Ancient History of India PDF

 A HISTORY OF ANCIENT AND EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA FROM THE STONE AGE TO THE 12TH CENTURY Upinder Singh Delhi Chennai Chandigarh Upper Saddle River Boston London Sydney Singapore Hong Kong Toronto Tokyo ...

 A HISTORY OF ANCIENT AND EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA FROM THE STONE AGE TO THE 12TH CENTURY Upinder Singh Delhi Chennai Chandigarh Upper Saddle River Boston London Sydney Singapore Hong Kong Toronto Tokyo  Brief Contents Photographs, Maps, and Figures About the Author Preface Acknowledgements A Reader’s Guide Introduction: Ideas of the Early Indian Past 1. Understanding Literary and Archaeological Sources 2. Hunter-Gatherers of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Ages 3. The Transition to Food Production: Neolithic, Neolithic–Chalcolithic, and Chalcolithic Villages, c. 7000–2000 BCE 4. The Harappan Civilization, c. 2600–1900 BCE 5. Cultural Transitions: Images from Texts and Archaeology, c. 2000–600 BCE 6. Cities, Kings, and Renunciants: North India, c. 600–300 BCE 7. Power and Piety: The Maurya Empire, c. 324–187 BCE 8. Interaction and Innovation, c. 200 BCE –300 CE 9. Aesthetics and Empire, c. 300–600 CE 10. Emerging Regional Configurations, c. 600–1200 CE A Note on Diacritics Glossary Further Readings References Credits  Contents Photographs, Maps, and Figures About the Author Preface Acknowledgements A Reader’s Guide Introduction: Ideas of the Early Indian Past THE MAIN PHYSIOGRAPHIC ZONES OF THE SUBCONTINENT WAYS OF DIVIDING THE INDIAN PAST CHANGING INTERPRETATIONS OF EARLY INDIAN HISTORY NEW HISTORIES, UNWRITTEN HISTORIES 1 Understanding Literary and Archaeological Sources READING ANCIENT TEXTS FROM A HISTORICAL POINT OF VIEW Ancient palm leaf manuscripts THE CLASSIFICATION OF LITERARY SOURCES: LANGUAGE, GENRE, AND CONTENT THE VEDAS THE TWO SANSKRIT EPICS: THE RAMAYANA AND MAHABHARATA Archaeology and the Mahabharata The chronological layers in the Ramayana THE PURANAS THE DHARMASHASTRA Theory and practice in the Dharmashastra BUDDHIST LITERATURE Songs of Buddhist nuns JAINA LITERATURE SANGAM LITERATURE AND LATER TAMIL WORKS The stories of the two Tamil epics EARLY KANNADA AND TELUGU LITERATURE OTHER ANCIENT TEXTS, BIOGRAPHIES, AND HISTORIES Banabhatta and his royal biography THE NATURE OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORICAL TRADITIONS THE ACCOUNTS OF FOREIGN WRITERS Al-Biruni on the writing of the Hindus ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE EARLY INDIAN PAST SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUES IN ARCHAEOLOGY Radiocarbon dating INTERPRETING ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE ETHNO-ARCHAEOLOGY The social and cultural aspects of technology PROTECTING SITES EPIGRAPHY: THE STUDY OF INSCRIPTIONS ANCIENT AND EARLY MEDIEVAL SCRIPTS LANGUAGES OF ANCIENT AND EARLY MEDIEVAL INSCRIPTIONS Deciphered and undeciphered scripts DATING THE INSCRIPTIONS How to convert ancient era dates into modern ones THE CLASSIFICATION OF INSCRIPTIONS Memorializing death in stone  INSCRIPTIONS AS A SOURCE OF HISTORY NUMISMATICS: THE STUDY OF COINS A BRIEF HISTORY OF INDIAN COINAGE COINS AS A SOURCE OF HISTORY Counter-struck coins of the Kshatrapas and Satavahanas CONCLUSIONS 2 Hunter-Gatherers of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Ages THE GEOLOGICAL AGES AND HOMINID EVOLUTION What does it mean to be human? HOMINID REMAINS IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT PALAEO-ENVIRONMENTS CLASSIFYING THE INDIAN STONE AGE THE PALAEOLITHIC AGE LOWER PALAEOLITHIC SITES Typical lower palaeolithic tools Isampur: a centre of stone tool manufacture MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC SITES The Levallois technique