Drafting Unit 5: State Politics and Development PDF

**Chapter-5** **STATE, POLITICS AND DEVELOPMENT** **INTRODUCTION (H1)** State, politics and development collectively shape the structure and trajectory of social life. State politics involves the governance and decision-making processes that directly influence societal development by determining the allocation of resources, the implementation of laws, and the establishment of social policies. Development encompasses economic growth, social progress, and the improvement of living standards, all of which are mediated through political systems. The intricate relationship among this forms the backbone of modern sociopolitical and economic discourse. This relationship is significant in the Indian context due to the country\'s diversity, historical complexities, and developmental aspirations. Political Processes in India insight into tribes, borders, and the nation-state to understand diversity. Other political processes like bureaucracy, governance, and public policy show how governments work on issues like health, education and jobs. Grass-root democracy explains how people participate in decision-making. We also explore how law, society, gender, and corruption affect development. The role of global organisations in India's development is also discussed. Social Movements and Protests show how people come together to demand change. Movements based on caste, gender, religion, and other issues highlight struggles for rights. Civil society, NGOs, and activists work to bring attention to problems. Leadership and activism are key to making change happen. We also look at reservations and how they connect to politics and representation. **Political Sociology (H2)** Political sociology is a subfield of sociology that examines the relationship between society and political power, focusing on how power is distributed, exercised, and contested. Political sociology provides insights into: - The interplay between societal structures and political power. - The impact of public policies on different social groups. - The role of culture, identity, and ideology in shaping political systems. - The ways in which citizens can influence political outcomes and drive social change. Key thinkers have shaped this discipline by offering diverse insights. Karl Marx emphasized the role of economic structures and class struggle in political dynamics, while Max Weber explored authority types, bureaucracy, and legitimacy. Émile Durkheim focused on social cohesion and the moral basis of political institutions. Antonio Gramsci introduced the concept of cultural hegemony, explaining how ideologies maintain ruling class dominance. Michel Foucault analysed power as decentralized and embedded in societal practices. C. Wright Mills highlighted the concentration of power among elites, and Robert Dahl explored pluralism in democracies. Pierre Bourdieu examined symbolic power and cultural capital\'s role in politics, while Charles Tilly linked state formation to collective action. T. H. Marshall outlined the evolution of citizenship, emphasizing civil, political, and social rights as fundamental to democracy. Barrington Moore Jr. studied class structures and their influence on political systems like democracy and dictatorship. Indian political sociology has been shaped by thinkers who explored the intersection of caste, class, and politics in India\'s unique socio-cultural context. Mahatma Gandhi emphasized non-violence, self-rule, and decentralized governance, blending moral values with political action. B. R. Ambedkar critiqued caste oppression and advocated for social justice and equality through constitutional democracy. M. N. Srinivas introduced concepts like 'dominant caste' and 'Sanskritisation' to explain caste and power dynamics. Rajni Kothari analysed the relationship between democracy, caste, and electoral politics. Andre Béteille studied the role of inequality in shaping political institutions, while D. P. Mukerji highlighted the interplay of tradition and modernity in governance. A. R. Desai, a Marxist thinker, examined the role of class and economic structures in political change, while G. S. Ghurye and Yogendra Singh focused on how social structures influence political processes. These thinkers provide critical insights into India\'s political and social dynamics. For elaborated theories of political thinker, q.v. Chapters 1 and 4. **Key Concepts (H2)** ***Political Structure (H3)*** - Political structure refers to the overarching framework or system within which political activities occur. It includes the organization of government and power relations in a society. - The focus is on the 'what' of politics -- the framework that defines how political authority is organized and distributed. - Examples of political structure are Federal systems (e.g., the United States, India) vs. unitary systems (e.g., France); democracy, autocracy, monarchy; and the separation of powers (legislative, executive, judicial). - The key feature of political structure is that it provides the macro-level organization and stability for governance. ***Political Institution (H3)*** - Political institution refers to specific, established organizations or entities that perform key roles within the political structure. Institutions enforce norms and rules to govern political and social behaviour. - The focus is on the 'who' of politics -- entities that implement political power and policy. - Examples could be the Parliament or Congress; political parties; the judiciary or election commissions; and institutions of local governance, like municipalities or panchayats. - The key features of political institutions are formalised and have defined roles in decision-making and governance. ***Political Process (H3)*** - Political process refers to the dynamic activities, interactions, and behaviours through which political decisions are made, power is exercised, and conflicts are resolved. - The focus of the political process on the 'how' of politics i.e. how political actions, negotiations and decision-making unfold within structures and institutions. - Examples are election campaigns and voting; policymaking and legislative debates; protests, lobbying, and advocacy by social movements; and negotiation between political parties or branches of government. - The key feature is political processes are dynamic and involve the actual functioning and engagement of political actors. **Difference between Political Structure, Political Institution, and Political Process** ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------- **Features** **Political Structure** **Political Institution** **Political Process** **Definition** Framework of authority and governance. Specific organizations that govern. Activities and interactions in governance. **Focus** 'What' governs society. 'Who' governs and enforces rules. 'How' governance and power work. **Examples** Federalism, monarchy, democracy. Parliament, courts, political parties. Elections, policymaking, protests. **Nature** Structural and static. Institutional and formalized. Dynamic and action-oriented. **POLITICAL PROCESSES IN INDIA (H1)** **Tribes, Nation State and Border (H2)** After independence, India focused on building a nation based on democracy, secularism, liberty, equality, and socialism, as stated in the Constitution. The Nehruvian development model was used to achieve these goals. However, India\'s diversity (ethnic, tribal, cultural, and linguistic) created challenges, especially in border areas like the Northeast, Punjab, and Jammu and Kashmir. Tribal integration became important for nation-building, as many tribes in border regions demanded autonomy or separation. These demands were often exploited by external forces, leading to insurgency and separatism. Initially, leaders believed that democracy and development would solve these issues. Over time, it became clear that fair integration and development of tribal communities were essential for unity and progress. ***Tribes(H3)*** Tribes are defined based on certain distinct characteristics which include: - Primitive traits and way of life - Geographical isolation - Distinct Culture, language and traditions - Shyness of contact with broader community - Social, Economic and Educational Backwardness Various terms like 'Adivasi', 'Indigenous Peoples of India', 'Vanvasi', 'Vanyajati', 'Scheduled Tribes' (Anusuchit Janjati), 'PVTG' (Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups), and 'De-notified Tribes' refer to diverse tribal or marginalized groups in India, but they have nuanced meanings and contexts. These are as follows: - **Adivasi:** The term Adivasi means 'original inhabitants' and is commonly used to identify tribal groups in India, emphasizing their status as the earliest settlers. However, the Indian Constitution uses the term Scheduled Tribes (Anusuchit Janjati). Traditionally, terms like 'Jana' were used in the Hindi heartland (Ray, 1972). In regions like North Bengal, Sikkim, and the Northeast, Adivasis often refer to migrant tribal laborers, such as tea plantation workers, and small peasants from Central India. Thus, Adivasi serves as a generic identifier, particularly in Eastern and Northeastern India. - **Indigenous Peoples of India:** This term aligns with international definitions of indigenous peoples, referring to communities with historical continuity in a region. In India, the term is sensitive due to the complexity of historical migrations and the Constitution\'s avoidance of 'indigenous' as a legal term. - **Vanvasi:** This term means 'forest dwellers', which has been popularised by certain socio-political groups to emphasise the tribal connection to forests rather than their 'indigenous' identity. These socio-political groups framing vanvasi as primitive and undermining their territorial rights. - **Vanyajati:** Translating to 'forest caste' or 'community of the forest', this older term was used in Indian policy and social discourse but is less common in contemporary contexts. Gandhians viewed tribes through a culturological lens and referred to them as Vanyajati. This view also diminishes their political and territorial identity. - **Scheduled Tribes (Anusuchit Janjati):** As per Article 366(25), Scheduled Tribes (STs) are specific tribes or tribal communities identified under Article 342 of the Indian Constitution due to their historical social, educational, and economic backwardness. It is an administrative term used in the Indian Constitution to provide specific constitutional privileges, protection, and benefits to them. The term \'Scheduled Tribe\' is not coterminous with \'Adivasi\'; out of the 5,653 distinct communities in India, 635 are considered to be \'tribes\' or \'Adivasis\', while the estimated number of Scheduled Tribes varies from 250 to 593. Under Article 342(1), the President of India, after consulting the Governor of a State, can specify tribes or communities as Scheduled Tribes through a public notification. Parliament can amend this list by adding or removing tribes under Article 342(2). A tribe recognized as ST in one State might not hold the same status