Group Dynamics PDF

Chapter 1 What is a Group? -​ Two or more individuals who are connected to one another by and within social relationships -​ Definitions of groups vary, but they do have common characteristics -​ Size: Dyads and triads to to large collectives (this class. mobs, audiences) -​ Connected:...

Chapter 1 What is a Group? -​ Two or more individuals who are connected to one another by and within social relationships -​ Definitions of groups vary, but they do have common characteristics -​ Size: Dyads and triads to to large collectives (this class. mobs, audiences) -​ Connected: members are linked, networked (e.g. a task at work)- social, interpersonal connection with someone (e.g. family) What is A Group? -​ Influential and purposeful; -​ Groups are beneficial but are also flawed -​ Not all group experiences are positive -​ No two groups are the same (they are unique in the characteristics- but groups do possess common characteristics) Types of Groups: -​ Categories: A collection of people or things that share a common attribute or are related in some way (Guelph Humber, Lawyer, Doctor) -​ Aggregate: A collection of individuals who are present in the same time and place but who do not form a unit (People in Subway) -​ Collective: Any aggregate of 2 or more people (larger, spontaneous, and loose association) (People in the plane) -​ Groups and Aggregates can be psychologically fulfilling/satisfying -​ Moving from a category/aggregate to a group Types of Groups: -​ Cooley (1909) drew a distinction between primary and secondary groups -​ Types of Groups: -​ Primary (intimate associates that fuses individuals in a common whole) -​ Secondary (social groups) -​ Planned (concocted and founded) -​ Emergent (circumstantial and self-organizing) Type of Group Characteristics Examples Primary Groups Small, long-term groups Families, close friends, characterized by tight-knit peer groups, face-to-face interaction gangs, elite military & high levels of squads cohesiveness, solidarity & member identification Secondary Groups Larger, less intimate, Social groups such as less commitment, more congregations, work goal-focused groups groups, unions, typical of more complex professional societies associations Types of Groups: -​ Cartwright and Zander (1960) were reluctant to classify groups as Cooley did underestimated the complexity of groups -​ Planned Group: A group that is deliberately formed by its members or an external authority -​ Emergent Group: A group can result from basically nothing -​ A group that is created gradually as individuals interact with the same subset of individuals -​ Arrow and her colleagues (2000) often a more fine=grained analysis -​ Planned vs Emergent: Concocted & Founded vs Circumstantial & Self-Organizing ↓THIS IS IMPORTANT FOR THE TEST 1↓ Type of Group Characteristics Examples Planned Groups Deliberately formed by the members themselves or by an external authority, usually for some specific purpose or purposes Concocted Planned by Production lines, individuals or military units, task authorities outside forces, crews, the group professional sports teams Founded Planned by one or Study groups, small more individuals who businesses, clubs, remain within the associations group Emergent Groups Groups that form spontaneously as individuals find themselves repeatedly  interacting with the same subset of individuals over time and settings Circumstantial Emergent, unplanned Waiting lines (queues), groups arising when crowds, mobs, external, situational audiences, bystanders forces set the stage for people to join together, often only temporarily, in unified group Self-Organizing Emerge when Study groups, interacting friendship cliques in a individuals gradually workplace, regular align their activities patrons at a bar- in a cooperative Example Prof. Tony system of Nield interdependence Types of Groups -​ Brian Lickel and colleagues presented 40 aggregates to US & Polish undergraduate students -​ Wanted to examine how participants perceived group entities and compare them with one another (known as entitativity) -​ Used a 1 (not at all) to 9 Likert scale (very much a group) on areas such as size, duration, intensity, etc. -​ Clustered the answers Types of Group Characteristics Examples Intimacy/Primary Small groups of Families, romantic Groups moderate duration & couples, close friends, permeability street gangs characterized by large levels of interaction amongst members, who value membership in the group Social/Task groups Work groups in Teams, neighborhood employment settings associations and goal-focused groups in a variety of non-employment situations Weak Aggregations of Crowds, audiences, associations/Collectives individuals that form clusters of bystanders spontaneously, last for brief periods, and have very permeable boundaries. Usual or unusual ways Categories Aggregations of Women, Asian individuals