UPPER PALAEOLITHIC SITES Upper palaeolithic tools PALAEOLITHIC ART AND CULTS Ostrich eggshell beads THE LIFE-WAYS OF PALAEOLITHIC HUNTER-GATHERERS Food resources—now and then THE MESOLITHIC AGE MESOLITHIC SITES  Microliths Animal bones at mesolithic sites Graves, subsistence, and settlement patterns The journey to get chalcedony THE MAGNIFICENCE OF MESOLITHIC ART CONCLUSIONS 3 The Transition to Food Production: Neolithic, Neolithic–Chalcolithic, and Chalcolithic Villages, c. 7000–2000 BCE THE NEOLITHIC AGE AND THE BEGINNINGS OF FOOD PRODUCTION WHY DOMESTICATION? THE IDENTIFICATION OF DOMESTICATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION IN THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD The analysis of ancient plant remains THE TRANSITION TO FOOD PRODUCTION IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT THE EARLIEST VILLAGE SETTLEMENTS IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT, C. 7000– 3000 BCE The north-west The Vindhyan fringes and other areas NEOLITHIC, NEOLITHIC–CHALCOLITHIC, AND CHALCOLITHIC COMMUNITIES, C. 3000–2000 BCE The north and north-west Did people actually live in the Burzahom pits? Rajasthan The Malwa region The western Deccan The middle Ganga plain and eastern India South India The mystery of the ash mounds  Community feasting at neolithic Budihal THE LIFE OF EARLY FARMERS CHANGES IN CULTIC AND BELIEF SYSTEMS Female figurines—ordinary women or goddesses? CONCLUSIONS 4 The Harappan Civilization, c. 2600–1900 BCE CIVILIZATION AND URBANIZATION: DEFINITIONS AND IMPLICATIONS The 10 characteristics of cities, according to Childe RECENT DISCOVERIES AND CHANGING PERSPECTIVES HARAPPAN, INDUS, OR SINDHU–SARASVATI CIVILIZATION? ORIGIN: THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE EARLY HARAPPAN PHASE The problems with diffusionist theories THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE EARLY AND MATURE HARAPPAN PHASES THE GENERAL FEATURES OF MATURE HARAPPAN SETTLEMENTS PROFILES OF SOME HARAPPAN CITIES, TOWNS, AND VILLAGES THE DIVERSITY OF THE HARAPPAN SUBSISTENCE BASE Animal bones at Shikarpur HARAPPAN CRAFTS AND TECHNIQUES Sculpture in stone and metal The making of long carnelian beads NETWORKS OF TRADE Shortughai—a Harappan trading post in Afghanistan THE NATURE AND USES OF WRITING RELIGIOUS AND FUNERARY PRACTICES The ‘fire altars’ THE HARAPPAN PEOPLE  How healthy were the Harappans? THE RULING ELITE Defining a state THE DECLINE OF URBAN LIFE THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE LATE HARAPPAN PHASE CONCLUSIONS 5 Cultural Transitions: Images from Texts and Archaeology, c. 2000–600 BCE PERSPECTIVES FROM TEXTS USING THE VEDAS AS A HISTORICAL SOURCE The date of the Rig Veda WHO WERE THE INDO-ARYANS? THE CULTURE REFLECTED IN THE FAMILY BOOKS OF THE RIG VEDA SAMHITA Tribes and wars Hymn to arms ( Rig Veda Samhita 6.75) Lineage, clan, tribe Pastoralism, agriculture, and other occupations Varna in the Rig Veda Women, men, and the household The family and the household Religion: sacrifices to the gods Hymn to Indra ( Rig Veda 2.12) The soma plant and its juice THE HISTORICAL MILIEU OF LATER VEDIC AGE TEXTS Aspects of everyday life The emergence of monarchy The ceremony of the jewel offering  The varna hierarchy The Purusha-sukta ( Rig Veda 10.90) Gender and the household Religion, ritual, and philosophy The Nasadiya hymn ( Rig Veda 10.129) The sacrificial arena The atman , according to Uddalaka Aruni Popular beliefs and practices Atharva Veda spells ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROFILES OF DIFFERENT REGIONS OF THE SUBCONTINENT, c. 2000–500 BCE NEOLITHIC–CHALCOLITHIC AND CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES The north-west and north The Indo-Gangetic divide, the upper Ganga valley, and