ compulsory edu were not implemented concurrently it made training of army were left incomplete & throughout the country due to different schooling condition schools lacked substantial development in each region ~ Qing also allowed local authorities to raise their own 6. Prevalent conservatives social norms funds for reform ~ gender equality & freedom of marriage remained  additional taxes and charges on people unacceptable for the most part of nation  people turned to support the revolutionaries 4  Early Attempt at Modernization – 1911 Revolution Causes (pp.256-260) 1. Incompetent government 4. Hardship among its people ~ continuous defeats in foreign wars showed Qing court was ~ continual population growth + insufficient unable to defend the country’s prestige + serious corruption + farmland + natural disasters (e.g. incapable leaders droughts,floods) + inadequate relief + heavy e.g. Cixi (1861-1908) was selfish & extravagant ; her anti- taxes + crop failure foreign sentiment caused the Boxers Uprising & Eight-Power  riots occurred between 1909 and 1911 Expedition  many starving people supported anti- e.g. Guangxu & Xuantong, came to the throne at a young age, Manzhu mov’t were weak-minded 5. Role of the revolutionaries  People blamed the gov’t for China’s weaknesses and so a. Makers of the revolutionary ideologies they supported the revolution ~ Sun set out “Three People’s Principles” 2. Impact of the Late Qing Reform  Nationalism : Manzhu ruling should be a. Failure of the constitutional reforms overthrown (驅除韃虜、恢復中華) ~ Outline of Constitution bestowed supreme power to the  Democracy : China should set up a emperor + formation of the ‘Royal Cabinet’ revealed the Qing republic (建立民國) gov’t only intended to solidify its rule  Socialism : Land ownership should be  all these disappointed the constitutionalists & they turned to equalized (平均地權) support the revolutionaries. b. founders of the revolutionary groups b. Resistance from the gentry ~ in 1894, Sun founded Xingzhonghui ~ abolition of the imperial civil service blocked the way of the ~ in 1905, Sun merged two other rev groups gentry to become officials +nationalization of private railways with Xingzhonghui & founded Tongmenghui harmed their interest in Tokyo  Qing lost their loyal support c. promoters revolutionary thoughts c. Spread of revolutionary consciousness ~ Sun won the support of the overseas ~ many students & army officers studied abroad and learned Chinese, returned students & the New Army thoughts about democracy ~ Sun raised funds for the revolutionary  they secretly established networks with revolutionaries mov’t & also founded newspapers in Japan 3. Foreign military and economic aggression and Shanghai to spread revolutionary ideas ~ signing of unequal treaties undermined China’s sovereignty ~ Zou Rong’s publication The Revolutionary ~ huge indemnity and foreign control of economy aroused Army advocated revolutions discontent of provincial power d. organizers anti-Qing uprisings ~ foreign powers divided China into their spheres of influences ~ 10 armed uprisings (1895-1911) were and lease of territories in China organized ~ foreign consortia lend money to Qing court and seized the e.g. Guangzhou Uprising (1895) railway rights in China e.g. Huizhou Uprising (1900)  it propelled the Qing gov’t to nationalize private railways & e.g. Huanghuagang Revolt (1911) angered the provincial authorities  though ended in failures, Sun learnt that  it sparked off the Railway Protection Movement : a direct military support was vital cause of the 1911 Rev 5  Early Attempt at Modernization – 1911 Revolution Course (pp.260-263) 1. Immediate cause : The Railway Protection 1. The Wuchang Uprising Movement ~ Qing gov’t transferred the New Army from Hubei to Sichuan to suppress the unrest there ~ during early 20th C, railway construction was  a good chance to hold an uprising in Oct, 1911 mainly financed by local governments  due to accidental bomb explosion at Hankou on 9 Oct  in May 1911, the central gov’t announced the  rev took place at Wuchang on 10 Oct under Li ‘nationalization of railways’ Yuanhong  the gov’t took over the construction rights of the  captured Hankou and Hanyang private Sichuan-Hankou and Guangdong-Hankou  proclaimed a republic at Wuchang lines and sold the rights to a group of foreign  15 provinces declared independence from the Qing banks court (aimed at gaining revenue and stopping the  Sun hurried back from the US decentralization)  it aroused strong opposition in many provinces, 2. The founding of the republic especially Sichuan ~ in Dec, 1911, representatives of the independence  Gentry, landowners & merchants who had put provinces met at Nanjing large investments in the railway construction  they formed