in another. A sub-category of Scheduled Tribes identified for their extreme vulnerability is PVTGs (Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups). They are characterised by small populations, primitive technologies, high level of economic backwardness, dependence on natural resources, low literacy rates and stagnant or declining populations. India recognizes 75 PVTGs, including the Jarawas, Onges, and Sentineleses, with targeted efforts to improve healthcare, education, and livelihoods. - **Denotified Tribes:** Denotified Tribes were historically labelled as 'criminal tribes' (born criminal) under the British-era Criminal Tribes Act of 1871, stigmatizing them as inherently criminal. The Ananthasayanam Ayyangar Committee (1949) laid the groundwork for the repeal of the Criminal Tribes Act. As Denotified Tribes are spread across SC, ST, and OBC communities and few do not fall into any of these categories, the Kaka Kalelkar Commission (1953), also known as the first OBC Commission, emphasized welfare for these groups. The B.P. Mandal Commission (1980) made further recommendations regarding their inclusion and upliftment. In 2002, the National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (NCRWC), chaired by Justice M.N. Venkatachaliah, acknowledged the wrongful stigmatisation of DNTs as crime-prone and highlighted their exploitation by law enforcement and society. Renke Commission (2008) focused exclusively on Denotified and Nomadic Tribes, providing a detailed analysis of their challenges and recommending welfare measures. The Idate Commission (2015) aimed to study the conditions of Denotified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes and suggested policies for their socio-economic development. - **Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes:** Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes are communities that traditionally lead mobile or partially mobile lifestyles, often lacking fixed settlements. They primarily rely on seasonal occupations and face challenges such as landlessness, poor economic conditions, and marginalization. Among the DNTs few are also Nomadic Tribes. Worlds major nomadic population is in South Asia. In India, 10% of total the population is Nomadic and Denotified. To address their issues, the government has launched initiatives like the Development and Welfare Board for Denotified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Communities (DWBDNC) in 2019, which works under the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. This board oversees schemes such as the Scheme for Economic Empowerment of DNTs (SEED) to provide financial assistance, education, and skill development to improve their livelihoods. The traditional tribal political system consists of simple, small, and informal organizations that vary based on the tribe\'s structure and customs. The key types include: - **Council of Elders**: A temporary group of senior members selected by the village to make decisions on important matters. - **Village Headman**: This is a hereditary role, passed down through generations, where the headman represents and leads the village. - **Village Panchayat**: A formal body consisting of elected or selected panch members, headed by the village headman, responsible for governance and conflict resolution. - **Union of Villages or Paragana Panchayat**: This functions as a higher-level council, acting as a court of appeal for decisions made by village Panchayats. - **Tribal Chief (Specific to Northeast India)**: A hereditary position where the chief serves as the supreme judicial and administrative authority at the tribal level. The traditional village political structures in tribal areas were primarily informal, centered on consensus-based decision-making through entities like the Council of Elders, hereditary Village Headmen, and Village Panchayats. These systems governed local issues such as land use, resource management, and conflict resolution. Over time, these structures have been modified with the introduction of formal governance frameworks like the Panchayati Raj System, which integrated tribal villages into India's political framework. Laws such as the Panchayat (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA), empowered tribal communities by extending panchayat governance to Scheduled Areas while preserving their traditional rights. Similarly, the Forest Rights Act (2006) recognized tribal claims over forest resources and granted legal titles to forest dwellers. However, these changes often clash with tribal autonomy such as: - **Resource Conflicts**: Tribal claims over forests and land often conflict with state-led development projects like mining and infrastructure, leading to displacement and loss of livelihood. - **Integration Challenges**: The formalization of governance under Indian law sometimes undermines traditional systems, causing friction between local self-governance practices and state policies. - **Development vs. Autonomy**: While state initiatives aim for development, they are often seen as imposing top-down structures that neglect tribal traditions and priorities. This evolving governance framework has enabled tribal communities to engage with the modern political system while creating tensions over autonomy and resource rights. **Tribal Discontent** The expressions of tribal discontent can be seen through: - The demand for autonomy - Separatism - Regionalism and opposition to outsiders **Demand for Autonomy** The demand for autonomy refers to a region within a federation or state seeking more power, authority, or autonomy than other regions. This demand is made while remaining part of the federation or state and is expressed either as a demand for the establishment of an autonomous council or as a demand for a separate state. Although the demand for autonomy by tribal groups in India is a result of colonial tribal policies, its continuation in the present day is primarily due to independent India's tribal policies and imbalanced tribal development, which have created dissatisfaction among tribes and prompted them to demand autonomy. The demand for autonomy and the associated movements can be observed in various parts of India: - **Northeast Region**: Dissatisfaction among tribes has created instability in the northeastern regions for a long time. Various tribal groups in this region have been demanding autonomy for their security. These demands can be explained through the following points:\ After independence, protests and riots erupted across Assam against the use of the Assamese language, leading to the formation of the \"All Party Hills Conference,\" which demanded a separate tribal state from Assam. Consequently, in 1972, three tribal states were created out of Assam. The Khasi National Council, established in 1923, played a key role in the formation of Meghalaya, as it had been advocating autonomy for the Khasi people even before independence.\ After 1972, the demand for autonomy did not end. Communities like the Karbi and Dimasa in Assam demanded separate states. To address these demands, autonomy was granted to these communities under district councils. The Bodo tribe, residing north of the Brahmaputra River, launched the Bodo Movement in 1967, demanding a separate Udayanchal state through organisations like the All Bodo Students Union (ABSU) and the Plains Tribal Council of Assam. This movement, which sought to establish ethnic identity, resulted in various forms of autonomy. Initially, linguistic autonomy was granted, followed by the establishment of the Bodoland Autonomous Council in 1993 to provide political autonomy and address the demand for a separate state.\ In northern West Bengal, tribal communities in Darjeeling, Kalimpong, Kurseong, and Siliguri demanded a separate Gorkhaland. Under the leadership of Subhash Ghising, the Gorkha National Liberation Front was formed in 1980, leading to the Darjeeling Gorkha Hill Council in 1988 to grant self-governance and end the demand for a separate state. - **Jharkhand Region**: Dissatisfaction among the tribes of Chotanagpur motivated them to demand a separate Jharkhand state. A prolonged movement was led by the Jharkhand Mukti Morcha, culminating in the creation of Jharkhand as a separate state in 2000. - **Madhya Pradesh**: Gond leaders, through the Indian Gondwana Union, demanded a separate Gondwana state before the State Reorganisation Commission. Although the formation of Chhattisgarh reduced this demand, it still persists. - **Vidarbha Region**: Tribes in regions of Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh, predominantly inhabited by the Bhil community, are currently demanding a Vidarbha state, leading to ongoing movements. **Reasons for the Demand for Autonomy** The demand for autonomy in India has resulted from the interplay of various factors. While the feeling of economic backwardness has been the most significant motivating factor, as seen in Jharkhand, Bodoland, and Gorkhaland, this does not mean that such demands will not arise in prosperous regions. Instead, these demands stem from a combination of social, economic, cultural, and geographical factors, which can be summarised as follows: 1. **Exploitation by outsiders**: The entry of non-tribal traders and contractors into tribal areas and their exploitation of the local population have fostered awareness among tribes, motivating them to demand autonomy. 2. **Lack of government efforts**: Insufficient measures by the government for tribal security and development, often resulting from strained centre-state relations or political rivalries, have exacerbated tribal dissatisfaction. 3. **Gap in development programmes**: The disparity between expected outcomes and actual achievements of tribal development programmes has intensified dissatisfaction. 4. **Uneven tribal development**: Imbalanced regional and individual development has contributed to tribal dissatisfaction, as seen in movements like the Jharkhand and Gorkhaland demands. 5. **Corruption in programmes**: Corruption in tribal development initiatives has further fuelled tribal dissatisfaction and their demand for autonomy. 6. **Ethnic identity and cultural crisis**: The imposition of the Assamese language in Assam and the role of the Nepali language in Gorkhaland are examples of ethnic and cultural factors driving autonomy demands. 7. **Consumerism and aspirations**: Increased exposure to the outside world has raised tribal needs and aspirations, but poverty and lack of opportunities have left these unmet, fostering discontent. 8. **Political rivalry**: Political competition and personal interests among parties have been major catalysts for such demands, as seen in the roles of Congress and Left parties in Gorkhaland. 9. **Christian missionary influence**: The spread of Christianity has weakened the integration of small and great traditions, emphasising ethnic identity over national unity, and raising awareness against exploitation. 10. **Discrimination by the state**: Discriminatory behaviour by central and state governments towards specific tribes has incited movements like the Gorkhaland agitation. 