similar to Americans, physicians, one another in terms of US citizens, New gender, ethnicity, Yorkers religion or nationality What are some common characteristics of groups? -​ Influence of Size -​ Interaction: task and relationship -​ Goals: Generating, choosing, negotiating, executing -​ Interdependence: Sequential, reciprocal, mutual -​ Structure: roles, norms, relations -​ Entitativity and Cohesion -​ Perception of Membership Characteristics of Groups- Size -​ Billions of groups in the world- most groups tend to be relatively small (ranging from 2 to 7 members) -​ Sociologist John James recorded the size of groups in Portland, Oregon (n= over 9000 from different settings- walking, shopping, playgrounds, etc.) and found that groups tend to gravitate to its smallest #=2 -​ Group size influences the structure and features of groups  -​ Larger groups are connected to one another indirectly rather than directly (e.g. social media groups- LinkedIn) and are more permeable -​ At times with larger groups people are connected to the group as a whole (e.g. York University) or subgroups (3430) and not directly linked to all members of the group -​ While smaller groups have more direct ties (partners, parents, families) -​ Connection Equation n(n-1)/2 Characteristics of Groups- Interaction -​ Groups are systems that create, organize, and sustain interaction among members -​ What do people do in groups? Words, actions, instruction, support, emotions -​ Task Interaction: Actions performed by individuals pertaining to group’s tasks and goals (long term & short term) -​ Different types of goals- process goals (e.g. discussion), performance(task), intellectual(decision making) -​ Relationship Interaction: Actions performed by the group relating to emotional and interpersonal bonds -​ As groups increase in size the more task and relationship interaction is needed Characteristics of Groups- Goals -​ Groups often strive towards common tasks/outcomes -​ McGrath’s Circumplex Model of Group Tasks (2 dimensions- conflict/cooperation & conceptual/behavioural) -​ 4 Quadrants specifying task performance -​ Generating- something is created/produced -​ Choosing- selecting (from alternatives) -​ Negotiation- group resolves conflict -​ Executing- requires action Characteristics of Groups- Interdependence -​ Experiences (emotions, actions, communication, etc.) are determined by other members of the group and vice versa -​ Unilateral: One person influencing another -​ Sequential: Influence of one member to the next (flat/symmetrical or hierarchical) -​ Reciprocal: Two or more members may influence each other-relationship might be unequal (hierarchical) -​ Multilevel: The outcome of larger groups are influenced the activities of smaller groups (subgroups) -​ As groups increase in size and complexity they become more formal, subgroups form Interdependence Diagram: Characteristics of Groups- Structure -​ Groups’ structures are often organized in predictable patterns -​ Roles: Set of behaviours expected of people who occupy certain positions -​ Norms: A consensual standard that describes what behaviours should and should not be performed in a given context Cohesiveness -​ Group Cohesion: the strength of the bonds linking individuals to the group -​ Carron, Brawley and Widmeyer (1998) defined cohesion as a dynamic process that is reflected in the tendency of a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its instrumental objectives and/or for the satisfaction of member needs -​ Attraction to specific group members and efforts to achieve goals More Grouplike? Donald Campbell’s Theory of Entitativity (1958) -​ Entitativity is perceived groupness rather than an aggregation of independent, unrelated individuals -​ Gestalt principles= Groups are more than the some of its parts -​ Common Fate: Do individuals experience the same outcomes? -​ Similarity: Do individual perform similar behaviors or resemble one another -​ Proximity: How close together are the individuals in the group Perception of Membership: -​ Membership: The amount someone perceives themselves to be part, or included within a group -​ People are not part of a group unless they perceive themselves to be part of the group -​ Thomas Theorem: If people define a group as real, then it has real consequences (W.I. Thomas, 1928) -​ Minimal groups paradigm (Tajfel et al., 1971)- split into meaningless groups (Overestimaters vs Underestimater of jellybeans, # of dots, etc.)