a provisional gov’t joined to form the ‘Railway Protection Societies’  Sun was elected as provisional president  they organized mass demonstrations & strikes in  the Republic of China was founded at Nanjing on 1 Hubei, Hunan, Guangdong, Sichuan & other Jan 1912 provinces  gov’t troops fired on the demonstrators 3. The end of the Qing Dynasty  anti-Manzhus feeling ran high ~ the Qing gov’t summoned Yuan Shikai to lead the Beiyang Army in order to turn the tide  However, Sun negotiated with Yuan & promised Yuan the provisional presidency if he supported the republic & made the Qing emperor abdicate  Yuan succeeded in forcing Xuantong to abdicate on 12 February, 1912 and ended 268 yrs of Manzhu rule  Yuan finally took the position of Provisional President & he relocated the provisional gov’t to Beijing on 12 March 1912  the Beiyang gov’t was established 6  Early Attempt at Modernization – 1911 Revolution Significance (pp.263-266) 1. The ending of the dynastic system 4. Transforming feudal lifestyle & culture ~ the 1911 Rev overthrew the Qing Dynasty & its ~ the 1911 Rev speeded up Westernization monarchy which had existed for over 2000 yrs e.g. pigtail were removed  an important step towards political modernization e.g. women no longer to bind their feet ~ though Yuan Shikai proclaimed himself emperor in e.g. opium smoking was banned 1916 + Zhang Xun attempted to restore Puyi as emperor e.g. Western dress became more popular in 1917 e.g. Western calendar was adopted  they failed to revive the monarchical system in China e.g. rickshaws replaced sedan chairs 2. Establishment of republic ~ the new gov’t passed new education laws to ~ the 1911 Rev led to the adoption of constitutional allow women to receive education system in China e.g. from 1912 to 1913, no. of female schools rose ~ Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China was from 2,300 to 3,100 while no. of female students passed in March 1912 & bicameralism was adopted in increased from 140,000 to 160,000 May 1912 ~ some intellectuals were eagar to abolish feudal  it was the first constitution of modern China under the practices principle of separation of power among the legislative, e.g. Cai Yuanpei & Song Jiaoren organized a executive and judicial branches society to advocate social reforms, such as  the Constitution ensured freedom of speech, abandoning feng shui, advocating monogamy & publication, assembly, etc & people’s rights of petition gender equality, etc. & election were protected 5. Fostering the industrial & commercial  All these laid the foundation for further political development modernization in China ~ encouraged by the new gov’t, the trend of setting e.g. the Parliament of the ROC held its first election from enterprises began in China late 1912-early 1913 e.g. in 1912, no. of registered enterprises was over  though people with voting rights only made up 10% of 1500, twice that in 1911 the population, the election was the 1st step towards e.g. several business organizations were set up establishing a system of constitutional democracy  all these helped counter imperialist aggression by making China rich & strong 7 3. The abolition of ruling by one race 6. Promoting the development of academic ~ Sun promoted ‘5-group harmony’ by which the Han, study & thought the Manzu, the Mongols, the Hui & the Tibetans enjoyed ~ the Provisional Constitution of the ROC equal power & status to enhance national unity safeguarded people’s freedom of speech, ~ the Provisional Constitution outlined that all people publishing & association were equal regardless of their ethnicity & religious  publishing houses & book stores were beliefs established  it liberated political power from a race to all races e.g. Chung Hwa Book Company (1912)  Equality of all ethnic group facilitated the  Confucian thoughts were heavily blown while modernization of China new thoughts & ideas such as liberalism, socialism, communism were introduced Early Attempt at Modernization – 1911 Revolution Limitations (pp.271-273) 1. Unable to stabilize the political situation & 2. Traditional thoughts were still deeply bring democracy to China ingrained a. Restoration of the monarchy ~ most people were deeply influenced by Confucian ~ Yuan implemented autocratic rule when he was in thoughts & had little knowledge of W. ideas power ~ education level of the people was still low e.g. in 1913, in order to weaken the influence of the ~ though more women received education, they had Nationalist Party, Yuan assassinated Song Jiaoren, the no rights to vote or participate in politics core leader of the Nationalist Party ~ traditional practices were still maintained e.g. in 1914, Yuan dismissed the Parliament & e.g. getting concubines & slave girls prevailed