11. **Majority dominance and minority neglect**: Majority dominance, such as that of the Ahoms over Bodos, has been a significant factor in movements like the Bodo agitation. 12. **Displacement without rehabilitation**: Land acquisition and displacement without adequate rehabilitation have further aggravated tribal dissatisfaction. 13. **Geographical diversity**: Unique cultural and developmental attributes of certain regions have influenced demands for autonomy. 14. **Unequal representation in Parliament**: Unequal representation of various states and a comparative lack of nationalist sentiments have also contributed to tribal discontent and demands for autonomy. **Separatism** Separatism is the demand by a group for political, religious, cultural, gender-based, or ethnic separation. Traditionally, it refers to demands for complete political secession to establish a new nation-state, which remains a major challenge to national integration in India. Tribal dissatisfaction has manifested as separatism in several regions: - In Nagaland, under the leadership of Angami Zapu Phizo, the Naga National Council declared independence from India. Although Nagaland was granted statehood in 1963, the issue persists, with groups like the NSCN continuing to demand a separate Naga state or independence. - In Mizoram, the Mizo National Front, led by Laldenga, launched an armed struggle for independence, culminating in the formation of Mizoram state in 1987. **Regionalism and Opposition to Outsiders** Regionalism is the parochial attachment of people to their region, expressed as opposition to the interests of the nation or other regions. This often manifests as hostility, tension, or violence against outsiders. Examples include: - In Assam, the All Assam Students Union launched a movement against immigrants, demanding the expulsion of those who settled after 1951. - In Jharkhand, there is resentment among the indigenous population against outsiders, whom they blame for depriving them of the benefits of development. These factors collectively highlight the complex interplay of issues underlying autonomy demands and related movements in India. Similarly, in **Tripura**, **Mizoram**, and **Arunachal Pradesh**, there is widespread resentment against outsiders, as the local populations believe that these outsiders are the primary reason for their current state of backwardness. In **Tripura**, this sentiment is particularly pronounced, as the indigenous inhabitants have now become a **minority** in their own land. **Table of States/Union Territories and Associated Tribes** **State/Union Territory** **Tribes** --------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Andhra Pradesh Banjara, Lambada, Sugali, Koya, Konda, Savara, Jatapu, Chenchu, Gadaba Bihar Santhal, Gond, Uraon, Kharwar, Birhor, Korwa, Asur, Ho Chhattisgarh Gond, Bhil, Baiga, Abujhmaria, Halba, Bhatra, Korwa, Parja, Ho Goa Dhodia, Dubla, Siddi, Gavda, Velip Gujarat Bhil, Barela, Koli, Dubla, Varli, Chodhra, Rathwa Himachal Pradesh Gaddi, Gujjar, Kinnaur, Koli, Bhot, Swangla, Lahaula Jammu and Kashmir Gujjar, Bakerwal, Gaddi, Sippi, Bhotia Jharkhand Santhal, Munda, Ho, Uraon, Kharia, Bhumij, Birhor, Korwa Karnataka Soliga, Yerava, Jenu Kuruba, Betta Kuruba, Koraga Kerala Paniyan, Kurichiyan, Malayan, Irular, Kurumba, Adiyan Madhya Pradesh Bhil, Gond, Baiga, Korku, Agaria, Pardhan, Sahariya Maharashtra Bhil, Gond, Thakar, Halba, Varli, Kolam Odisha Santhal, Gond, Munda, Bhumij, Juang, Kharia Rajasthan Bhil, Garasia, Sahariya, Damor, Meena Sikkim Bhutia, Lepcha, Sherpa, Tamang Tamil Nadu Toda, Kota, Kurumba, Irula Telangana Banjara, Lambada, Sugali, Koya, Savara, Jatapu Uttar Pradesh Tharu, Buxa, Buksa, Raji, Gond Uttarakhand Tharu, Bhotia, Buksa, Jaunsari, Raji West Bengal Santhal, Oraon, Munda, Lodha, Ho Arunachal Pradesh Adi, Apatani, Nyishi, Monpa, Tagin Assam Boro, Mising, Karbi, Rabha, Dimasa, Sonowal Manipur Naga, Kuki, Tangkhul, Hmar, Paite Meghalaya Garo, Khasi, Jaintia Mizoram Mizo, Lusei, Hmar, Chakma Nagaland Angami, Ao, Sema, Konyak Tripura Tripuri, Reang, Chakma Andaman and Nicobar Islands Onge, Jarwa, Sentinelese Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu Kokna, Varlia, Dhodia Lakshadweep Vasi Puducherry Irular +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **Note:** | | | | - Among the Garo and Khasi tribes, a matrilineal family structure | | is prevalent. | | | | - The Munda and Oraon tribes of Chota Nagpur, who live close to | | each other, share many cultural aspects of life. | | | | - The Odia and Dravidian linguistic groups include the Austric | | linguistic family. | | | | - The Toda tribe, inhabiting the Nilgiri Hills, belongs to the | | Proto-Australoid racial group. | | | | - Surjit Sinha conducted a study on the Gond and Maria Gond tribes | | in relation to land ownership. | | | | - N.K. Bose researched the interaction between the Odia and tribal | | populations. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ ***Nation State (H3)*** The inconsistencies inherent in the elements of concepts like the nation-state and nationality have given rise to various problems, not only at the national level but also internationally. As a result, numerous thinkers around the world have become active in seeking solutions to these issues. Nationality is defined as the collective sentiment of people who are closely connected due to factors such as shared race, language, religion, culture, and geographical proximity. They are further united by similar political aspirations and a uniformity of historical development. However, this definition of nationality represents a narrow scope, and when applied at the level of an entire state, it is evident that multiple nations often exist within a single state. This situation leads to various adverse outcomes, such as the emergence of conflicting movements and demands that create serious challenges for the state. For instance, in India, movements like Khalistan, the Kashmir issue, and the demands from the northeastern states exemplify such problems. Such movements have been observed worldwide. To foster uniformity, certain symbols have been proposed as solutions to develop a sense of nationality throughout the state. Examples include the national flag, national anthem, national language, national sport, national animal, and national bird. These symbols help in cultivating a unified culture. However, viewing the nation and the state as separate entities continues to create inconsistencies. Both need to be interconnected to truly understand the state. In modern times, the concept of the nation-state has evolved, wherein discussions about the nation are conducted in the context of the state, and vice versa, ensuring consideration of the national sentiment as a whole. Thus, the state must avoid actions that cause regional imbalances or, consequently, cultural imbalances. Furthermore, in situations of discord, efforts should be made towards integration to realise the concept of the nation-state. India\'s principle of \"unity in diversity\" (the salad bowl concept) and America\'s \"melting pot\" concept are notable examples in this context. Therefore, it can be said that the modern idea of a nation reaches its logical conclusion in the form of the nation-state. A nation can thus be defined as a group of people who permanently reside within a specific territory and are bound together by shared political aspirations, common interests, a shared history, and a collective sense of destiny. While these people may belong to different nationalities, they experience a sense of unity through these common factors. **The current crisis of the nation-state:** Throughout human history, various state systems have existed in different eras. However, none of these systems have been able to provide lasting peace and security to humanity. The ancient Greek city-states were frequently engaged in conflicts with one another. While the Roman Empire established control over various ethnic groups in Europe, it failed to foster mutual harmony among them. During the medieval period, the Pope and emperors sought to establish a global order through religious unity. However, as different countries became conscious of their unique national identities, the medieval empires collapsed. In the modern era, the nation-state is facing a similar crisis. While it has proven to be more capable than medieval systems in providing security and peace, it seems unable to effectively address the new challenges of today. In the modern age, nations and states are generally considered concurrent entities. However, many communities around the world exist that share common culture, language, and religion, and feel a sense of unity and national consciousness, yet are unable to organise themselves as a state. For example, the Kurdish people, spread across Iraq, Iran, and Turkey, identify themselves as a nation but lack a unified state. On the other hand, there are several states where different ethnic groups coexist but have not accepted themselves as a single nation. Countries like Lebanon and Cyprus have long been plagued by civil wars. Similarly, states like the former Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia have fragmented due to these reasons. Additionally, many people have left their home countries in search of better opportunities and have settled in other nations, even acquiring citizenship there. Yet, they remain so attached to their native land that they are willing to sacrifice their comforts for its development. For instance, Chinese people living abroad have continued to contribute significantly to China\'s progress. One of the primary functions of the nation-state is to provide security to its inhabitants. However, with the invention and use of destructive weapons and the resulting potential for environmental pollution, no nation-state today can provide complete security to its residents. The pollution caused by development activities in various countries cannot be confined within national boundaries but has impacted the global environment as a whole. Typically, national borders create distance between nations, but the recent information revolution has connected many countries so closely that any message can swiftly travel from one corner of the world to another. The internet has made sources of knowledge universally accessible, and satellite technology enables television programmes to be broadcast simultaneously across the globe. These circumstances have facilitated the implementation of economic globalisation policies. The revolution in transportation and communication has yielded both positive and negative outcomes. On the one hand, it has aided the development of developing countries, while on the other, the growing influence of multinational corporations has led to the exploitation of these nations. Anti-social elements have also taken advantage of these technologies to conduct illegal drug trade on an international level and to promote global terrorism by misleading oppressed groups in various countries. In such circumstances, the capacity of the nation-state has become severely limited. To ensure the protection of humanity and the attainment of peace and harmony, it has become essential to establish a global organisation that can foster close cooperation among nations and overcome the destructive forces threatening the entire world. