GROUP DYNAMICS Lecture PDF

LECTURE 1 GROUP DYNAMICS can become significant if they influence social identity or interactions, leading to a sense of...

LECTURE 1 GROUP DYNAMICS can become significant if they influence social identity or interactions, leading to a sense of belonging or division. What Are Groups ○ Defining Groups CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUPS ○ Varieties of Groups ○ Characteristics of Groups GROUP COMPOSITION (individual qualities like talents What Are Group Dynamics and experiences) ○ Dynamic Group Processes BOUNDARIES that can be clear or ambiguous. These can ○ Process and progress over time change but depends upon the group SIZE have an impact to the interaction. ○ Smaller groups (intimate) WHAT ARE GROUPS ○ Larger groups (more complex) Essential to human life (for protection, religious purposes, INTERACTION (task-focused or relationship-focused) celebrations, and more) INTERDEPENDENCE depend heavily on each other, Most of us belong to all manner of groups—with whom we influencing one another’s outcomes share an important quality that creates a psychological STRUCTURE (roles and norms) organizes group; create bond between us all. challenges Groups are formed by various sizes with specific purposes GOALS IN GROUPS: for each and yet their impact or influence is universal. 1. Generating ideas or plans (e.g., brainstorming). 2. Choosing solutions (e.g., decision-making). 3. Negotiating solutions to conflicts (e.g., resolving DEFINING GROUPS disagreements). GROUP: Two or more individuals who are connected by and 4. Executing tasks (e.g., performing actions or within social relationship. competing). Who are connected: ‘Commonality’ shared that link GROUP ORIGINS: members to one another. ○ Groups can be either planned (deliberately formed) Group sizes or emergent (forming naturally over time). Connection among members PLANNED GROUPS are organized with specific purposes Variety in social groups (e.g., study groups, teams), while EMERGENT GROUPS arise spontaneously (e.g., people waiting in line). Planned VARIETIES OF GROUPS groups often have clear rules and structure, whereas emergent groups develop more informally with unwritten 1. PRIMARY GROUPS. norms. small, intimate groups like families or close friends GROUP COHESION AND UNITY: deeply influence members' behaviors, emotions, and 1. Group cohesion refers to how tightly a group holds social development together. 2. SOCIAL (SECONDARY) GROUPS 2. Entitativity is the perception of a group as a single, larger, more formally organized groups (work teams unified entity. or clubs) similarity among members less emotionally intense physical proximity 3. COLLECTIVES shared goals form temporarily around a common event or activity usually dissolve once the event is over, and members may not have strong ties to each other. 4. CATEGORIES collections of individuals who share a common characteristic, BICOLUNIVERSITY BSPSYCHOLOGY  WHAT ARE GROUP DYNAMICS DYNAMIC GROUP PROCESSES GROUP DYNAMICS refer to the powerful and sometimes opposing forces that shape how a group functions and evolves over time. 1. Individual and group factors 2. Formation of the group 3. Influence and leadership 4. Performance and decision-making 5. Conflict 6. Context 1. INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP FACTORS The motivations and actions of each member play a role. 2. FORMATION OF THE GROUP This process of becoming a cohesive group is driven by the need for mutual reliance. 3. INFLUENCE AND LEADERSHIP coordinating and conforming to group norms Leadership and influence within the group also played crucial roles in guiding decisions, such as the tragic choice to continue climbing despite the dangers 4. PERFORMANCE AND DECISION-MAKING The ability to perform as a team is essential as well as in making decisions. 5. CONFLICT Conflicts may cause the group cohesion to be weak and may led to disastrous outcomes 6. CONTEXT The environment and the setting can influence the group's dynamics, making their decisions and interactions even more critical. Group dynamics are the influential interpersonal processes that occur in and between groups over time. These processes not only determine how members relate to and engage with one another, but they also determine the group’s inherent nature and trajectory: the actions the group takes, how it responds to its environment, and what it achieves. BICOLUNIVERSITY BSPSYCHOLOGY LECTURE 2 BASIC GROUP PROCESSES STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT BY BRUCE TUCKMAN Members get to be acquainted and oriented towards each GROUP DYNAMICS other Establishing ground rules This refer to the influential interpersonal processes that Understanding each other’s roles and the group’s within and between groups over time. objectives Group dynamics determine the way members interact with each other and their level of engagement. The dynamics also impact the actions of the group, how FORMING PROCESS they respond to their environment, and what the group - The stage of identifying common goals ultimately achieves. - Role of leaders are essential in guiding group members and help in forming norms and facilitate initial IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING GROUP DYNAMICS