abolished the Provisional Constitution  a long way to go towards modernization e.g. in 1916 Yuan restored monarchy & proclaimed himself as Emperor Hongxian 3. People’s livelihood was still poor  revolutionaries organized the “Campaign to Defend ~ until 1920s, little socio-economic reforms were the Republic” and ended his attempt made to improve people’s livelihood ~ Zhang Fun also attempted to restore Puyi as ~ huge military expenditure, heavy taxes imposed by Emperor in 1917 warlords, years of wars among warlords caused  All these showed the 1911 Rev did not bring about hardship to the people democratic republican politics in China e.g. over 30 types of additional taxes were imposed in Guangdong b. Division among warlords e.g. 26 types of salt-related taxes in Sichuan Province ~ after Yuan’s death in June 1916, his Beiyang Army  Sun’s goal of ‘distributing land equally among the split up into several factions & became warlords people’ could not be fulfilled e.g. Duan Qirui, Zhang Zuolin  China’s econ development came to a halt, or even  military conflicts lasted over a decade regressed 8  warlords imposed autocratic rule & heavy taxes on 4. Unable to improve China’s international status people as foreign threat still prevailed  robberies, killings occurred elsewhere ~ unequal treaties were existed in republican period  people suffered social unrest and heavy taxes e.g. Treaty of Nanjing, the Boxer Protocol  the central gov’t became useless & failed to ~ foreign powers’ spheres of influence still existed maintain law & order e.g. Br agreed Western & NE China & Mongolia ~ in 1924 Feng Yuxiang initiated a coup in Beijing belonged to Russia’s sphere of influence  Duan became the Provisional Chief Executive of ~ in 1915, Japan presented 21 Demands to China the central gov’t after the coup  Yuan accepted the first 4 groups  Duan dismissed the Parliament & repealed the  China almost became the Japanese protectorate Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China ~ in 1919, the powers transferred the German rights  All these hindered the progress of political, in Shandong to Japan at the PPC economic & cultural modernization in China  Foreign threat was more serious than that in the Qing Dynasty which also hindered the progress of diplomatic modernization Early Attempt at Modernization – May Fourth Movement Meaning (p.277) Background (pp.278-280) 1. Meaning 1. Influence of Western ideas a. Narrow ~ modern newspaper and magazines became the tools for people to discuss and criticize perspective politics & to introduce Western ideologies ~ it referred to the e.g. in 1915, Chen Duxiu founded the Youth Magazine to promote democracy & science students’ patriotic  they helped enlightened the public demonstration in  people became anxious about the future of their country & had greater concern for May 1919 political affairs  it gradually became the force that started the May Fourth Movement 2. The rise of a new generation of young intellectuals 2. Broad ~ new-style of education had been implemented since the late Qing period perspective ~ a new generation of Chinese intellectuals tended to accept Western ideologies of ~ it can be democracy, liberty and equality described as a  they believed that Chinese traditional culture was the root of the weakness of the series of nation & argued for a complete reform to change the thinking of the Chinese ideological,  they commented on political affairs in newspapers & were determined and enthusiastic cultural & social to reform China  they played a major role in the May Fourth Movement 9 activities, 3. Japanese aggression against China including the ~ in 1905 Japan took over the Russian possessions in Manchuria literacy revolution ~ in 1914 Jap sent troops to occupy the German Jiaozhou Bay concession in Shandong and the trend of ~ in 1915 Japan presented the Twenty-One Demands to Yuan in order to control the anti-traditional political, economic & military affairs in China ideology which  such demands provoked national resentment against Japan promoted by the  Patriotism grew & Chinese nationalism awakened New Cultural  Jap’s aggression contributed to the outbreak of the May Fourth Movement Movement 4. Resentment against the Beiyang government between 1915 and ~ internal unrest brought by Yuan and the warlords + 1921 ~ the Beiyang gov’t failed to preserve the national interests in face of the foreign threats ~Duan even ‘gladly agreed’ to Jap’s claims to German rights in Shandong in 1918  it caused nationwide anger towards the Beiyang gov’t & anti-Japanese feelings ran high among the Chinese intellectuals  sowed the seeds of the May Fourth Movement 5. Impact of the international situation ~ after WWI, democracy had become the world’s trend e.g. the