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **Note:** The rise of national consciousness, the emergence of | | international institutions, and the significance of super-national | | cooperation have greatly influenced the power and functionality of | | the modern state. | | | |  Population, territory, government, and sovereignty are essential | | elements for the establishment of a state. | | | |  No nation is born without a historical process of formation. | | Political unity and economic development have played key roles in the | | creation and rise of nations and nationalities. | | | |  P.N. Rai used industrial resources to study the growth of | | nationalism in India. | | | |  Differences in languages, castes, religions, and races have been a | | prominent feature of Indian nationalism. | | | |  According to D.N. Rai, India\'s diverse traditions, born out of its | | ancient societal framework, contributed to shaping the structure of | | Indian nationalism. | | | |  According to A.R. Desai, the emergence of Indian nationalism was | | primarily due to the introduction and development of modern | | industries and socio-economic classes. | | | |  A.R. Desai emphasised that India's economic conditions, created | | under British rule, were a significant factor in developing Indian | | nationalism. | | | |  A.R. Desai's book *\"Social Background of Indian Nationalism\"* | | demonstrates how the impact of British colonialism in India led to | | the growth of socio-economic classes, which in turn shaped the | | framework of Indian nationalism. | | | |  The establishment of British administrative structures in India | | contributed to the rise of national consciousness. | | | |  Bipan Chandra highlights the early phase of Indian nationalism | | (1885 to 1905), focusing on the formation of the Indian National | | Congress. | | | |  Historical developments, such as the establishment of British | | industries, railways, newspapers, education, and communication | | systems, were instrumental in shaping modern Indian nationalism. | | | |  The principles of \"Unity in Diversity\" were particularly relevant | | in India, where the concept of nationalism is founded on shared | | cultural and historical values, along with the adoption of a national | | language and the formation of federal systems of governance. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Border or Boundary** A border is the geographical area of a country or state up to which the sovereignty of that state can be exercised. The determination of borders is done through agreements between political institutions, and this agreement process is referred to as delimitation. Borders are a significant geographical element of national power. A boundary is known as a specific line, whereas a frontier is understood as an area. The study of borders is conducted under the four essential elements of a state: population, government, sovereignty, and defined territory. These elements play a supportive role in determining borders. The word \"boundary\" originates from the English word \"bound,\" which means to limit or confine, essentially demarcating a political unit. A border clarifies the sovereignty or jurisdiction of a state. According to Prof. Pounds, \"Borders separate the sovereignty of a state from neighbouring states.\" Glasier defines a border as \"not a line, but a plane, a vertical plane that separates airspace, soil, and subsoil between adjoining states.\" Characteristics of Borders The characteristics of borders are as follows: 1. Borders separate the sovereignty of states. 2. Borders are human-made. 3. They act as barriers to movement and the flow of ideas. 4. The marking of borders is often influenced by physical obstructions. 5. Borders are subject to change. Development of Border Concepts The present form of borders is the result of continuous evolution. As knowledge of the Earth expanded, political relations grew more complex, and the nature of borders also changed. These changes can be observed across different regions and times, as follows: 1. Tribal Concepts 2. Asian Perspectives on Borders 3. Roman Perspectives on Borders 4. Medieval European Perspectives on Borders 5. Nationalism and Border Perspectives 6. Linear Border Perspectives Asian Perspectives on Borders China had no fixed ideas about borders. The Chinese viewed surrounding areas as belonging to wild or inferior peoples, which motivated them to remain separate. The Great Wall of China, considered a permanent boundary, reflects this mindset. China's southern border was never fixed but extended southward with the expansion of agriculture. In India, the territorial stability of borders has been described from the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka to the Mughal Empire under Aurangzeb, as documented by Mr. Svet. Kautilya's *Arthashastra* (4th century BCE) provides a detailed account of Indian state systems, including the protection and blockade of borders. This indicates that ancient India had more developed perspectives on borders compared to other nations. Stages of Border Development In the modern world, the intricate network of borders is vast. The determination of borders is not always straightforward and often involves numerous agreements, disputes, and, in some cases, wars. The determination of borders takes into account geographical, political, cultural, and strategic factors. Geographers have presented various ideas regarding this, including: - According to Brethem (1917), there are three stages of border development: Primitive, Transitional, and Ideal. - Leperedli (1928) proposed three levels of border development: Preparation, Decision, and Execution. - Prof. Jones identified four stages of border development: Allocation, Delimitation, Demarcation, and Administration. Functions of Borders The functions of borders are as follows: 1. Protective Function: Ensures the security of the state. 2. Restrictive Function: Acts as a barrier to movement. 3. Legal Function: Defines jurisdiction and legality. 4. Integral Component of State Governance: Regulates movement and trade. 5. Tariff Wall: Acts as a barrier for customs and trade duties. Classification of Borders Borders are classified primarily into two types: 1. Structural Classification 2. Genetic or Origin-Based Classification 1\. Structural Classification of Borders Based on structure, borders are divided into three categories: a\. Geomorphic Borders These are physical boundaries formed by natural features: - Mountain Borders: Defined by mountain ranges. Sir Thomas Holdich stated that among all natural features, a definite watershed line determined by a specific mountain range is the most permanent, accurate, and obstructive form of a boundary. However, challenges arise due to the complex structure of mountains, including variations in height, length, and parallel ranges, leading to disputes. For example, the India-China boundary dispute over the McMahon Line, accepted in 1914 but not clearly demarcated, reflects this complexity. - River Borders: Boundaries defined by rivers. - Forests, Swamps, and Desert Borders: Regions with dense forests, marshlands, or deserts serve as natural boundaries. - Lake Borders: Defined by lakes. b\. Ethno-Geographic Borders These borders are based on ethnicity, language, or religion, dividing areas based on cultural differences. For instance: - The India-Pakistan border and the Arab-Israel boundary are defined by religion. - Internal state boundaries in India are largely based on linguistic differences. c\. Geometric Borders Many global borders are determined by straight lines. These borders take the following forms: 1. Lines extending north-south along meridians. 2. Lines extending east-west along latitudes. 3. Straight lines connecting two points of shortest distance. 4. Africa has the most geometric borders due to the need for quick delimitation and limited regional knowledge during colonial times. An example of a geometric border in India is the \"Ten Degree Channel\" (10° latitude), running east-west, dividing the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands. 2\. Genetic Classification of Borders This classification divides borders based on the cultural environment at the time of their origin. The idea was first proposed by Hartshorne in his paper *\"Suggestions on the Terminology of Political Boundaries\"*. This classification considers whether the border was created: 1. Before cultural development. 2. During cultural development. 3. After cultural development. Types of Borders - Antecedent Boundary: Developed before the cultural environment. - Subsequent Boundary: Formed after cultural development and often reflects linguistic, religious, or ethnic distinctions. Examples include many European borders and the India-Pakistan border, which was formed on religious grounds. - Superimposed Boundary: Created after the cultural environment but imposed without regard for cultural similarities. For instance, colonial powers in Asia, Africa, and South America often created such boundaries, dividing groups of the same ethnicity, language, or religion. The India-Pakistan border is also an example of a superimposed boundary. This category includes ceasefire lines, such as the North-South Korea boundary. - Relic Boundary: These borders no longer exist as physical divisions but persist in the cultural environment. Borders and the World International Relations Borders are the points where a state interacts with other states, often leading to disputes. As Lord Curzon stated, \"Borders are truly like a razor's edge, upon which hang questions of war or peace, and the life or death of nations.\" **International Nature of Borders** Border disputes arise in various forms: 1. Territorial Disputes: Disputes over land ownership. 2. Positional Disputes: For example, the India-China border dispute. 3. Functional Disputes: Disagreements over how borders should function. 4. Resource Development Disputes: Conflicts over the utilisation of natural resources near or across borders. **Bureaucracy(H2)** ***Origin of Term (H3)*** The term 'bureaucracy' originated in 1746 from a French economist named 'Vincent de Gournay'. He had remarked that there is a disease in France that is ruining us, and this disease is called 'bureau-mania'. The English equivalent of the term 'bureaucracy' is derived from the French word \'bureau'. In France, this word was used for a \'drawer desk\' or a \'writing desk.