communication. - To explore on the skills and focus on understanding group The dynamic nature of groups means they are constantly processes. evolving, and by studying these processes, we can understand how groups are created, maintained, and how they succeed or COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVES fail. ○ When people join a group for the first time, they immediately begin to form an impression of the STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT BY BRUCE TUCKMAN group. ○ This work prompts them to search for information 1. Forming about the other group members, rapidly identifying 2. Storming those who are outgoing, shy, and intelligent 3. Norming 4. Performing ○ Group members are busy perceiving, judging, 5. Adjourning reasoning, and remembering, and all these mental activities influence their understanding of one another, the group, and themselves (Hinsz, Tindale, Vollrath, 1997; Hodgkinson & Healey, 2008). ○ COGNITIVE PROCESS mental processes that acquire, organize, and integrate information. Cognitive processes include memory systems that store data and the psychological mechanisms that process this information. ○ SELF-CATEGORIZATION THEORY conceptual approach developed by John Turner and his colleagues that explains a range of group behavior, including the development of social identity and intergroup relations, in terms of the social cognitive categorization processes. ○ Individuals’ perceptions of people are influenced by any stereotypes they may have about the qualities of people in such groups. PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVES ○ Unconscious processes and early experiences that influence group behavior and formation. ○ Individual psychological needs and conflicts can shape group dynamics. ` BICOLUNIVERSITY BSPSYCHOLOGY  ○ Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development also emphasize how identity formation influences group interactions. ○ May have projection of the member’s unconscious desires and conflicts onto the group. ○ The group can serve as a space for individuals to work through these issues collectively. ○ The group's initial interactions are influenced by members' internal conflicts and defense mechanisms. ○ Anxiety about group belonging or fear of judgment. Members may unconsciously project their fears onto others, leading to initial tensions. Example: A member feels insecure about their contribution and projects feelings of inadequacy, leading to withdrawal or overcompensation in group interactions. ○ Projection, defense mechanisms, and transference SOCIOBIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE can affect early group interactions. ○ Group hierarchy based on implicit social structures such as dominance or attractiveness may form early, SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES potentially alienating some members. ○ The sociological perspective examines how social Example: In a newly formed study group, the structures, roles, and institutions influence group most extroverted or confident person may formation. naturally assume a leadership role, while ○ Durkheim’s ideas on social cohesion and Weber’s quieter members struggle to find their place. focus on social roles and authority structures ○ Dominance hierarchies, evolutionary instincts provide insights into how groups form within related to group survival and cohesion, and broader societal contexts. in-group/out-group behavior Social cohesion - The attraction of members to one another and to the group as a whole SOCIAL COMPARISON PERSPECTIVE Social roles - are defined as patterns of ○ Members compare themselves to others to assess behavior that are characteristic of their relative status in the group, which can lead to individuals in specific social contexts. feelings of inadequacy or superiority. Authority structures - individuals who have Example: A student in a group project may the power to influence and direct others in a feel they aren't as skilled as their peers, group resulting in reluctance to contribute, or, ○ a system where actions and structures are based on conversely, over-contribution from a sense logic, efficiency, and formal rules rather than of superiority. tradition or personal relationships. ○ Social comparison theory, self-evaluation, and its ○ emphasizes clear hierarchies, standardized impact on group cohesion. procedures, and goal oriented behavior to maximize efficiency and predictability. SOCIAL COMPARISON PROCESSES Leon Festinger’s social comparison theory posits that individuals evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves with others. This comparison influences self-esteem and group dynamics. Members may align themselves with others to enhance their self-image or establish a social identity within the group. ○ Downward Social Comparison - comparing oneself to others who are performing less effectively relative to oneself. ○ Upward Social Comparison - comparing oneself to others who are performing more effectively relative to oneself BICOLUNIVERSITY BSPSYCHOLOGY  THE CAUSE OF CONFLICT ○ Johnson & Johnson (2017) identify several root causes of conflict in this stage, including differences in goals, perceptions, and values. clash of personalities and misunderstandings arise as members