US granted women the right to vote in 1920 e.g. greater power was gradually delegated to the Western parliaments  the Chinese intellectuals advocated democracy as the way to save China  it became the force that started the May Fourth Movement Early Attempt at Modernization – May Fourth Movement Course (pp.281-282) Characteristics (pp.282-283) 1. Paris Peace Conference (1919) 1. Patriotic movements against imperialism ~ China, as a victorious nation, attended the Paris Peace ~ during MFM, national sentiment was aroused Conference in 1919 across every spectrum of the society  the Chinese delegates demanded foreign power should e.g. the masses called for a boycott against Jap give up their special rights and privileges in China and goods that the 21-Demands should be cancelled e.g. workers went on strike  but the foreign powers refused  they resisted the warlord gov’t of any act of  China also demanded for the surrender of German betrayal to preserve their country’s dignity rights in Shandong  but the foreign powers settled the Shandong problem in 2. Anti-feudalistic thoughts favour of Japan 10 2. Strong public opposition ~ MFM was anti-feudalistic, anti-traditional & ~ when the news reached home, the whole nation was anti-superstitious in nature angry ~ the intellectuals in the MFM advocated to  more than 3000 students gathered at the Tiananmen discard feudalistic thoughts and practices, such Square in Beijing on 4 May to hold a demonstration as filial piety  they shouted out “Struggle for national sovereignty ~ they put individual values on top of family & externally, get rid of national traitors internally” (外爭國 supported women’s liberation 權、內除國賊)  they demanded to severely punish officials, such as Cao 3. Exalting Western theories Rulin (曹汝霖), Zhang Zongxiang (章宗祥), Lu Zongyu ~ MFM promoted complete Westernization (陸宗輿) ~ the intellectuals regarded Western theories of  they also asked the nation to boycott Japanese goods science and democracy highly  but the gov’t arrested many students & suppressed the  they regarded these theories could bring true demonstration modernization to China & save China from the 3. Spread of the movement throughout the nation ties of the Chinese traditional beliefs ~ Students’ patriotic movement won the support of the political and business sectors across the nations 4. Emphasis on cultural & intellectual  university students in other cities joined in the boycott renewal  70,000 workers went on strike in Shanghai ~ MFM put emphasis on renewing China’s  Business people went on strike in supporting the culture & thoughts students ~ the intellectuals realized that transplanting the  Beiyang gov’t finally ordered the dismissal of the 3 Western political system to China alone could unpopular officials and the immediate release of the not bring about changes arrested students ~ they advocated a cultural & intellectual  the Chinese delegates in Paris were ordered not to sign revolution to radically transform peoples’ values the Treaty of Versailles vs Germany to preserve dignity  thus, the New Cultural Movement was launched Early Attempt at Modernization – May Fourth Movement 11  Significance (pp.283-288) 1. Speeding up the New Cultural Movement 3. Fostering the development of national industries ~ the MFM pushed the New Cultural Movement to ~ before the MFM, cheap Jap goods monopolized the new heights Chinese market ~ intellectuals such as Chen Duxiu, Hu Shi, Li Dazhao  Chinese brands only made up a tiny market share & Lu Xun criticized traditional ethics, attacked ~ the boycott of Jap goods during MFM made the autocracy and superstition imports from Jap slumped by 40%  they regarded Confucianism was the root of Chinese ~ the Chinese favoured the use of Chinese products backwardness & advocated ‘Down with  this stimulated the growth of national industries Confucianism’ e.g. in 1920 the Chinese capital accounted for 57% of the  they advocated new literature by using vernacular industrial capital of the manufacturing industry language in writing, promoted democracy & individual e.g. many businessmen opened factories, such as Beiyang rights First Commercial Textile Company in Tianjin  Hu Shi even promoted complete Westernization  Chinese national businesses flourished and further  anti-feudalistic & anti-superstitious ideas were promoted econ modernization in China widespread in China  these new ideas helped speed up China’s 4. Universal education & gender equality development into a modernised nation ~ Gender equality & universal education were 2. Stimulating the sense of nationalism & emphasized in the MFM awakening the mass consciousness in public affairs e.g. 1920-21, higher education institutions began to start ~ though national consciousness of the Chinese