- clear favoritism for their group, emotional attachment to the group Group Dynamics: -​ the field of inquiry dedicated to advancing knowledge about the nature of groups (Cartwright & Zander, 1968) -​ The influential action, processes, and changes that occur within & between groups (Forsyth) -​ People subjectively have talked/written about the nature of man’s place in society for centuries  -​ A formal field of student emerged in the late 1800s -​ Was slow to emerge- too complex, too simplistic, too private, lack of agreement by theorists/researchers, which level of analysis? lack of assessment? -​ Industrial revolution, democracy, technology (led by developed countries= USA) Creating the Field: -​ Group dynamics is a relatively young field- talking about for many years, yet emerged in the 1930s-1940s -​ Rooted in many fields- psychology, sociology, anthropology, business, sport -​ Norman Triplett (1898)- socila facilitation Introduction to Group Dynamics: The Nature of Groups -​ Defining Groups -​ Describing Groups -​ Classifying Groups -​ Perceiving Groups The Nature of Group Dynamics -​ The Scientific Study of Groups: -​ Gustave le Bon, Psychologie des Foules -​ Wilhelm Wundt Volerpsychologie -​ Emile Durkheim, collective consciousness -​ Floyd Allport, group fallacy -​ Kurt Lewin, interactionism B= f (P, E) Tuckman’s theory of group development -​ Orientation (forming) -​ Conflict (storming) -​ Structure (norming) -​ Performance (performing) -​ Dissolution (adjourning) -​ A Multilevel Approach to the Study of Groups: -​ Micro level: focus on the individual (psychological) -​ Meso (group level): focus on the group and social context (sociological) -​ Macro level: focus on organizational/community level -​ Multi level: adopts multiple perspectives on groups -​ The Significance of Groups: -​ Groups influence their members -​ Groups influence society  -​ The usefulness of groups -​ The dark side of groups -​ Topics in Contemporary Group Dynamics -​ Group Dynamics is Dynamic Chapter 2 What are the Critical Requirements of a Scientific Study of Groups? The need for objectivity: 1.​ Theories that organize knowledge of groups-detailed questioning/observation and hypotheses regarding individuals within groups- many people helped with this development 2.​ Research procedures (i.e. effective experimental design) to test hypotheses about groups- e.g. Kurt Lewin believed that the creation of an empirically verifiable theory was the essence of group science 3.​ Reliable and valid measurement Creating the Field: -​ Group dynamics is a relatively young field- talk about for many years, yet emerged in the 1940s- 1950’s -​ Rooted in many fields- psychology, sociology, politics anthropology, business, sport -​ Many early contributors-Gustave Le Bon “Psychology of the Crowd”- when rational people do irrational things, Durkheim “Collective Representation”- e.g. symbols such as a wedding ring, Freud “Repressed Drives” -​ Norman Triplett (1898)- social analysis (Prof gonna ask on the test 1) (Book) -​ Kurt Lewin was instrumental in the advancement of the field (believed in group level analysis) -​ Was a gestalt psychologist who founded the Research Ctr. On Group Dynamics at MIT Assumptions -​ Floyd Allport: “Actions of all are nothing more than the sum of actions taken separately” -​ Group Fallacy: Explaining a group as a whole and limiting an individual level analysis (e.g. emotional contagion or group mind) -​ Ex. the group is energized today -​ Individuals can think and feel and many can do it at a similar time, but groups as a whole cannot (Allport, 1962) The Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE):  -​ The tendency to overestimate the causal influence of dispositional factors that underemphasize the causal influence of situational factors -​ Groups are more than the sum of their parts -​ Lewin’s (1951) field theory: Behavior is a function of the person and the environment -​ B= f(P,E) -​ Lewin did not just want to describe groups, but to study situations that bring about change -​ Action Research: Integrates theory and applied research and shares experimental methods guidelines -​ “A spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action and fact-finding about the result of the action” (Lewin, 1946) Action Research: -​ Theory: is the framework -​ Research: Validates or disconfirms theory, which leads to refinement -​ Practice/Application: New theory & Research -​ Brought a systematic approach to the field Topics: group formation, cohesion, structure, influence, performance, conflict, etc. Multi-Level Perspective: Examining group behaviour from several different levels of analysis: -​ Micro Level: Qualities, attributes, actions of individual memebers -​ Meso-Level: Group level factors- size of group, cohesiveness, structure, norms -​ Macro Level: Larger group qualities such as: communities, societies -​ Interdisciplinary Perspective (crossing levels) Reliability: -​ Reliability is a synonymous with consistency. It is the degree to which test scores for an individual test taker or group of test takers are precise and consistent over repeated applications -​ No psychological test is completely consistent, however, a measurement that is unreliable is worthless -​ Ex. A student receives a score of 100 on one intelligence tests and 114 in another or imagine that every