the doab The Sanauli cemetery The copper anthropomorph Black and Red Ware Western India The middle Ganga valley Eastern India The North-east The cultural sequence in central India The chalcolithic farmers of the Deccan The Daimabad bronzes Food, nutrition, and health among the people of Inamgaon Goddesses with and without heads Neolithic–chalcolithic sites of South India  Pictures on stone FROM COPPER TO IRON: EARLY IRON AGE CULTURES OF THE SUBCONTINENT A clarification about the Indian megaliths The north-west The Indo-Gangetic divide and the upper Ganga valley: the Painted Grey Ware culture Painted Grey Ware The evidence from Rajasthan The middle and lower Ganga valley Central India The Deccan South India The enigma of the megalithic anthropomorphs THE IMPACT OF IRON TECHNOLOGY THE PROBLEM OF CORRELATING LITERARY AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE CONCLUSIONS 6 Cities, Kings, and Renunciants: North India, c. 600–300 BCE THE SOURCES: LITERARY AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL Panini and his Ashtadhyayi Northern Black Polished Ware THE 16 GREAT STATES The identification of Taxila THE GANAS OR SANGHAS The conflict between the Sakyas and Kosalans Vassakara seeks the Buddha’s advice on how to defeat the Vajjis POLITICAL CONFLICTS AND THE GROWTH OF THE MAGADHAN EMPIRE The chronology of the early dynasties of Magadha THE PERSIAN AND MACEDONIAN INVASIONS The storming of the Malla citadel LAND AND AGRARIAN EXPANSION FROM VILLAGE TO TOWN: THE EXAMPLE OF ATRANJIKHERA THE EMERGENCE OF CITY LIFE Perceptions of the forest ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND LITERARY PROFILES OF EARLY HISTORICAL CITIES THE NORTH-WEST THE INDO-GANGETIC DIVIDE, THE UPPER GANGA VALLEY, AND THE DOAB THE MIDDLE AND LOWER GANGA VALLEY CENTRAL INDIA AND THE DECCAN URBAN OCCUPATIONS, CRAFTS, GUILDS, AND MONEY THE NEW SOCIAL ELITES: THE GAHAPATI AND SETTHI TRADE AND TRADERS CLASS, KINSHIP, VARNA , AND CASTE Activities in times of adversity Varna and jati GENDER, FAMILY, AND HOUSEHOLD Marriage, according to the Grihyasutras THE RENUNCIATORY TRADITION The Samannaphala Sutta THE AJIVIKAS EARLY BUDDHISM THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA THE BUDDHA’S TEACHINGS The analogy of the raft  THE BUDDHIST SANGHA AND THE LAITY THE SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE BUDDHA’S TEACHINGS The Ambattha Sutta BUDDHISM AND WOMEN Patachara’s song The eight conditions imposed on nuns The seven kinds of wives3 EARLY JAINISM THE JAINA TIRTHANKARAS, VARDHAMANA MAHAVIRA THE JAINA UNDERSTANDING OF REALITY THE JAINA DISCIPLINE The liberated man On not killing earth bodies THE SOCIAL COMPOSITION OF THE JAINA SANGHA AND LAITY The true Brahmana Malli or Mallinatha? CONCLUSIONS 7 Power and Piety: The Maurya Empire, c. 324–187 BCE THE MAJOR SOURCES FOR THE MAURYA PERIOD KAUTILYA’S ARTHASHASTRA The statistical analysis of word frequencies in the Arthashastra MEGASTHENES’ INDICA The Greeks on Megasthenes ASHOKA’S INSCRIPTIONS The different categories of Ashokan inscriptions and their location References to famine relief in the Mahasthan and Sohgaura inscriptions  ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND NUMISMATIC EVIDENCE THE MAURYA DYNASTY Legends of Ashoka The stone portrait of Ashoka at Kanaganahalli LITERARY AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROFILES OF CITIES Pataliputra and the palace, according to Arrian and Aelian SOME ASPECTS OF RURAL AND URBAN LIFE THE NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF THE MAURYA EMPIRE Kautilya’s timetable for a king The life of a king, according to Megasthenes (via Strabo) Rock edict 6 (Girnar version) The Maurya state and forest people ASHOKA AND BUDDHISM Minor rock edict 1 (Rupnath version) ASHOKA’S