co-education, such as Nanjing Higher Normal School & increased before MFM, most of them did not actively Peking University respond to national affairs e.g. in 1922 the Ministry of Edu. reformed the edu. ~ it was until MFM that the 1st nationwide patriotic system by stating that women would enjoy equal mov’t emerged opportunities of education ~ people realized that they had to actively participate e.g. in 1922 the gov’t banned the buying & selling of in politics in order to save China slaves as well as foot-binding ~ they joined various national mov’t; founded  this helped push for social modernization of China newspaper to keep a watchful eye on the gov’t 5. Emphasis on science & scientific thinking ~ they also formed different groups to fight for their ~ rationalism & objectivity became valued during MFM own rights, such as the Hunan Labour Council ~ people protested by means of labour strikes  historians began to examine the authenticity of written history with the help of archaeological findings e.g. the workers in HK & Guangzhou started the ~ western science was promoted during MFM Guangdong-HK General Strike in 1925 ~ many students joined the Whampoa Military  a growing no. of western science journals were translated & published in China Academy to fight against the warlords  various academic groups emerged in China as well  the national awakening helped unite the Chinese e.g. the Chinese Astronomical Society (1922) people, promoting modernization in China e.g. the Chinese Chemical Industry Society (1922)  this helped push for social modernization of China 12  Early Attempt at Modernization – May Fourth Movement Limitations (pp.288-289) 1. Blind criticism of Chinese culture 2. Democracy & science not rooted in China ~ the MFM and the New Cultural Mov’t blindly ~ the intellectuals lacked adequate understanding of criticized Chinese culture, especially Confucianism Western thoughts & theories  many traditional Chinese cultures were discarded e.g. the rule of law, as a Western concept, laid a and crushed foundation of modern political modernization  some intellectuals, such as Hu Shi even believed  however, the intellectuals only paid attention to that only “complete Westernization” could help China democracy but ignored the rule of law become a modern nation  some people were too blind to believe that science  however, both Eastern & Western cultures had its could solve all problems merits & demerits  it hindered social modernization of China e.g. the teachings on benevolence, righteousness & harmony of Confucianism were the good elements  According to Li Yunhan (a historian), MFM didn’t refill the ideological vaccum by any new ethical norms and such destructions left numerous troubles to the society and the nation Early Attempt at Modernization under Nanjing Government 13  Background (p.294) Nanjing Reforms (pp.295-303) (A) Founding of the Nanjing Gov’t 1. Political aspect (1) Founding of KMT of China a) Preparing China for constitutional government ~ in 1913 Yuan dissolved the ~ Followed the guidelines of the ‘Three-phase revolution’ : Nationalist Party ~ in 1914 Sun formed the Chinese i. military rule(軍政): Revolutionary Party - military gov’t was set up ~ in 1919 Sun restructured the Chi Rev - people were ruled by military laws after the revolutionaries took Party & renamed it as Kuomintang of the power China  Sun called for an end to division of ii. political tutelage(訓政): warlords & opposed foreign invasion - 3 years after military ruling ~ in 1923 the USSR offered assistance - KMT exercised the governing power & adopted a provisional to Sun constitution ~ in 1924 Sun established the - self-gov’ts were set up at local level Whampoa Military Academy to - people were trained to exercise their election( 選 舉 ), recall( 罷 prepare for the unification of China 免), initiative(創制) & referendum (複決) powers (2) North Expedition ~ in 1925 Jiang became the leader of iii. constitutional rule(憲政): KMT after Sun’s death - 6 years after tutelage ~ in 1926 Jiang launched the Northern - constitutional gov’t was set up Expedition - constitution was enacted ~ in 1927 Jiang established the - to set up the five-power government Nationalist Gov’t in Nanjing i. Executive Yuan(行政院): central administration ~ in 1928 the entire nation seemingly ii. Legislative Yuan(立法院): making laws came under the rule of the Nanjing iii. Judicial Yuan(司法院): interpreting laws Gov’t iv. Examination Yuan(考試院): administrated exams ~ However, the governing power of the v. Control Yuan(監察院) : supervised gov’t operations Nanjing Gov’t only confined to the region at the Lower Changjiang Valley Results : ~ Some warlords still had retained  Completion of Northern Expedition in 1928 ended mil rule power in their regions, such