time you steppoed on a scale it showed a different weight -​ The consistency of test scores is critically important in determining whether a test can provide good measurement Internal Consistency:  -​ Measures the reliability of a test solely on the number of items on the test and the intercorrelation among the items. Therefore, it compares each item to every other item -​ If a scale is measuring a construct, then overall the items on that scale should be highly correlated with one another -​ Inter-Item and Item-Total Correlations: The correlation of the item with the remainder of the items Test-Retest Reliability: -​ Test-retest reliability is usually measured by computing the correlation coefficient between scores of two administrations -​ What are common sources of error in test-retest reliability? Inter Rater Reliability: -​ Whenever you use humans as a part of your measurement procedure, you have to worry about whether the results you get are reliable or consistent -​ Prople are notorious for their inconsistency. We are easily distracted We get tired of doing repetitive tasks. We misinterpret -​ Interrater reliability means that if two different raters scored the scale using the scoring rules, they should attain the same result Validity: -​ Refers to measuring what we intend to measure -​ If math and vocabulary test might be said to have high validity when used as a measure of intelligence Predictive Validity: -​ The extent to which scores on the scale are related to, and predictive of, some future outcome that is of practical utility -​ E.g. If higher scores on the SAT are positively correlated with higher GPA and visa versa, then the SAT is said to have predictive validity -​ The predictive validity of the SAT is mildly supported by the relation of that scale with performance in graduate school Relationship Between Reliability & Validity: -​ Tests that are reliable are not necessarily valid or predictive -​ If the reliability of a psychological measure increases, the validity of the measure is also expected to increase Self-Report Methods: -​ Self-report measures: group members describe their perceptions and experiences -​ Examples: Individual Assessments: -​ Personality -​ Emotions & Emotional Intelligence (Self-report & ability) -​ Group Assessments Personality: Mackinnon (1959) -​ Personality refers to “factors” inside people that explain their behavior -​ The sum total of typical ways of acting thinking, and feeling that makes a person unique Two Main Personality Theories: 1.​ Trait theory: people differ based on stable attributes (called traits) -​ characteristics lie on a continuum -​ e.g. the big five 2.​ Type theory: people can be sorted into categories (either one type or the other) -​ There are many different personality inventories that measure traits or types The Big Five: OCEAN -​ Openness to Experience -​ Conscientiousness -​ Extraversion -​ Agreeableness -​ Neurotiscism The NEO -​ Example Neuroticism facet: Anxiety -​ I am not a worrier -​ I am easily frightened -​ I rarely feel fearful or anxious  -​ I often feel tense and jittery -​ I am seldom apprehensive about the future -​ I often worry about things that might go wrong -​ I have fewer fears than most people -​ Frightening thoughts sometimes come into my head Emotions: -​ Is a positive or negative experience generally in reaction to stimuli that are accompanied by physiological arousal and characteristic behavior -​ Experiences giving color, meaning, and intensity to life -​ Darwin- inherent through natural selection (adaptation to survive and desire to reproduce) -​ Approach vs Avoidance -​ To escape life-threatening experiences -​ How are emotions beneficial to group dynamics? -​ Emotions are evolved signals about relationships (and, hence, universal) Basic Emotions: -​ Are emotions that are innate and universal, automatic and fast, and trigger behaviours with a high survival value -​ Basic emotions evolved in response to the challenges faced by human ancestors and are so primitive as to be “hardwired” -​ E.g. Happiness, sadness, fear, surprise, anger, disgust Self-Conscious Emotions: -​ Are emotions that relate to our sense of self in response to others’ reactions to us -​ Perceived or actual -​ Most prevalent are- shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride Overview of Terms: -​ Feeling: Subjective representation of emotions -​ Affect: Refers to pattern of observable behaviours associated with emotions (e.g. facial expression, voice pitch) -​ Mood: Refers to pervasive and sustained emotional response that can influence a person’s perception of the world (e.g. depressed mood)- more diffuse than an emotion and unknown causes Definition of Emotional Intelligence: -​ The ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action (Salovey and Mayer, 1990) Page 275 of TB Models of EI: Trait/Mixed Self-Report EQ Items: -​ I know how to deal