struggle to establish their positions. ○ Social comparison processes and competition for status can exacerbate conflicts, particularly when members vie for leadership or influence. ○ A lack of clear communication or poorly defined group tasks often leads to confusion and frustration, which can spark disagreements. Jealousy within or between group members Miscommunication SOCIAL EXCHANGE PERSPECTIVE Differing goals ○ The social exchange theory suggests that Struggle for power individuals engage in group interactions based on Cultural differences the perceived costs and benefits. Homans and Blau Betrayal argue that people seek to maximize rewards and WINNING: CONFLICT AND COMPETITION minimize costs in their social interactions. ○ Independence - A performance situation that is structured in such a way that the success of any one member is unrelated to the chance of other members’ succeeding. ○ Cooperation - A performance situation that is structured in such a way that the success of any one member of the group improves the chances of other members’ succeeding. ○ forms alliances with other tributes based on mutual ○ Competition - A performance situation that is benefits like protection and resources. structured in such a way that success depends on ○ wealthy Park family by offering their services performing better than others. (tutoring, driving, housekeeping) in exchange for ○ Mixed-motive Situation - A performance setting in financial rewards and social mobility. which the interdependence among interactants ○ offers to repay old debts or seeks sanctuary, involves both competitive and cooperative goal showcasing a system where mutual exchange of structures. resources and assistance governs relationships. Avengers (Iron Man, Captain America, Thor, ○ each offer information or help in exchange for etc.) have personal motivations and conflict personal gain, particularly around the inheritance of ○ Prisoner’s Dilemma Game - (PDG) A simulation of the family fortune, showcasing manipulative social interaction in which players must make either exchanges within a wealthy family. cooperative or competitive choices in order to win; used in the study of cooperation, competition, and the development of mutual trust. STORMING STAGE Running Man, Kwang Soo and So Min - Conflicts arise as members compete for status and ○ Behavioral Assimilation - The eventual matching of establish goals the behaviors displayed by cooperating or - Members assert their opinions and vie or competing group members. compete/struggle for status ○ Reciprocity - The tendency for individuals to pay - Challenging but is a crucial stage for group development back in kind what they receive from others. ○ Social Values Orientation (SVO) - The dispositional CONFLICT - disagreement, discord, and friction that occur tendency to respond to conflict settings in a when actions or beliefs of one or more members of the group particular way; cooperators, for example, tend to are unacceptable to and resisted by one or more member make choices that benefit both parties in a conflict, whereas competitors act to maximize their own ROOTS OF CONFLICT outcomes ○ Intragroup conflict - disagreement or confrontation The weights people assign to self & other between members of the same group outcomes in interdependent contexts: ○ Intergroup conflict - disagreement or confrontation Prosocials (altruists & cooperators) and between two or more groups and their members that proselfs (individualists & competitors) may include physical violence, interpersonal discord, and psychological tension BICOLUNIVERSITY BSPSYCHOLOGY  leading to stronger collaboration and better He thought he’s a space ranger, but after joining the outcomes. group of toys, he gradually acted like a toy He adapts to their behaviors and routines; assimilates into their world NORMING STAGE: The Development of Group Structure Works together to resolve conflict with Sid (neighbor) ROLES ○ Group members begin to establish and accept their THE COURSE OF CONFLICT individual roles within the group. According to ○ Conflict in the storming stage follows a predictable Johnson & Johnson (2017), this is when members pattern (Johnson and Johnson, 2017) clarify their responsibilities and how they will ○ May start to challenge roles, authority, and group contribute to the group's objectives. norms as groups move from forming to storming ○ Become more committed to the group's success. ○ This phase is characterized by disagreements, ○ Clearly defined roles reduce ambiguity and help tension, and competition as individuals assert their manage expectations, fostering accountability ideas and personalities. among members. ○ Group members often experience identity struggles ○ Levi & Askay (2020) note that role acceptance and competing interests, which can hinder cohesion enhances group cohesion, as members feel valued if not managed (Brown and Pearson, 2020). and recognized for their contributions, which can ○ Levi & Askay (2020) emphasize that this period is lead to increased motivation and productivity. crucial for the group's development, as resolving NORMS conflict constructively lays the groundwork for ○ This refers to the unwritten rules and expectations effective collaboration in later stages. that govern