DRI Notes PDF

 Chapter 1 Y common er rors in reasoning. 1 Selective observation only looking a t+ believing things in line with our beliefs...

 Chapter 1 Y common er rors in reasoning. 1 Selective observation only looking a t+ believing things in line with our beliefs Observations can be inaccurate 2. Risk of overgeneralizing I we conclude that what we see is true for all/most cases generalizability theory : to reduce to Risk of Selective- , in ac tu Rate observation and overgeneralizing , researchers are required to sample and measure systematically. 3 illogical reasoning when we jump to conclusions/angue on the basis of invalid assumptions 4. Resistance to change & the reluc tance to re eva l u a te our ideas in light of new inform ation. due to : ego based and institutional commitments excessive devotion to tradition uncritical agreement with authority the inter net * social science and its limitations scientific methods indiv societies and the use of to investigate., , social processes ; the knowledge produced  M * types of Social Research. 1 descriptive R. in which social Phenomena are defined + described 2. exploratory R. based on exploring., What happens when... 3. / cinductives explanatory R. that seeks to identify causes + effects and to predict it will hypothesis first h ow change. 4. evaluation R. that examines X , or other efforts to affect social patterns. cause-effect relations quantitative vs. qualitative positivist us constructivist quantitative vs. qualitative quantitative-based on number data qualitative = methods relying on written/spoken words/observa- tionS Often exploratory research positivism = associated with quantitative methods of data collec tion constructivism = associated with qualitative methods of data collection triangulation = multiple methods to study 1 Research question  2 Chapter * 3 characteristics of a good research question socially important feasible scientifically relevant * 3 key social Research strategies. 1 deductive research theory 'hypothesis , testing explanatory Research( cause-effect. 2 inductive Research observations 'hypothesis I testing exploratory research. 3 descriptive Research to provide pictures for theories Quantitative + qualitative * 3 longitudinal designs > data is collec ted at 1 or more points in time V S.. CROSS-sectional Research designs-data is collec ted at one point in time. 1 Repeated cross-sectional designs t re n d studies , data is collected at 2 or more points in time from different samples of the same population time : 2/ points samples : different , pop : same. 2 fixed sample panel designs < panel studies c sample = panel > data is collected from the same panel at 2/1 points in time subject fatigue might occur problems caused by panel members growing weary Of Repeated interviews etc. and drop out or star t stock/thoughtless answers giving 3. event-based design c cohor t study I data is collected at 2/1 points in time from indiv. in a conor t. indiv. or groups with a common starting point e.. g bir th cohor ts , school cohorts etc. * 3 standards for validity 1. measurement validity When a measure measures w h at we think it measures 2. generalizability sample generalizability cross-population generalizability ex te r n a l Validity. 3 causal/inter nal validity When a conclusion that A leads/results in B is cor rec t  Chapter Y * conceptualization us operalization conceptualization the process of specifying what we mean by a te r m helps translating abstrac t theory into specific variables that a re used in testable hypothesis operalization = the process of specifying the measures that will indicate the value of cases on a va r i a b l e indicator : indicates the value of cases on a variable * types of questions closed-ended fixed choice , open-ended triangulation = the use of 2 different measures of the same variable I can strengthen measurement considerably , more confident in validity * levels of measurement. 1 nominal vary in quality , but not in amount e.. g Religion 2. Ordinal numbers assigned to cases to only specify the order e. g. Scale , quantity. 3 interval/ratio  numbers indicate a variable's value and specifies the order of the cases. Always has a tero point discrete measure : a measure t h at classifies cases in cordinals distinct categories continuous measure : a measure with numbers indicating cratio/ interval , the values of variables as points on a continuum. dichotomy : variable having a values a only * measurement validity inter nal validity , (. 1 face validity does it seem connected to the concept 2. content validity does it cover full range of the concept's meaning. 3 criterion validity 4. construct validity does it correspond/establish measurements of the theore- rical related concepts ! 5. predictive validity What are the future outcomes ? A measurement reliability Reliability , a measurement procedure yields consistent Scores test-retest reliability they also don't change when retested  Chapter 12 * features of qualitative data analysis focus on tex tr a t h e r than numbers e.. g interviews , articles , pictures etc. describes rather than defined induc tive no predefined measures / hypothesis focus on 'the whole case' rather than in separate parts Social context , thoughts etc. in-depth comprehensive understanding V.. S finding relationships between variables A qualitative approaches to data analysis 1. ethnomethodology h ow does it c re a te reality Rather than describing the social wo r l d itself ethnographics 2. conversation analysis I analysis the Sequence + details of conversational tex t to understand h ow social reality is constructed. 3 nar rative analysis the analysis focusses on h ow respondents impose o rd e r On the flow of experience in their lives , and thus make sence of events + actions which they h ave participated * strengths + weaknesses of participationary research par : participatory ac tion research / covers topics. governments a range of Usually * advantages + disadvantages of neutral Responses fence-sitters' people who see themselves as neutral floaters , people who would chose ' don't know but due to unavailability provide a Random opinion advantages : + avoid 'floater answers' + allows people to be n e u t ral disadvantages : leads some to take the easy way out * cover letter requirements introductory statement must be: credible · unbaised authority personalized · personalized salutation close with Researcher Signature use of second person interesting · Responsible ·  participation is voluntary , confidentiality * mixed-mode survey a Survey conduc ted by more than one method , allowing the strenghts of 1 survey design to compensate for the likelihood of securing data from different types of Respondents * ethical issues 1. confidentiality. 2 provide true anonymity  Chapter 5 * difference 2 meanings of generalizability 1. do the findings Represent the sample, or can it be generalized to an entire population ? 