as Yan  A provisional constitution was set up in 1931 & Five ‘Yuans’ Xishan under the President were set up ~ Also, the foreign powers still exerted  Draft constitution was prepared in 1936 but was not adopted until their influence in China 1946 e.g. Japan occupied NE China in 1931 14  Early Attempt at Modernization under Nanjing Government Nanjing Reforms (pp.295-303) 2. Judicial aspect 5. Cultural & Social aspects ~ the Nanjing gov’t passed a no. of modern laws a) Establishing a modern education system e.g. recognized the equal status of men & ~ in 1928 the Ministry of Education was set up women, right of women to inheritance, etc  a national school system was proposed ~ judges training institute was established in  some universities & higher educational institutions were 1929 reorganized ~ a 3-level court system was established in 1932  secondary & primary schools were built in large no. ~ Courts were further divided into the District e.g. by 1937 around 40000 primary schools, 2000 Courts, the High Courts & the Supreme Court secondary schools & 100 colleges had been set up  facilitated the judicial modernization of China b) Promoting universal education 3. Diplomatic aspect ~ 1935 the Temporary Outline of Implementing ~ the Nanjing gov’t made a great effort to regain Compulsory Education was passed diplomatic autonomy  people were free to receive education e.g. 1926-30 succeeded in abolishing a no. of ~ in 1935 the 1st batch of simplified Chinese words & foreign concessions (e.g. Br returned Hankou, promoted the use of phonetic symbols was issued Weihaiwai & Xiamen to China; Belgian ~ textbooks were written in vernacular language so as to returned its concessions at Tianjin, etc) facilitate learning e.g. 1930 successfully regained tariff autonomy e.g. 1946 unequal treaties & extra-territoriality c) Improving livelihood of peasants & workers were abolished ~ in 1930 the Land Law was passed  facilitated the diplomatic modernization of  highest rental rate could not be more than 37.5% of the China farmers’ income 4. Military aspect ~ the gov’t also set the legal working age to be 14 while ~ in 1933 Conscription was introduced for men workers could work no more than 8 hours a day of 18-45 years of age ~ in 1928 Aviation Department was set up to d) Respect for human rights supervised air force units ~ the gov’t prohibited pigtails, foot-binding as well as ~ in 1929 Navy Department was established buying & selling slaves  no. of warships increased from 44 in 1927 to ~ ‘kow tow’ changed to nods, addresses of ‘da ren’ & ‘lao 53 in 1936 ye’ to ‘Mister’ ~ military academies were founded e.g. Republic of China Military Academy e) Promoting New Life Movement e.g. Qingdao Naval Academy ~ New Life Mov’t Promotion Associations were set up e.g. the Central Aviation School nationwide  facilitated the military modernization of  the mov’t stressed propriety, righteousness , honesty, China sense of shame, loyalty, hygiene , politeness, integrity and self-respect, etc e.g. launched hygiene campaigns, punctuality campaign,etc 15  Early Attempt at Modernization under Nanjing Government Nanjing Reforms (pp.295-303) Limitations (pp.308-311) 6. Economic aspect 1. Slowing down the progress of democracy a) Reform of the monetary system ~ Political tutelage was continued after 1936 because of the ~ 1933 abolished the tael and made silver dollars the political instability and Japanese aggression only legal tender ~ Nanjing gov’t made no attempt to train people for ~ 1935 banknotes were issued as legal tender & linked democracy up with the British pound & the US dollar e.g. 5 Yuans were placed under the Chairman’s leadership ~ the currency system changed from the silver standard & had no real power to the foreign exchange standard e.g. Executive Yuan was responsible to the KMT ~ the gov’t monopolized the right to issue the currency e.g. Legislative Yuan only followed the resolutions of the so as to strengthen its control over economy KMT to draft & enact laws b) Promotion of industry & commerce e.g. Office of president & the head office of each yuan were ~ in 1929 the Weights & Measures Law unified the units held by KMT members of measurement  Jiang’s rich friends monopolized the gov’t positions ~ economic regulations such as Company Law &  Jiang was the highest authority in the Nanjing gov’t, he Bankruptcy Law were implemented even built up a secret police to monitor the society ~ the gov’t encouraged the purchase of Chinese products 2. Failure of financial policies e.g. held an exhibition of domestic products ~ National deficit became more serious after the Sino- e.g. set up office for promoting local products in Japanese War Shanghai  gov’t issued a large no. of banknotes c) Improvement in transport