behavior within the group (Johnson & Johnson,2017). ○ The establishment of norms is a critical aspect of the Woody feels threatened by Buzz Lightyear’s arrival. norming stage.. During this stage, members Woody and Buzz compete for Andy’s attention. collaboratively develop norms that facilitate Woody accidentally causes Buzz to fall out of the cooperation and establish a sense of belonging. window. ○ Norms can influence group dynamics, promoting Woody and Buzz are trapped at Sid’s house, in danger behaviors that enhance group functioning, such as of being destroyed. open communication, mutual respect, and Woody and Buzz work together to escape Sid and constructive feedback. return to Andy. ○ The establishment of positive norms helps to They become friends and accept their roles as Andy's mitigate conflicts and encourages a supportive toys. environment, where members feel safe to express their ideas and concerns. THE VALUE OF CONFLICT INTERMEMBER RELATIONS ○ Although conflict may seem detrimental, Johnson & ○ This refers to the relationships and interactions Johnson (2017) argue that it can be valuable when among members within a group managed constructively. It allows for the airing of ○ Intermember relations improve significantly during different viewpoints and can ultimately lead to the norming stage as trust and rapport develop greater group cohesion if resolved. among group members. ○ Healthy conflict encourages deeper understanding ○ Johnson & Johnson (2017) state that positive and more creative problem-solving, as group intermember relations are vital for group cohesion, members are forced to consider alternative as they enable members to work together effectively. perspectives. ○ Increased collaboration leads to enhanced ○ This stage is essential for establishing trust and problem-solving and decision-making, as members accountability , as resolving conflicts helps the become more willing to share information and group develop a shared sense of purpose and support each other. collaboration. The storming stage is critical for ○ Strong intermember relationships foster a sense of transforming individual members into a cohesive community, where members feel a collective team. responsibility for the group's success. This ○ VALUE OF CONFLICT - refers to the potential benefits collaborative spirit is crucial for navigating that can arise from conflict situations within groups. challenges and achieving shared goals. Rather than viewing conflict solely as a negative ○ Collaborative norm-setting promotes respect and occurrence, Forsyth emphasizes that it can serve safety, improving communication and team several constructive purposes: dynamics. In each of these scenarios, the storming stage of group dynamics presents both The development of roles, norms, and intermember relations challenges and opportunities. significantly enhances group structure and functionality. Understanding the course, causes, and Clearly defined roles foster accountability, established norms value of conflict helps groups navigate guide behavior, and positive intermember relationships build through this critical phase, ultimately trust and collaboration. Together, these elements facilitate a BICOLUNIVERSITY BSPSYCHOLOGY cohesive and productive group environment, setting the stage ○ Effective communication and constructive feedback for the group to progress to the next stage of development. are critical for maintaining momentum in group performance. ○ Group’s cohesion and trust foster a supportive PERFORMING: Working together in groups environment, allowing members to take risks and PERFORMANCE IN THE PRESENCE OF OTHERS engage more freely in discussions, ultimately ○ In group dynamics, the presence of others can enhancing group output. enhance individual performance on simple tasks but Social Loafing: The tendency for individuals may impair it on complex tasks due to heightened to exert less effort when working in a group arousal. compared to when working alone, due to a ○ Zajonc's Drive Theory of Social Facilitation diffusion of responsibility. The presence of others increases Ringelmann effect: The tendency for people physiological arousal, which enhances to become less productive when they work performance on simple or well-learned tasks with others; loss of efficiency increases as (because they are dominant responses) but group size increases, but at a gradually impairs performance on complex or decreasing rate. unfamiliar tasks (because arousal interferes Free riding: Contribute less to a collective with more difficult, non-dominant task when one believes that other members responses). will compensate for this lack of effort. The presence of others can either help or Sucker effect: The tendency for members to hinder performance depending on task contribute less to a group endeavor when complexity and familiarity. they expect that others will think negatively Simple task and enhanced of anyone who works too hard or contributes performance - crowd's presence too much. increases his arousal and sharpens IMPROVING GROUP PERFORMANCE his focus with well-learned task ○ To improve group performance, implementing Complex task/impaired performance strategies such as setting clear goals, defining roles - complex, unfamiliar