with upsetting problems -​ It’s fairly easy for me to express feelings -​ I’m in touch with my emotions -​ I’m unable to show affection -​ I feel sure of myself in most situations -​ I have strong impulses that are hard to control -​ Even when upset, I’m aware of what’s happening to It’s hard for me to face unpleasant things MSCEIT Ability Model of Emotional Intelligence Group Assessments -​ Group Environmental Questionnaire (GEQ) -​ Campbell Organizational Survey (COS) -​ Benchmark of Organizational Emotional Intelligence (BOEI) -​ Group level self-report assessments are generally micro and meso level analysis Measurement -​ Self-report measurement: group members describe their perceptions and experiences -​ Example: Moreno’s sociometry method Sociometry: -​ A research technique created by Jacob Moreno (1934) that graphically summarizes patterns of intermember relations (and rejections)- Who do you like? What is your experience with that person? -​ Sociometric structures: -​ stars (populars): well-liked, pick by many -​ unpopular (Rejecteds): not well like, not picked by many -​ isolates (neglected): are more independent, not selected by many people -​ sociable (amiable/positives): select many others to interact with -​ negatives (unsociables): select few people to interact with -​ pairs (couples or dyads): two members who like each other and have reciprocal bonds -​ clusters (clique members): subgroup -​ gatekeepers: control the follow of information to and between groups -​ Sociogram is a graphical representation of sociometry -​ Social Network Analysis: is set of procedures studying the relational structure of groups mathematically and graphically -​ Highly cohesive groups contain substantial proportions of reciprocity and very few isolated members Disadvantage of Self-Report Tests: -​ Social Desirability -​ Faking Good -​ Faking Bad -​ Random Responding 2 Studying Groups: Measurement: -​ William Foote White’s study of “corner boys” in Street Corner Society -​ Types: -​ Overt & Covert What Methods Do Researchers Use to Measure Individual and Group Processes? -​ Observational measures: Observing and recording events -​ Example: William Foote Whyte’s participant observation of corner gangs (published the book Street Corner Society in 1943) -​ Overt vs covert observation- W.F. Whyte started off in covert observation, but ended being overt -​ Participant observation: offered insight into the internal structure of the gang -​ Hawthorne effect(Need to know): Western Electrical Company- Hawthorne Works plant (Mayo, 1945) What Methods Do Researchers Use? -​ Both Qualitative and Quantitative (structured observational) measures -​ Bale’s Interaction Process Analysis (IPA) classifies behaviors into two categories: task and relationship behaviors -​ Each word and sentence that someone uses in communication are known as units -​ Increases objectivity Measure: Types: -​ Social-Emotional Area: Positive Reactions -​ Task Area: Attempted Answers -​ Task Area: Questions -​ Social-Emotional Area: Negative Reactions Chapter 3 The Need to Belong: -​ Baumeister & Leary (1995): All human have a pervasive drive to form and maintain lasting positive, and impactful interpersonal relationships (social, cognitive, biological) -​ Evolutionary theory argues that some group behaviours may be rooted in physiological processes -​ Evolutionary psychology suggests this instinct resulted from natural selection- allowing for reproductive success and approach vs avoidance (e.g. reading someone’s face) allowed for adaption vs maladaptive behaviours -​ Baumeister & Leary (1995) believe that groups are of such importance (e.g. thoughts, emotions, impulses, and decisions) that without it, people are rendered incapacitated (perceived or real exclusions have real impact) Hierarchy of Needs: -​ Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that certain needs have priority over others. Physiological needs like breathing, thirst, and hunger come before psychological needs such as achievement, self-esteem, and the need for recognition Maslow’s Hierarchy of Motives: -​ Human needs organized; arranged from most basic to personal and advanced needs -​ Lower needs must be met first or higher needs cannot operate -​ Chapter 2 (pp.54) Hierarchy of Needs: -​ Begins at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied -​ Then higher-level safety needs become active -​ Then psychological needs become active Issues: -​ Studies in various contexts -​ Solitary confinement -​ Solitary adventurers -​ All find negative reactions to isolation -​ Studies of people who agree to isolation- a different emotional experience than someone who is excluded (reduced or eliminate contact)- ostracized, rejected, shunned, avoided Do Humans Prefer Solitude or Membership in Groups? Exclusion is aversive and avoided -​ Ostracism: Excluding one or more individuals from a group by reducing or eliminating contact -​ Forms of exclusion: Ignored, avoided, shunning (both social and physical) -​ Forms of inclusion: Granted membership, welcomed, recruited Dani’s Story: -​ On July 13. 