and communication  hyperinflation and mass suffering ~ 1928 Ministry of Railway was established ~ the gov’t tightened the state control over public finance ~ 1928-37 over 5,000 km of railway were built  the ‘Big Four Families’ took advantage of their ties with ~ over 100,000 km of roads were built the gov’t controlled the national economy ~ in early 1930s air-traffic, postal & telegraph services e.g. 77% of the banks were under their control were expanded  serious corruption was widespread d) Development of agriculture  made it difficult to carry out the modernization policies 16 ~ in 1927 Tenants Protection Law was passed 3. Failure to improve peasants’ livelihood & qualities of ~ in 1930 Land Law was passed people  restricted the landlords from collecting excessive rents ~ Peasants accounting for 80% of total pop but the Nanjing from the tenants gov’t did not fully implement the land reforms ~ in 1934 the gov’t enacted the Cooperation Law  most peasants were weighted down by heavy rents &  encouraged peasants to form cooperatives so as to taxes increase agricultural production e.g. in 1934 over 70% of farmers in the Southern region e) Establishment of a modern financial & banking were sharecroppers system The rent took up 40-60% of their income ~ in 1929 Central Bank was set up at Shanghai  the standard of living of most people remained very low  responsible for exchange control & the development of ~ New Life Mov’t remained tedious & superficial foreign trade as well as stabilize the currency  most of the poor were not motivated to stamp out old ~1927-36 no. of commercial banks increased from 57 to practices  quality of people didn’t drastically raised 146 Early Attempt at Modernization under Nanjing Government Significance (pp.304-308) 1. Laying the foundation for constitutional gov’t 5. Facilitating financial development ~ the Nanjing gov’t established the first Republic in ~ the monetary system & tax reforms improved the China financial status of the Nanjing gov’t ~ the establishment of a gov’t with 5 yuans; the e.g. in 1929 gov’t revenue increased by 300 mil yuan formulation of laws & a constitution ~ financial reform made Shanghai stood as the financial  clearly defined the rights & responsibilities of the centre for the East Asian region during the Nanjing Decade gov’t & its people e.g. in 1937 a total of 54 national banks set their  laid the foundation for constitutional gov’t in the headquarters in Shanghai & there were also 27 foreign future banks 2. Improving China’s international status 6. Making social and cultural progress ~ the Nanjing gov’t strove to recover foreign ~ Nanjing gov’t educational reforms effectively improved concessions + gain back tariff autonomy + abolish the levels of education in China & reduced the illiteracy extraterritoriality & unequal treaties rate ~ in 1943 China was invited to participate the Cairo e.g. literacy rate of Guangxi rose from 20 to over 50% Conference (1925-37) ~ in 1945 China became the founding member of the e.g. gross school enrolment ratio exceeded 40% in 1936 UN & the permanent member of the Security e.g. by 1937, there were 2042 middle schools, 1211 normal Council. schools & 370 professional schools  China enjoyed a higher international status after ~ New Life Mov’t evolved into a nationwide civil WWII education mov’t 3. Laying the foundation for industrialization  it wiped out unwanted practices & raised the living ~ China’s industry developed rapidly standard, knowledge & morality of its people 17  its industrial output increased from 2.4 billion in 7. Strengthening military modernization 1926 to 4.9 billion yuan in 1936 ~ the military reforms strengthened China’s mil strength  average annual growth rate reached 8.4% e.g. over 700000 soldiers were enlisted after the outbreak ~ Nanjing gov’t extended roads and railways of the 2nd Sino-Japanese War e.g. railway network grew from 8000 km to 13000 e.g. from 1928-37 the gov’t manufactured 16 naval ships km from 1928 to 1937 with a displacement of over 10000 tons. e.g. road length increased from 29000km to e.g. by 1937 China possessed around 6000 war planes, 120000km from 1927-36 including fighter aircrafts, bombers, etc.  laid a good foundation for China’s modernization  though the Chinese army suffered from losses at the start 4. Fostering agricultural modernization of the War of Resistance against the Japanese, it still ~ improvement in agr. technology greatly increased retained some strength & defeated Japan in some battles the agr. production e.g. Battle of Changsha in 1939 e.g. in 1936 paddy production increased by 6.1% e.g. Battle of Changde in 1943 from that of 1931 e.g. in 1934 Chinese agr. products amounted to 1711 million yuan. It climbed to 1889 mil yuan in 1936 18