technique (the and responsibilities, and promoting open crane kick), his performance initially communication. falters due to nervousness and the ○ Regular assessments of group dynamics and heightened pressure of the crowd PERFORMANCE WHEN OTHERS ARE PRESENT performance, enabling members to identify areas for ○ Johnson & Johnson (2017) explain that individuals improvement and adapt strategies accordingly. often perform better in groups due to social ○ Celebrating successes, providing constructive facilitation, where the presence of others can feedback, and facilitating team-building activities to enhance motivation and productivity. strengthen relationships and motivation among ○ Effective collaboration and support among group members. These strategies collectively contribute to members are essential for maximizing performance a more effective and high-performing group. during this stage. ○ Social compensation: The tendency for members to ○ Mutual encouragement and recognition of individual expend greater effort on important collective tasks to contributions further enhance overall group offset the anticipated insufficiencies in all efforts performance. and abilities of their comembers. ○ EVALUATION APPREHENSION THEORY ○ Setting clear goals An analysis of performance gains in groups arguing ○ Redefined roles that individuals working in the presence of others ○ Effective communication experience a general concern for how these others ○ Group cohesion are evaluating them and that this apprehension ○ Skills in variance facilitates their performance on simple, well-learned ○ Social support IN THE PERFORMING STAGE tasks. ○ SELF-PRESENTATION THEORY ○ Group dynamics significantly influence performance An analysis of performance gains in groups outcomes. The presence of others can enhance assuming that social facilitation is caused by motivation and productivity, particularly in individuals striving to make a good impression interacting groups where effective communication when they work in the presence of others and collaboration occur. To improve performance, PERFORMANCE IN INTERACTING GROUPS clear goals, defined roles, and ongoing assessments ○ Members actively communicate and collaborate, of group dynamics are essential, fostering a tend to achieve higher performance levels compared supportive environment where members can thrive to non-interacting groups. and contribute their best work. ○ This increased performance is attributed to the pooling of diverse perspectives and ideas, leading to more innovative solutions and improved problem-solving. BICOLUNIVERSITY BSPSYCHOLOGY LECTURE 2 LECTURE 3 SOCIAL INFLUENCE PROCESSES POWER PROCESSES SOCIAL INFLUENCE: Interpersonal processes that change POWER operates through processes that shape group the thoughts, feelings, or behaviors of another person. interactions and outcomes. These processes include Whereas majority influence increases the consensus negotiation, persuasion, and conflict resolution. within the group, minority influence sustains individuality In the storming stage, power struggles may emerge as and innovation. members assert their views and attempt to influence MAJORITY INFLUENCE: Social pressure exerted by the group decisions. larger portion of a group on individual members and Effective power processes, such as collaboration and open smaller factions within the group communication, can facilitate a smoother transition to the MINORITY INFLUENCE: Social pressure exerted by a lone norming stage, where roles are solidified, and members individual or smaller faction of a group on members of the start to work more cohesively. majority faction. As groups progress to the performing stage, the distribution of power becomes more balanced, leading to shared leadership and collective decision-making. POWER ○ CASE: In a corporate team working on a product Power is essential to group life. Authorities guide members launch, conflict arises during the storming stage and its activities to forming cooperative alliances toward when team members disagree on marketing their goals but members exert influence in return by strategies. To resolve the conflict, they implement a forming cooperative alliances. negotiation process where each member presents their ideas and concerns. This structured discussion helps the team reach a consensus, paving the way SOCIAL POWER IN GROUPS for a more cohesive plan. SOCIAL POWER is the ability of individuals or groups to ○ This example highlights the power processes at work influence others and control resources within a social in group dynamics. Negotiation and open context. communication are essential during the storming They identify various forms of social power, including stage to manage conflicts and ensure that all voices LEGITIMATE POWER (based on authority), EXPERT POWER are heard. Effective power processes lead to (based on knowledge or skills), REFERENT POWER (based smoother transitions into the norming stage, where on personal relationships and admiration), and COERCIVE roles are better defined. POWER (based on the ability to impose sanctions). In the context of Tuckman's stages, social power dynamics THE METAMORPHIC EFFECTS OF POWER can shift as groups move from forming to performing. For instance, during the