2005, police responded to a neighbor’s call -​ A 6-year-old girl name Danielle was found in terrible living conditions -​ What were the results of this neglect? Do Humans Prefer Solitude or Membership in Groups? -​ Baumeister et al : A series of life alone/rejections studies -​ Based on personality profile and the second on a 10 mins get to know you session- ask to choose who they were like to work with- they were not chosen -​ Kipling Williams: ball toss experiments (face to face and online- immediately & after) -​ People respond negatively if they expect to be alone or are rejected -​ lower self-esteem (life meaning), increased aggression (not physical)- ex. Gaertner’s (2008) noise study -​ take risks/increased risk-taking -​ reduced cognitive capacity- fatigue, slowing -​ emotional responses- anxiety, anger, and depressed mood -​ Fight or flight mentality (increased implusivity) Do Humans Prefer Solitude or Membership in Groups? -​ Leary’s sociometer theory: Self-esteem warns of possible exclusion and self worth to others -​ Par of the brain that deals with physical pain is activated with emotional pain- right prefrontal cortex and the limbic system thalamus, amygdala, anterior insula, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex- dorsal and ventral (Eisenberg, Liberman, and Williams 2003)  -​ Various stress hormones are released (norepinephrine, adrenaline, dopamine, cortisol) The Biology of Ostracism and Inclusion: -​ Ostracism triggers pain areas of the brain Do Humans Prefer Solitude or Membership in Groups? -​ Leary’s sociometer theory: Self-esteem is not just an indicator of self worth but warns of possible exclusion (or lack of acceptance) -​ Part of the brain that deals with physical pain is activated with social/emotional pain -​ May influence withdrawal or aggression (fight or flight- to reduce pain) -​ People become hypervigilant (tend and befriend-to reduce pain) -​ Also perform extra work, work harder, offer apologies, favours, look for social cues -​ Acceptance/Connection is key Reactions to Exclusion: Fight vs Flight: -​ Withdrawal and freezing -​ Aggressive, combative orientation Tend and Befriend: -​ Attention to social cues -​ Increased motivation -​ Prosocial orientation Social Capital: Degree to which individuals and groups are linked to others which provide positive benefits The Temporal Need: Threat Model of Ostracism: Williams, 2009 Individualism to Collectivism The Individualism & Collectivism Continuum -​ Individualism & collectivism differ in their relative emphasis on individuals and groups. The balance between the individual’s rights and the group’s rights -​ Individualism: - The individual is primary first. His or her rights must be recognized & put above the rights of the group as a whole. If the group’s goals aren’t compatible with the individual’s goals, the individual is free to go his or her own way -​ Collectivism: - The group is primary first. Its rights must be recognized and out above the rights of the individual. The individual belongs to the group Micro: The Social Self Who Am I? I-C Continuum: -​ An anthropologist proposed a game to the kids in an African tribe. He put a basket full of fruit near a tree and told them that whoever got their first won the sweet fruits. When he gave them the signal to run they all took each other’s hands and ran together, then sat in a circle enjoying their treats. When he asked them why they chose to run as a group when they could have had more fruit individually, one child spoke up and said: “UBUNTU, how can one of us be happy if all the other ones are sad?” -​ UBUNTU in the Xhosa culture means: I am because we are I-C Continuum (cont’d): -​ Personal Identity: Perception of self-concept, includes unique qualities, traits, beliefs, skills/abilities -​ Social Identity: Perception of self-concept that is derived from relationships with people, groups, society -​ Personal vs Social Identity: Is a complex, multi-level system rather than being unitary (me vs we) -​ Creating Cooperation/Interpersonal Relations: Groups create relationships among its members, but the needs and interests of the individual do not always match the needs of the group -​ Balance between person needs and demands of the group- people often change their conception of who they are (includes groups’ qualities as well as their own) -​ Optimal Distinctiveness Theory (Marilyn Brewer and colleagues, 1993 & 2002): A balance between assimilation (group) and distinction (autonomy) -​ 3 competing basic needs (assimilated to the group, connection to friends/family & autonomy/differentiation) Core Features of Individualism and Collectivism (Triandis & Gelfand, 2012) Facet Individualism Collectivism Social