2. can the findings from the study ofI population be generalized to a somewhat different population ? the entire set of indiv. / entities to which study findings can be genera- 1 i te d sample-subset of the population > elements - indiv. Within a sample cross-population generalitability Researchers project findings groups/populations - their o n to different to the ones they studied Census : studying the entire population of interest * Relations between desired sample , the obtained sample , sampling frame, sampling quality desired sample = Representative of population Obtained sample might not be bigger sample => Representative - bigger sampling frame better quality method w h e n A major types of probability sampling prefer red 1. Simple Random sampling -in which every sample element is selected the basis of only on chance , through a Random process * not very efficient to d r aw a valid sample 2. Systematic Random sampling in which sample elements a re selec ted from a list/sequential files With every nth element being selected mandomly within the 1st interval  sampling interval : the number of cases from one sampled case to the next in a systematic Random sample periodicity : a sequence of elements that varies in some regular periodic pattern 3. stratified Random sampling 1 in which sample elements a re selected separately from population Strata that h ave been identified in advance by the Researcher - efficient : ensures appropriate representation of elements across Strata proportionate SS : elements a re selected in ex a c t proportions to their representation in the population disproportionate 5 4. cluster sampling > e l e m e n ts a re selec ted in 2/ > stages. 1st = Random selection of naturally occuring clusters + l a st the Random selec tion of elements within those clusters * sampling e r ro r , number of cases sampled , heterogeneity of the pop- ulation , the fraction of the population included in the sample sampling e r ro r : difference between the sample and the population  Chapter 6 * 3 criteria for establishing a causal Relationship + 2 cautions that can improve understanding of a causal connection causal explanation ↓ civ) causes a change in y (df) when all : , Other things are equall a ceterus paribus Correlation does n ot cause causation 1. association the cause must be associated with the effect. 2 time order cause must come before the effect. 3 nonspuriousness make sure its a relationship between 2 variables and not more 3rd variable= extraneous variable Statistical - contro l , a method in which I variable is held constant So that the relationship between 2/ other variables can be asses - Sed without the influence of variation in the control variable quasi-experimental design - a stronger test of spurious effects , subjects are Randomly Selected * essential components of a true experimental design Strongest Research design to test causal effects features :. 1 2 groups experimental , c o n t ro l 2. Variation in the independent variable before assessment of change in dependent variable. 3 Random assignment of the 2/ comparison groups > confidence in validity of causal conclusion inter nal validity ( * Random assignment (randomizations + random sampling Random assignment procedure which each experimen- - = a by max. Internal validity when participants can select the group they based treatment receive. enter on the they expect to 2. history effects occurs when events external to the study influence posttest scores (effect of external events (. 3 differential attribution> when comparison groups be come different because subjects a re likely to drop out of one of the groups for various Reasons 4. Contamination. 5 expectancies of experimental staff misidentification that occurs when change among experimen- tal subjects results from the positive expectancies of the Staff who are delivering the treatment mather than from the treatment itself self-fulfilling prophecy  1 Chapter o * features of qualitative research 1. collection of primarily qualitative data 2. exploratory research question, inductive reasoning 3. unstudied processes 4. human subjectivity. 5 adaptive design. 6 sensitivity to subjective role Researcher * methods of case study research , ethnography , and nethography case study · : thick description - ethnography · participant observation emerging in certain group sharing some kind of an identity · netnography ethnographic study , but in online communities * advantages + disadvantages of participant observer Role a qualitative method for gathering data that involves develop- ing a sustained relationship with people while they go about their n or m al ac tivities M types ; 1. cove r t participant I Researcher does not participate + is not publically de- fined as a researcher - unlikely to influence social processes - keep in mind the influence of their ac tions. 2 Overt observation > Researcher does not participate and is publicly de- fined as a researcher - engagement can be useful for understanding -knowing you're being observed may influence ac tions/be- naviour 3. over t participants Researcher is not publicly known as a researcher to the other participants # engagement can be useful for understanding - tough balancing act. 4 Cover t participation > complete participant T engagement can be useful for understanding cannot openly take notes/use recording devices cannot ask suspicious questions difficult role to play succesfully 15. ) gatekeeper person in the field setting who can grant researchers access to the setting A n o te taking field researchers key informant an insider who is willing +able to provide a field Researcher with superior access and info , including answers to questions that arise in the course of the Re-  search jottings brief notes written in the field about highlights of an ob- servation period field notes describe what has been obser ved , heard , experienced in a participant observation study * focus groups groups of unrelated people that a re formed by a researcher and led in a group discussion of a topic for 1-2 hours + can highlight understandings in words , identify group norms , group processes , engage open conversation, reveals differences of Opinions + discover unanticipated findings and exploring hidden meanings - hand to do large samples , generalizability bias * ethical challenges. 1 voluntary participation process consent Ian interpretation of the ethical Standard of voluntary consent that allows them to change their mind at all times 2. Subject well-being. 3 identity disclosure anonymity 4. confidentiality. 5 Researcher safety  Chapter 3 * protection of human subjects + historical events 1. nuremberg wa r crime trials medical experiments done by the nazi's C. milgrem's obedience experiment determine likelihood of the people following orders from an authority despite their ow n sentiments 3. Tuskegee study studying the "natural" course of syphilis on 400 black men without giving them the cure Belmont Report : created to protect h u m an subjects 3 ethical principles :. 1 Respect for persons autonomy 2. beneficence minimizing possible har ms + max. benefits. 3 justice distributing benefits + risk of Research fairly ederal policy for the protection of human Subjects