forming stage, power dynamics may The transformative effects of power on both individuals be unclear, while in the norming stage, members may and group dynamics: begin to establish roles and influence each other more The presence of power can lead to changes in behavior, actively. attitudes, and relationships among group members. ○ CASE: In a university student council, the elected president ○ For example: individuals with greater power may holds legitimate power due to their position. However, the become more confident and assertive, while those treasurer has expert power because of their financial with less power may experience feelings of knowledge. When planning an event, the president initially frustration or disengagement. tries to dominate discussions, but the treasurer suggests a This dynamic can impact group cohesion and budgeting plan that showcases their expertise. Over time, performance, particularly during the performing stage, the president learns to value the treasurer’s input, leading where the effective use of power is crucial for achieving to better collaboration. common goals. Fostering an inclusive environment where Different types of power interact within a group. While power is shared, is vital as this can enhance group legitimate power allows the president to lead, expert effectiveness and collaboration. power can significantly influence group decisions. As ○ CASE: In a nonprofit organization, a new director members recognize each other's strengths, power with strong referent power (due to their charisma dynamics shift towards collaboration, enhancing group and relationship-building skills) joins the team. effectiveness. Initially, some staff members feel intimidated, but as BICOLUNIVERSITY BSPSYCHOLOGY  the director fosters an inclusive environment, team ARE LEADERS BORN OR MADE? members become more engaged and collaborative. Over time, the staff's morale improves, leading to Aristotle believed leadership is an innate talent, where increased productivity. some are born to lead and others to follow. ○ The case demonstrates the metamorphic effects of However, research suggests both nature and nurture power, where a leader’s referent power transforms influence leadership. Some people naturally possess group dynamics. The director's inclusive approach qualities like temperament, intelligence, or social skills that encourages participation, enhancing group make them more likely to be leaders. cohesion and motivation. This shift shows how Most people can develop leadership skills through effort power can positively impact behaviors and and mentoring, becoming effective leaders over time. relationships when used effectively. Power dynamics play a critical role in group development, DO ALL GROUPS HAVE LEADERS? influencing interactions and outcomes throughout Tuckman's stages. Leaders often emerge early in groups, especially larger or Social power shapes how members influence each other, long-term ones. while power processes facilitate negotiations and conflict Leadership is more likely when tasks are shared, rewards resolution. are valued, and there's prior leadership experience. The metamorphic effects of power can transform Groups under stress tend to embrace leadership. behaviors and relationships within the group, highlighting Studies show men’s groups are more likely to maintain the need for shared leadership and inclusivity to enhance centralized leadership compared to women’s groups, as group cohesion and performance. men tolerate hierarchy more. LEADERS AND LEADERSHIP DO FOLLOWERS RESIST LEADERS? LEADERSHIP: Guidance of others in their pursuits, often by Leaders often emerge early in groups, especially larger or organizing, directing, coordinating, supporting, and long-term Some argue groups function better without motivating their efforts; also, the ability to lead others. leaders, believing leadership weakens self-reliance. However, most people prefer to be led, as groups are generally more satisfied and productive with leaders. While group members may complain about poor leaders, they still seek leadership rather than avoiding it. In troubled groups, members are more likely to exaggerate or misremember someone's leadership potential, showing a strong need for leadership during turmoil. DO LEADERS MAKE A DIFFERENCE? Leaders have a significant impact on group success. Studies show groups thrive with good leaders across various settings like schools, military, and businesses. Leaders reduce the bystander effect in emergencies and help groups focus on important information during problem-solving. A new, inspiring leader can drive a group to success. However, leaders can also negatively influence groups by pursuing selfish goals or pushing harmful agendas, leading to negative outcomes for the group. IS LEADERSHIP POWER? ○ Romance of leadership: The tendency to Many believe good leaders are those who manipulate or overestimate the amount of influence and control control their followers, using persuasion or force such as leaders exert on their groups and their groups’ Adolf Hitler and Ho Chi Minh who saw leadership as outcomes molding or controlling people. ○ Followership: Working effectively with a leader and Leaders who dominate and coerce may not truly be other group