\' The cloth covering this desk was referred to as \'bureau,\' and based on this, the term \'bureau\' came to be used for government functions. The term 'bureaucracy' was coined by Vincent de Gournay. ***Meaning of Bureaucracy (H3)*** The term bureaucracy has evolved to carry various meanings across different contexts. Fred Riggs noted that the term could be interpreted in approximately forty ways, grouped under ten headings. German sociologist Max Weber has internalised the concept. Initially coined by Vincent de Gournay, it was viewed negatively, signifying inefficiency and excessive control. However, Max Weber gave it a positive and systematic connotation, presenting it as a rational and efficient system of governance where bureaucrats exercise power to fulfil their duties and obligations. Bureaucracy, in its simplest form, refers to: - 'Officials in power' or 'a class of officials' - 'Administrators' managing governance structures Critics like Warren Bennis condemned its rigidity and behavioural shortcomings, even predicting its decline. However, others have taken a balanced view, recognizing both its strengths (efficiency) and weaknesses (rigidity and alienation). Despite its varied interpretations, bureaucracy remains central to describing administrative systems and officialdom. The different meanings of the term 'bureaucracy' are as follows: - **Bureaucratic Policy:** Initially, Vincent de Gournay used the term 'bureaucracy' in a way similar to 'aristocracy', 'monarchy' and 'democracy', linking it to a specific system of governance. J.S. Mill and Harold Laski defined bureaucracy as the rule of professional officials in a government. However, Laski criticized it for potentially jeopardising citizens\' liberties. Herman Finer, a political scientist, described bureaucracy as a system where governance is primarily carried out by government officials. Similarly, Lasswell and Kaplan viewed bureaucracy as a form of government dominated by elites, who serve as officials with significant control. However, over time, this strict connotation of bureaucratic rule by officials has evolved and this interpretation of bureaucracy as exclusively elite-driven governance has diminished. - **Bureaucrats in Power:** J.S. Mill described bureaucracy as a 'ruling class of officials', and thinkers like Mosca expanded on this, identifying bureaucrats as ruling elites with absolute control. Michels included salaried professionals in both governmental and non-governmental roles under this definition. Ramsay Muir associated bureaucracy with permanent officials and professional administrators. The growing power and influence of bureaucrats in governance became a notable theme in later writings. - **Office Holders:** Bureaucracy is also equated with office-holders, with or without significant power. J.S. Mill hinted at non-dominant bureaucracies that might exist as administrative bodies criticised more for inefficiency than abuse of power. Max Weber highlighted the impersonal, positive, non-dominant and structured nature of bureaucracy, emphasizing its administrative efficiency over dominance. He said, "no exercise of authority can be purely bureaucratic". Scholars like Taylor Cole and Joseph Lapalombara expanded the term to include all public servants, reflecting a broader and more inclusive understanding of bureaucracy. - **Bureaucracy as an Ideal Construct:** Max Weber\'s idea of an 'ideal type' bureaucracy is a theoretical model that may or may not exist in real-world settings. Such idealised concepts often differ to some extent from their practical counterparts. Weber was among the first to outline the features of an ideal bureaucracy, which include impersonality, a clear hierarchy, well-defined duties, formal agreements, professional qualifications, salaries, full-time roles, separation of personal ownership from office responsibilities, and centralized authority. However, not everyone agrees with Weber's description. For example, Robert C. Stone defined bureaucracy as an organization focused on rational decision-making, impersonal relationships, task standardisation, and concentrated authority, offering a more practical alternative view. - **Bureaucracy as Organization:** The term 'organization' has often been used interchangeably with 'bureaucracy', particularly in a micro or specific sense. Sociologists and business administration writers view an organization holistically, considering both the structure and its members as inseparable. Writers like Talcott Parsons, Hyneman, and Caplow have supported this approach, using 'bureaucracy' to describe not only the officials within an organization but also the organization as a whole. In this sense, bureaucracy extends beyond office holders to encompass the system they work within. At a broader level, the term is even used to describe entire governmental systems, where the organization and its members collectively represent the bureaucracy. - **Bureaucracy as Society**: Some thinkers have broadened the concept of bureaucracy to describe entire societies, leading to the term 'bureaucratic society'. Similar to terms like communism, capitalism, and socialism, which define both social systems and political-economic structures, bureaucratic society refers to a system where bureaucracy heavily influences social relationships and structures. Karl Wittfogel described pre-industrial societies where ruling officials dominated peasants, labelling them as bureaucratic societies. Similarly, James Burnham argued that in modern 'nuclear societies', managerial elites hold dominant power over politics and society, as seen in corporate battles and power dynamics in countries like the USA. On the other hand, Presthus viewed large organizations as symbolic of the societies they belong to, reflecting the lifestyles and values of their members. Building on these perspectives, Albrow concluded that it is reasonable to think of bureaucracy as a societal type, especially in industrialised nations, where large organisations replicate the essential features of society. This idea suggests that bureaucracy is more than an administrative system (it can shape and define the character of entire societies). - **Bureaucracy and Rationality**: The Weberian concept of rational-legal bureaucracy has sparked ongoing debate. While there is broad acceptance of the legality associated with bureaucracy, the idea of its rationality is often questioned. In administrative terms, rationality typically refers to cost-effectiveness, productivity, and achieving specific purposes. Peter Blau, in 'The Dynamics of Bureaucracy', argued that formal bureaucratic structures enhance administrative efficiency. Roy G. Francis and Robert C. Stone, in 'Service and Procedure in Bureaucracy: A Case Study', examined bureaucracy\'s role in maintaining stability and effectiveness in large organisations. Similarly, Peter Leonard described bureaucracy as involving rational, well-defined activities aimed at fulfilling an organization\'s objectives. This focus on productivity and efficiency within government, management, and organizational practices has given rise to the concept of 'bureau-rationality', emphasizing the importance of structured, purpose-driven systems in achieving organizational goals. - **Dictionary Meaning of Bureaucracy**: Dictionaries and encyclopaedias present varied interpretations of bureaucracy. Webster\'s Dictionary describes it as systematic administration with specialization, objective qualifications, and a hierarchy of authority. According to the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Laski describes bureaucracy as a system of government where officials hold such extensive control that it threatens the freedoms of ordinary citizens. Similarly, Robert C. Stone, in the Dictionary of Social Sciences, defines bureaucracy as an organization marked by rational decision-making, impersonal relationships, task standardization, and centralized authority. As a result, dictionaries and encyclopaedias highlight both the positive and negative aspects of bureaucracy. - **Critics\' View of Bureaucracy**: Critics of bureaucracy have highlighted several negative traits associated with bureaucratic behaviour. According to Robert C. Stone, features such as excessive red tape, rigid rules, and an overemphasis on procedures are key flaws of bureaucratic organizations. Similarly, Reinhard Bendix identified additional issues, including unclear responsibilities, inflexible routines, incompetent officials, slow operations, passing blame, contradictory directives, empire-building tendencies, and concentrated power in the hands of a few. Webster\'s Dictionary also lists negative characteristics, such as relentless pursuit of power, lack of initiative and adaptability, disregard for public needs and opinions, excessive reliance on superior approvals, and obstruction through red tape. While these negative aspects are not the primary focus of many social scientists, they have gained prominence and are widely associated with bureaucracy in popular discourse. ***Characteristics of Bureaucracy (H3)*** Carl J. Friedrich outlined six key characteristics of bureaucracy, which are as follows: 1. **Qualifications for Positions:** Individuals entering the bureaucracy are appointed based on their qualifications. 2. **Multiplicity of Tasks**: Bureaucracy involves the execution of a wide variety of tasks. 3. **Objectivity in Procedures:** Policies and methods are implemented with objectivity. 4. **Hierarchical Organization and Discipline:** Bureaucracy follows a structured hierarchy with defined levels of authority and discipline. 5. **Confidentiality in Administrative Work:** Bureaucratic processes maintain confidentiality in all administrative activities. 6. **Red Tape:** A notable feature of bureaucracy is adherence to formalities and procedures, often leading to rigid administrative functioning. Apart from these characteristics, other additional characteristics are as follows: - **Strong Adherence to Rules and Laws:** Bureaucracy operates strictly according to rules and laws. - **Specialized Method of Work:** Bureaucratic functions are performed in a specific and standardized manner understood only by those who are part of the system. - **Authority Derived from Governance:** Bureaucratic tasks are performed with the authority vested by the government. Obstructing the work of officials or employees is considered a violation of the law. - **Reliance on Written Records:** In modern times, bureaucratic management is based on written documents and files. Decisions in the office are never personal; every task, decision, and order is documented for reference and accountability. ***Types of Bureaucracy (H3)*** F.M. Marx, in his book 'The Administrative State', identified four types of bureaucracy. These types represent forms of bureaucracy that exist in various countries. 1. **Guardian Bureaucracy:** The concept of Guardian Bureaucracy is rooted in Plato\'s idea of 'guardians', who embody the essence of public interest through their actions. These individuals were seen as custodians of justice and the welfare of society, selected based on their education. Historical examples of such a bureaucracy include ancient China before 960 A.D. and Russia between 640 and 1740 A.D. The Chinese government, guided by Confucian principles of righteousness, is often considered a Platonic blueprint. Officials in this system were chosen for their scholarly accomplishments and were trained in moral and ethical conduct as per classical teachings. They were expected to lead exemplary lives, influencing the exercise of power through a foundation of righteousness. However, Guardian Bureaucracy tends to idealize absolute practices, which can make it traditionalistic and conservative. Such bureaucracies often become detached from the community\'s concerns and current political issues, leading to authoritarian tendencies and a lack of responsiveness to public opinion. 