relations Concern for maintaining Concern for nurturing relations that yield and maintaining personal benefits and harmonious relations few costs (exchange with others (communal orientation); orientation); memberships are memberships including limited to family and family, tribes, villages, close personal organizations, and social friendships clubs Social obligations Behavior is guided by Behavior is guided by personal attitudes and group norms and roles; preferences; context is decisions made by not as important as leaders and the group personal attitudes Social motives Striving for personal Concern for group success; satisfaction success, cooperation comes from personal among group members, triumphs in competition group is protected at all with others costs; strong sense of duty and pride in group’s successes Social self The independent self is The interdependent self based on one’s personal, is based on group-level idiosyncratic relationships, roles, and characteristics; each self social identities rather is autonomous and than individual personal unique qualities I-C Continuum (cont’d): -​ Exchange Relationship: Interpersonal association between individuals based on each person’s desire to increase the rewards they receive from others in the relationship -​ Norm of Reciprocity: A social standard that individuals pay back what they receive from others -​ Communal Relationship: When individuals are more concerned about what others get vs. what is individually given -​ Group Culture: Distinct ways that member of the group represent their experiences (e.g. believes, customs, norms and roles) - Collectivism: Stresses hierarchy and reacts more negatively to nonconformity - Individualism: Stresses individuality and independence -​ Motivation: - Collectivism: Group-serving tendencies, reliance on the equality norm (even distribution) - Individualism: Self-serving tendencies, reliance on the equality norm (inputs and outputs are=) Thoughts on Theories of Cultural Influence: -​ Subcultures: -​ Some ethnic groups, such as Asian, Americans and Latinos, are more collectivistic than individualistic  -​ Harry Triandis Horizontal cultures- those that minimize distances between individuals -​ Vertical cultures: Accept & depend on distances between individuals Meso: The Group Culture Does Membership in a Group Change a Person’s Self-Concept and Social Identity? Social Identity Theory: The self-concept is determined by group memberships -​ Minimal groups paradigm (Tajfel et al., 1971): split into meaningless groups (Overestimaters vs Underestimater of jellybeans, # of dots, etc.)- clear favoritism for their group (i.e. sharing the same code) -​ Social categorization: Individuals automatically classify people, including themselves, into groups -​ Social identification: Accepting as self-descriptive (self-stereotyping) the qualities attributed to one’s group (depersonalization) Self-Concept and Social Identity: Self-esteem depends on an individual’s personal qualities & the value of the groups to which they belong -​ People’s desire to be positively evaluated by others often moderates their behavior -​ Ingroup-outgroup bias: By rating one’s own group positively self-esteem is enhanced -​ Memebers of stigmatized group may nonetheless take pride in their groups and reject nonmembers evaluations of their groups (social creativity) -​ If a member of a prestigious collective self-esteem will increase- will use the pronoun “we” -​ We won- they lost or Middle East uprising Fanatics and Social Identity: -​ Being a fan is an important element of self-concept and self-worth- Is there a risk?  -​ Collective Self-Esteem: A person’s overall self-concept is based on membership in a social groups -​ Fans identify with an individual or group/team like others talk about family or a cultural group -​ Group’s/Team’s successes and failure are often taken personally -​ Display greater involvement in their team’s performance, positive attributes regarding their team, perceive other fans of the same team as special Self-Concept and Social Identity: -​ Basking in Reflected Glory (BIRG): stressing association with successful groups despite not producing the success themselves -​ BIRGing occurs because people want to maintain “cognitive harmony” and therefore evaluate connected parties similarly- as a result, public associations with a successful group is perceived to promote positive evaluations (i.e. enhanced public image) -​ People have a tendency to BIRG more when their self-esteem is threatened Self-protective strategies: -​ Denying connections to groups that are performing poorly (CORF, or cutting off reflected failure) -​ Avoiding damage to self-image -​ Stereotyped Threat: Anxiety provoking belief that others’ perception will be influence by negative stereotypes about one’s group -​ Leaving the group (individual mobility): reducing ones connection minimize the threat