members. leaders. Constructive leaders act in the best interests of the group with the group’s consent. DO LEADERS MAKE ALL THE DIFFERENCE? Leadership is a form of power shared with people, not power over them. True leadership is based on a reciprocal People often overestimate a leader's influence on group relationship between leader and followers. outcomes, especially in Western cultures, seeing them as heroes or rescuers ("romance of leadership"). This view overlooks other factors that affect group dynamics and the contributions of group members. BICOLUNIVERSITY BSPSYCHOLOGY  Leaders are often blamed for failures or credited for ○ Leaders form stronger relationships (high-quality success, but in reality, they don’t deserve all the blame or exchanges) with some group members (in-group), credit. Leadership is influential, but the success or failure leading to better performance and trust. of a group depends on more than just the leader's role. Example: A supervisor offers more support and opportunities to employees they trust and have built rapport with, leading to LEADERSHIP higher performance in that group Leadership is not the power to coerce others, an inborn ○ Leader–member exchange theory (LMX theory) trait, a necessity of group life, or a mysterious capacity to uniquely stresses the quality of the one-to-one heal sick groups. relationship between a leader and a subordinate. Leadership is the process by which an individual guides PARTICIPATION THEORIES others in their collective pursuits, often by organizing, ○ This emphasizes involving group members in the directing, coordinating, supporting, and motivating their decision-making process to increase commitment efforts and effectiveness It is not a static characteristic of an individual or a group, Example: A leader who holds regular but a complex of interpersonal processes whereby brainstorming sessions to gather input from cooperating individuals are permitted to influence and all team members before making a strategic motivate others to promote the attainment of group and decision. individual goals. These processes are reciprocal, ○ Autocratic: No input from the members in making transactional, transformational, cooperative, and adaptive. decisions about group activities; authority Is a reciprocal process—leader-followers-group situation emphasized The leader does not just influence the group members; ○ Democratic: All activities were discussed by the rather, the leader–follower relationship is mutual entire group. Allow others to make their own Leadership is a transactional process, in which leaders decisions and encouraged the development of an and followers work together, exchanging their time, egalitarian atmosphere energies, and skills to increase their joint rewards. ○ Laissez-faire: Rarely intervened in the group Leadership is a cooperative process of legitimate activities; decisions made without any supervision influence rather than sheer power. Example: A democratic leader involves the Leadership is an adaptive, goal-seeking process, for it team in decision-making, like a startup organizes and motivates group members’ attempts to founder who values input from all members attain personal and group goals (Parks, 2005). before making choices. They influence others as they pool their efforts in the pursuit of shared goals even if not holding a position of TRANSFORMATION LEADERSHIP supervisory. Leaders who inspire followers by creating a vision for change and empowering the group to achieve LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS extraordinary outcomes. Intelligence and leadership emergence and effectiveness ○ Example: A leader who motivates their team to go hand in hand. innovate and push boundaries, like Steve Jobs with Emotional intelligence: The ability to perceive emotions in Apple. self and others; to understand how emotions blend, unfold, Transactional leadership: A traditional form of leadership and influence cognition and behavior; to use emotions to that involves contributing time, effort, and other resources facilitate thinking; and to manage emotions in self and in the pursuit of collaborative goals in exchange for others” desired outcomes. FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY MODEL Transformational leadership: An inspiring method of ○ The effectiveness of leadership is contingent on the leading others that involves elevating one’s followers’ leader’s style and the situation. Leaders are either motivation, confidence, and satisfaction, by uniting them task-oriented or relationship-oriented. in the pursuit of shared, challenging goals and changing Example: A task-oriented leader excels in their beliefs, values, and needs. structured environments, like a military operation, whereas a relationship-oriented leader thrives in creative settings like advertising agencies. LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORY ○ Leader–member exchange theory (LMX): A dyadic, relational approach to leadership assuming that leaders develop exchange relationships with each of their subordinates, and that the quality of these leader–member exchange (LMX) relationships influences subordinates’ responsibility, decision influence, access to resources, and performance BICOLUNIVERSITY BSPSYCHOLOGY