2. **Caste Bureaucracy:** Caste bureaucracy emerges when administrative and political power rests in the hands of a particular class or group. This type of bureaucracy is based on a specific social class or caste. It is widely prevalent in countries with international political systems. In such bureaucracies, only individuals belonging to higher classes or castes can hold government positions. For example, in ancient India, only Brahmins and Kshatriyas were considered eligible for high-ranking official roles. Examples also include the Roman Empire, Japanese civil services under the Meiji Constitution, and French civil services in the 1950s. 3. **Patronage Bureaucracy:** This form of bureaucracy appoints public servants not based on their qualifications but rather on political connections or affiliations with appointing authorities. This system was prominent in 19th-century Britain and later became a characteristic feature of American bureaucracy. In the United States, this practice is referred to as the 'spoils system'. Even in contemporary times, this system persists in America. Mars commented on this type of bureaucracy, noting its flaws, such as inefficiency, lack of discipline, procedural flexibility, one-sided perspectives, lack of perfection, and enthusiasm. Due to these shortcomings, patronage bureaucracy is often viewed as problematic. 4. **Merit Bureaucracy:** Merit-based bureaucracy refers to the selection of individuals for public service based on predetermined objective criteria and standards that have been thoroughly tested. In a democracy, public servants are appointed to serve the people, and their appointment is based on intelligence, diligence, and other qualifications. The bureaucracy is responsible for executing all administrative tasks, requiring specific qualities deemed essential for effective performance. In the modern era, the recruitment of public servants is not influenced by any form of subjectivity but is primarily determined by the results of capability assessments. ***Weber's concept of Bureaucracy (H3)*** The contribution of Max Weber to bureaucracy is considered the beginning of the systematic study of bureaucracy by the German sociologist Max Weber. In his work 'The Theory of Social and Economic Organization', published in 1920, Weber described the \'ideal type\' of bureaucracy. He developed this ideal form of bureaucracy in response to the personal dependency, nepotism, ruthlessness, and subjective decisions found in management systems at the onset of the Industrial Revolution. Weber believed that bureaucracy could serve as a better medium for utilising and providing the human and mechanical energy that propelled the Industrial Revolution. He identified three types of authority (power) within bureaucracy: traditional authority, charismatic authority, and legal-rational authority. - **Clear Division of Labor:** In bureaucracy, there should be a clear division of tasks among all officials and employees to prevent overlap in responsibilities. At the same time, accountability should be ensured for these officials and employees so that they perform their duties effectively. - **Hierarchy of Offices:** Bureaucracy is based on a hierarchical structure. There exists a superior and subordinate relationship between officials and employees. Any orders are communicated from top to bottom. The administrative structure of an organization resembles a pyramid, with multiple levels between higher and lower officials. - **Systematic Organisation of Tasks:** Weber emphasized a structured division of labour within bureaucracies, where tasks are clearly defined and assigned to individuals based on their expertise. This systematic arrangement ensures that duties are performed efficiently and consistently. - **Qualifications for Positions:** According to Weber, bureaucratic positions should be filled based on technical qualifications and competence. This merit-based selection process ensures that the most capable individuals occupy roles that match their skills, promoting organisational efficiency. - **Right to Salary and Pension:** Weber noted that officials in a bureaucracy receive fixed salaries and have the prospect of a career with advancement opportunities. Compensation is determined by the hierarchical position and responsibilities, providing financial security and motivation for employees. - **Impersonality:** A key feature of Weber\'s bureaucratic model is impersonality, where decisions and interactions are governed by established rules and procedures rather than personal relationships or emotions. This approach ensures fairness and uniformity in organizational operations. - **Maintenance of Official Records:** Weber highlighted the importance of maintaining comprehensive written records of all administrative acts, decisions, and rules. This documentation provides transparency, accountability, and continuity within the organisation. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Note:** According to Max Weber, traditional India lacked the rational-legal authority and bureaucratic foundation needed for the development of social structures. Political decisions are not part of Weber\'s ideal type of bureaucracy. Based on his empirical studies, P.M. Blau argued that informal relationships play a significant role within bureaucracy. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ***Bureaucracy in India and its Features (H3)*** The Indian bureaucracy is the backbone of the country\'s administrative framework, responsible for implementing government policies and ensuring governance. It traces its roots to the colonial era. The Indian Civil Service (ICS), established under Lord Cornwallis, aimed to serve colonial interests and maintain law and order. Indians initially occupied only lower ranks but later gained access to higher positions. The ICS was criticized by Indian nationalists for serving colonial rulers and was known as the 'steel frame of the British Empire'. Post-independence, the ICS was replaced by the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), with a renewed focus on democratic governance, nation-building, and developmental administration. Despite its significant contributions, the bureaucracy is often criticized for issues like corruption, politicization, and inefficiency. With economic reforms in the 1990s, bureaucratic control over the economy was reduced, emphasizing market-driven growth. Bureaucrats transitioned from being regulators to facilitators of development, although issues like corruption persisted. Younger bureaucrats, more attuned to liberalized India, adopted innovative and citizen-friendly approaches. Despite these changes, debates about the effectiveness of globalization\'s impact on reducing bureaucratic inefficiencies and corruption continue. Recruitment to the civil services is carried out by statutory bodies like the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) and State Public Service Commissions (SPSCs) to ensure merit-based appointments at central and state levels respectively. However, the Indian bureaucracy faces several challenges and controversies that hinder its efficiency and credibility. One significant issue is the conflict between ministers and civil servants. This arises from the dynamic relationship where weak ministers often allow bureaucrats to dominate, while powerful ministers may coerce bureaucrats into compromising their professional integrity. Another debate is between generalists and specialists, with specialists increasingly needed in technical fields like technology and commerce. Despite this, generalists continue to dominate administrative positions, leading to questions about the suitability of their expertise in specialized areas. Furthermore, the underrepresentation of minorities, particularly Muslims, in top civil services like IAS and IPS has been a persistent concern, with poor access to education and lack of motivation often cited as major causes. The politicization of the bureaucracy is another critical issue, where the concept of a \"committed bureaucracy\" aligning closely with the ruling political party undermines impartiality and promotes favouritism. Lastly, the nexus between bureaucrats, politicians, and businessmen has been a long-standing problem, contributing to corruption and inefficiency, particularly during the era of the \"License-Permit-Quota Raj.\" These challenges highlight the urgent need for systemic reforms to restore integrity and effectiveness in Indian administration. The key features of Indian bureaucracy are as follows: - **Adherence to Hierarchy**: The structure of public services in India follows the principle of hierarchy, where higher officials maintain control over their subordinates. Orders are passed from top to bottom in a structured manner. - **Permanency**: Members of the Indian public service hold permanent positions. They are appointed for the long term and retire only upon reaching a predetermined age. - **Professionalism**: Public servants in India are trained professionals. Their primary role is to implement government policies and follow the directives issued by the administration. - **Political Neutrality**: Indian bureaucracy is expected to remain politically neutral. Civil servants are not supposed to align with or show bias toward any political party or ideology. However, deviations are sometimes observed in practice. - **Red Tape**: Indian bureaucracy is often criticized for red-tapism, characterized by excessive adherence to rules and procedures, leading to delays and inefficiency in decision-making and execution. - **Perceived Superiority (Mastery over Service)**: A mindset persists within the Indian bureaucracy that they are masters rather than servants of the public, contrary to the principle of public service. - **Preference for Generalists**: Indian bureaucracy often prioritizes generalist administrators over specialists. Generalists can be transferred easily from one department to another, while specialists receive comparatively less recognition. - **Political Interference**: Politicians frequently interfere in administrative work, leading to instances of misuse of administrative power, undue transfers of officers, and the prioritization of populist policies over long-term objectives. - **Three-Tier Structure**: The Indian bureaucracy operates on a three-tier system: (1) All India Services (e.g., IAS, IPS, IFS), (2) Central Services (e.g., IRS, IRTS), and (3) State Services (e.g., PCS) - **Dominance of Elites**: Public service in India often reflects the dominance of elite groups. This can be attributed to the representation of individuals from urban, middle-class, or well-educated backgrounds, leading to limited diversity in the administrative workforce. - **Nexus with Criminals and Politicians**: Reports such as the Vohra Committee Report highlight the collusion between bureaucrats, politicians, and criminals. This nexus undermines the integrity of the administration and hampers governance. - **Contribution to Nation-Building**: Despite criticisms, Indian bureaucracy has played a significant role in national integration, social development, and economic planning since independence. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ According to R. Bendix, centralized bureaucracy has contributed to nation-building in India. He authored the book 'Nation Building and Citizenship'. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***Positive and Negative aspect | | | of Bureaucracy (H3)*** | | +===================================+===================================+ | **Positive Aspects** | **Negative Aspects** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - **Clear Division of Work:** | - **Red Tape:** Bureaucrats | | Clearly defined roles and | place excessive emphasis on | | responsibilities for officers | formalities, leading to a | | and employees eliminate | focus on means rather than | | overlap in tasks. Without | ends. As a result, public | | this clarity, superiors may | servants often prioritize | | excessively interfere with | strict adherence to rules and | | the work of their | laws over achieving | | subordinates, causing | objectives. | | unnecessary disruptions in | | | task execution. | - **Excessive Formality:** | | | Overemphasis on formalities | | - **Adoption of Defined | leads to unnecessary | | Procedures:** The use of | expenditure of time and | | specific procedures makes the | money, slowing down the pace | | execution of tasks more | of work. | | straightforward and | | | efficient. | - **Trained Incapacity:** | | | Trained incapacity refers to | | - **Hierarchy and Uniformity:** | a situation where the skills | | The adoption of a | and expertise of a public | | hierarchical structure | servant become limitations. | | ensures discipline and | Bureaucratic actions based on | | consistency within the | past training and | | organization. | proficiency, once deemed | | | effective, may become | | - **Merit-Based Selection:** | irrelevant due to evolving | | Recruitment based on | processes and growing | | qualifications ensures the | specialization. | | selection of capable and | | | skilled individuals, thereby | - **Lack of Flexibility:** | | fostering specialization. | Bureaucrats often lack | | | flexibility in implementing | | - **Impartiality and | policies, making it difficult | | Commitment:** Bureaucratic | to adapt to changing | | principles emphasize fairness | circumstances. This results | | and dedication in | in decreased efficiency. | | decision-making processes. | | | | - **Departmentalism:** | | - **Fixed Salaries and | Bureaucracy is frequently | | Pensions:** Providing fixed | criticized for | | salaries and pensions ensures | departmentalism. Departments | | stability within the | function independently and | | bureaucracy. | often view their domains as | | | isolated and sovereign, | | - **Maintenance of Written | leading to inefficiency in | | Records:** Keeping written | collaboration. | | records helps identify any | | | irregularities in the future. | - **Traditionalism:** | | | Bureaucratic functioning is | | | rooted in traditional | | | practices and follows a | | | specific language and style. | | | Repeatedly performing the | | | same tasks in the same manner | | | results in resistance to | | | change, making the system | | | rigid and outdated. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Governance and Development (H2)** ***Governance (H3)*** The term 'governance' derives its meaning from the word 'administration' or 'operation'. It was first used in a figurative sense by Plato. Subsequently, the term spread into the Latin language and from there reached many other languages. In another sense, governance refers to the activity of management or operation, which essentially means running or governing a state. In general terms, governance can also be seen as the distinct process of defining expectations, enabling authority, or verifying performance. Alternatively, it can be considered a specialized aspect of the management or leadership process. In the context of a non-profit organization or business, governance refers to the integration of policies, effective management, guidance, procedures, and decision-making authority related to a particular domain. Typically, governments are established by people to operate and manage these systems and processes. If we examine the distinction between governance and government, it can be said that \"governance is what is done by a government,\" and a government can take many forms, such as social-political governments, geopolitical governments, corporate governments, etc. Thus, governance is a dynamic process of policy and power management, executed by a government. Sometimes, the term governance is also used synonymously with the word government. According to the World Bank, governance is defined as the use of institutional resources and political authority to manage the affairs and address the issues of a society. Alternatively, governance can also refer to the framework of institutions and authorities used to allocate resources, facilitate partnerships, and regulate and manage activities in a society or economy. ***Organ of Governance (H3)*** The organs of governance generally consist of three main branches: the Legislature, the Executive, and the Judiciary. ***Fig.* Organs of Governance** The Legislature is responsible for creating laws, the Executive implements those laws, and the Judiciary interprets the laws and resolves disputes. The structure of these three branches of governance is designed in a manner that enables them to function efficiently and appropriately. This structure is based on the principle of the separation of powers among the three branches. The arrangement of the separation of powers between the three organs of governance is referred to as the 'separation of powers'. The three organs of governance are entirely independent of each other. The Legislature consists of representatives of the people who are responsible for law-making. Therefore, efforts are made to ensure impartial and broad representation of the people in the Legislature. The laws made by the Legislature are implemented by the Executive, in which bureaucrats play a significant role. Hence, it is crucial for the Executive to consist of skilled, capable, and efficient individuals. The third organ of governance is the Judiciary, which interprets laws and delivers judgments based on the laws and the Constitution. The Judiciary also has the power of judicial review, which has led to judicial activism in recent years. Therefore, for fulfilling all these responsibilities, it is essential for the Judiciary to be independent and impartial. Thus, each organ of governance has its own distinct role, yet they are interlinked. It can be said that, in modern times, any political system derives its stability and vitality from the harmonious functioning of these three branches. Broadly, governance is characterized by three key features: 1. The structure of political governance in a country, such as parliamentary, presidential, military, or civilian. 2. The methods of managing a country\'s social and economic resources. 3. The essential capacity of the government for policy formulation and implementation. Additionally, governance is typically carried out in three ways: 1. Through partnerships with community organizations or by incorporating Public-Private Partnership (PPP) networks. 2. The top-down approach, which primarily involves governments and state bureaucracies. 3. Through barter processes, where resource allocation occurs under government regulations using competitive policies for distribution. **Deficiencies in Governance (H3)** - Lack of sufficient participation from relevant stakeholders, inappropriate and inadequate management of rules and regulations. - Absence of an effective system of accountability, unnecessary delays in the implementation of policies, programmes, and projects. - Ambiguity regarding the rules and acts of private enterprises. Due to the above shortcomings in governance and the changing nature of the concept of development---whose meaning has expanded considerably today---there have been revolutionary changes in the process of governance in the past years. Therefore, today, development is not merely determined by the increase in Gross Domestic Product, national income, or per capita income but is instead determined by the complete and comprehensive development of social, political, environmental, and cultural factors. At present, the new concept of development encompasses every aspect of human life. Development is seen as a process of creating a suitable and sustainable environment that inspires humans to live a healthy, productive, and creative life. However, to ensure this, it is extremely essential for governance processes to be efficient and capable, and it is for this reason that the concept of **\'good governance\'** has evolved. According to **Leftwich**, "Good governance includes an independent judicial system and statutory framework, a competent and efficient public service, accountable administration of public property, a responsible and independent auditor for the legislature, respect for human rights and laws at all levels of government, a free press, and a pluralistic institutional structure." Thus, it can be said that **\'governance\'** ensures collaborative participation, which is necessary for policy formulation and implementation. On the other hand, **\'good governance\'** makes this activity effective and capable while also making it democratic, accountable, and responsive to public needs. Therefore, through good governance, a relationship of coordination and cooperation is established between the governed and the governing bodies. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **NITI Aayog Circular related to Governance** | | | | The **NITI Aayog** circular related to governance states that | | **governance** refers to all aspects of government functioning. | | Transparent and **efficient governance** is the foundation of the | | success of any scheme. Even the best policies fail due to poor | | governance. According to the NITI Aayog circular, the major issues | | related to governance are as follows: | | | | - Role of Government | | | | - Reforms in Civil Services | | | | - Monitoring of Government Policies | | | | - Electoral Reforms | | | | - Reforms Related to Corruption | | | | - Federalism | | | | - Partnership with NGOs | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ ***Concept of Development (H3)*** The word \"development\" is contradictory and ambiguous. It is generally measured by economic parameters. Many people consider development to be holistic, as it brings overall improvement in personal, professional, and social life. If the term \'development\' is related to a country, it refers to its social, political, and economic characteristics. In the era of market economy and technological progress, it also refers to advancements in the field of information and communication technology. Development is generally measured by a country's economic growth and the employment opportunities it provides. Economic growth is important, but there are different perspectives on development. One perspective is that people should be given choices and enabled to live a life they value. At the global level, the concept of development gained momentum after the Second World War. The process of decolonisation and the recognition of the importance of development by newly independent states led to the implementation of large-scale projects. In newly independent countries like India, the construction of large dams and the establishment of industries were considered part of the modernisation process. Gradually, the notion of development changed. Two significant economic transformations sparked debates about development: capitalism and industrialisation. During the 18th century, this process slowly spread to the United States, Western European countries, and Japan in the 19th century. Efforts have been made to identify the causes of global poverty, inequality, environmental crises, financial crises, lack of access to basic infrastructure, and climate change. To understand the process of development, social scientists have conducted studies, most of which focus on economic, social, and political changes occurring worldwide, with technological and cultural changes complementing these transformations. Development can be classified into two types. The first is state-led development, which was followed by the former Soviet Union and India until 1991. On the other hand, the United States and Western European countries adopted the market-led development model, where the state\'s intervention in the economy is limited. At the international level, various theories and policy approaches have helped countries introduce appropriate policies to intervene in the development process. ***Theories of Development (H3)*** The various theories of development are as follows: - **Modernisation Theory:** Modernisation theory emerged in America and Europe between 1945 and 1960. The main proponents of this theory were W.W. Rostow, Émile Durkheim, and Max Weber. Newly independent states experienced poverty and low economic growth. Some countries also faced political unrest. After the end of the Second World War, the world became ideologically divided into two parts. Modernisation theory emphasised development alongside modernity. Developed countries were advanced in science, technology, and industrialisation, which placed greater importance on individualism. According to this theory, all societies pass through the same stages of development to achieve progress. Rostow identified five stages of development for becoming modern: 1. **Traditional Stage**: At this stage, society is dominated by **poverty** and relies on **primitive methods** of production. 2. **Pre-conditions for Take-off**: In this stage, the country begins to seek **external assistance** for development. 3. **Take-off Stage**: Here, the country focuses on **investment** and **high economic growth**. 4. **Drive to Maturity**: In this phase, **prosperity** can be observed among all people. 5. **High Mass Consumption**: This is the final stage, where society reaches the level of **high collective consumption**. - **Dependency Theory:** Dependency theory was proposed in the 1960s and 1970s by Andre G. Frank as a rejection of modernisation theory. According to him, developing countries were not primitive, but were being exploited by developed countries. Dependency theory emerged as a strong response to the traditional approaches to development after the Second World War. Supporters of this theory view underdevelopment not as a place but as part of a process of vulnerability caused by exploitation. Developed countries tend to exploit natural resources, cheap labour, and market conditions in developing countries for their own benefit, creating a state of dependency in the developing nations. - **World-System Theory:** This theory criticises modernisation theory and emphasises the creation of a world free from exploitation. Unlike modernisation and dependency theories, it focuses on areas like economics, culture, history, sociology, politics, and development studies. According to this theory, two systems exist in the world: 1. World Empire: This system, like the British Empire, has a single political centre. 2. World Economy: This is connected to capitalism and consists of multiple centres and cultures. This theory was proposed by Immanuel Wallerstein. According to him, the global economic system is divided into Core and Periphery regions. The Core controls production and exploits peripheral and semi-peripheral regions. This exploitation involves labour, raw materials, capital investment, and the brain drain (migration of intellectuals). - **Standpoint Theory:** According to Standpoint Theory, every individual in this world takes a particular position to view the world. Each social group in a society has its own perception. The perception of one group influences other individuals or groups. As per this theory, the position of the privileged class in society provides only a limited understanding of others. The ruling groups dominate subordinate groups. The opinions of subordinate groups rarely influence the ruling class. Therefore, marginalised people are often excluded from the development process and fail to become an integral part of it. ***Strengthening Democracy and Development through Governance (H3)*** The Government of India has taken several steps to strengthen democracy and enable citizens to participate in democratic and development processes. This began with the Community Development Programme (CDP) in 1952, which aimed to achieve holistic rural development through people\'s participation. During the First Five-Year Plan, the National Extension Service (NES) programme was launched in 1953 to meet the needs of marginalised people in rural areas. In 1957, the then Planning Commission appointed a committee under the chairmanship of Balwant Rai Mehta to study the CDP and NES programmes, assess people\'s participation, and recommend methods to ensure it. The committee recommended the establishment of a three-tier Panchayati Raj system in the country, leading to the creation of the three-tier Panchayati Raj structure. During the Sixth Five-Year Plan, a multi-disciplinary and multi-faceted approach was adopted to address health, education, and employment for all. Special emphasis was placed on literacy and education for women and marginalised groups. The plan focused on increasing girls\' enrolment in primary schools, promoting functional literacy, and encouraging women's education in backward regions. The Seventh Five-Year Plan also adopted a multi-level strategy. The Planning Commission evaluated the success of the Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) and concluded that women did not benefit significantly from this programme. Therefore, the Eighth Five-Year Plan further expanded developmental activities. The concept of Self-Help Groups (SHGs) was introduced, and their formation across various parts of the country strengthened democracy. This was formally introduced during the Ninth Plan. SHGs have developed relationships with various institutions and structures within society and have proven effective in promoting democratic participation. The Tenth Five-Year Plan set specific targets to reduce poverty and increase literacy. The Eleventh Five-Year Plan emphasised inclusive policy-making. Like the previous plans, it also included monitorable targets. The Twelfth Five-Year Plan focused on achieving inclusive growth and development by bringing together various stakeholders. Efforts to strengthen democracy were further advanced through the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts, implemented in 1992. These amendments ensured people\'s participation in governance. After independence, the state in India has focused extensively on welfare programmes and introduced various measures to meet the needs of citizens, bringing them closer to the administration. In India, the tribal communities remain the most marginalised group in society. They have largely remained isolated from the mainstream development process. However, they continue to maintain a long, uninterrupted tradition of a well-knit, cohesive social structure and value system supported by their own customs and traditions. They also possess several local traditional institutions for conflict resolution and the management of their resources and socio-political life. The PESA Act (1996) gives special attention to the social, political, cultural, and economic aspects of tribal life. After the Twelfth Five-Year Plan, the Government of India changed its strategy and, through a resolution by the Union Cabinet in January 2015, replaced the former Planning Commission with the NITI Aayog. NITI Aayog serves as the 'think tank' of the Government of India, providing policy inputs and technical advice to both the Central and State Governments to drive the country forward. Elections are a significant means of ensuring citizen participation in governance. They help make the government accountable and responsive to citizens. Elections establish a two-way relationship based on trust and accountability between the rulers and the ruled. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Note**: The concept of the 'BIMARU states' was introduced by Ashish Bose. The Human Development Index (HDI), used by Prof. Mahbub ul Haq, includes indicators such as health, education, and income. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Public Policy: Health, Education and Livelihoods (H2)** Public Policy is an important component of both society and the government. The policies formulated by the state for public welfare are called public policies. The governance of the entire state depends on public policies. Problems such as poverty, hunger, malnutrition, unemployment, illiteracy, illness, and socio-economic inequality are addressed through public policies. In his book *\"The Public and Its Problems\"*, John Dewey discusses questions related to public policy, such as how problems should be defined, why they should be solved, and how they can be placed on the political agenda of parties. - In developing countries, the role of politics is not the same as in developed countries. Politics has a broader and more significant role in developing countries. In a developing country like India, politics serves as the most effective means of bringing about socio-economic change. In fact, the functional form of politics is reflected through public policy. The nature of public policy will depend on the type of political power in power, and the nature of public policies will determine the form of our problems and the condition of the majority population. - Therefore, public policy is at the root of all the proble

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