DHAMMA The 5th pillar edict (Delhi–Topra pillar) The 13th rock edict (Shahbazgarhi version) Ashoka’s assessment of his success: the Shar-i-Kuna Greek–Aramaic inscription SCULPTURE AND ARCHITECTURE Ancient and modern quarries at Chunar The medieval and modern histories of Ashokan pillars The discovery of an Ashokan stupa at Deorkothar The Parkham yaksha , then and now THE DECLINE OF THE MAURYA EMPIRE CONCLUSIONS 8 Interaction and Innovation, c. 200 BCE –300 CE THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF NORTH INDIA THE SHUNGAS The Besnagar pillar inscription of Heliodorus THE INDO-GREEKS Coins of the Indo-Greeks THE SHAKA-PAHLAVAS OR SCYTHO-PARTHIANS THE KUSHANAS The Rabatak inscription THE SHAKA KSHATRAPAS OF WESTERN INDIA A lake, a storm, and a king THE SATAVAHANA EMPIRE IN THE DECCAN The royal portrait gallery in the Naneghat cave KINGS AND CHIEFTAINS IN THE FAR SOUTH: THE CHERAS, CHOLAS, AND PANDYAS The royal drum VILLAGES AND CITIES Plant remains from Sanghol CITIES OF THE NORTH-WEST THE INDO-GANGETIC DIVIDE AND THE UPPER GANGA VALLEY THE MIDDLE AND LOWER GANGA VALLEY AND EASTERN INDIA Chandraketugarh CENTRAL AND WESTERN INDIA CITIES AND TOWNS OF THE DECCAN CITIES OF THE FAR SOUTH Madurai in the Maduraikkanchi CRAFTS AND GUILDS Guilds as bankers  TRADE AND TRADERS Ancient travellers LONG-DISTANCE TRADE Kaveripattinam in the Pattinapalai TRADE WITH EAST AND SOUTHEAST ASIA INDO-ROMAN TRADE Periplus Maris Erythraei (The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea) Recent excavations at Arikamedu THE WIDER ROLES OF TRADE AND TRADERS ASPECTS OF SOCIAL CHANGE IN NORTH INDIA AND THE DECCAN: VARNA , CASTE, GENDER The Jatakas as a source of social history SOCIETY IN EARLY HISTORICAL SOUTH INDIA An ancient Tamil love poem A heroic death PHILOSOPHICAL DEVELOPMENTS: ASTIKA AND NASTIKA SCHOOLS The Bhagavad Gita LOOKING AT THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS BEYOND THE FRAMEWORK OF ‘ISMS’ THE WORSHIP OF YAKSHAS AND YAKSHIS, NAGAS AND NAGIS GODDESSES, VOTIVE TANKS, AND SHRINES VEDIC RITUALS PURANIC HINDUISM Shivaism The formation of the Vaishnava pantheon Krishna and Balarama on Agathocles’ coins Shakti worship THE EMERGENCE OF MAHAYANA BUDDHISM  Monastic and lay practices in texts versus inscriptions THE DIGAMBARA–SHVETAMBARA SCHISM IN JAINISM RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE EARLY HINDU TEMPLES AND SCULPTURE BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE Stupa-monasteries of the north-west Central Indian stupas—Sanchi and Bharhut Stupas of Andhra Pradesh Early relief sculpture at Buddhist stupa sites Buddhist caves in the Western Ghats THE JAINA CAVES AT UDAYAGIRI AND KHANDAGIRI THE GANDHARA SCHOOL OF SCULPTURE EARLY STONE SCULPTURES FROM VIDISHA AND MATHURA TERRACOTTA ART THE PATRONAGE OF RELIGIOUS ESTABLISHMENTS Gifts of water pots from ancient Gandhara Pious donations at Bandhogarh CONCLUSIONS 9 Aesthetics and Empire, c. 300–600 CE POLITICAL HISTOR THE GUPTA DYNASTY Ramagupta—did he exist? The inscription of Chandra and the legend of the unsteady pillar THE VAKATAKAS OF THE DECCAN A queen’s grant OTHER DYNASTIES OF PENINSULAR INDIA  THE ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE OF THE GUPTA AND VAKATAKA KINGDOMS An ancient panchayat? REVENUE RESOURCES OF STATES LAND OWNERSHIP TYPES OF LAND, LAND MEASURES, AND LAND TENURE ROYAL LAND GRANTS The terms of the Vakataka grants PATTERNS OF URBAN HISTORY The lifestyle of the nagaraka CRAFT PRODUCTION, GUILDS, AND TRADE ASPECTS OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE: GENDER, FORMS OF LABOUR, SLAVERY, AND UNTOUCHABILITY Faxian’s account The ganika and kulastri in Sanskrit kavya PATTERNS OF RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS THE EMERGENCE OF TANTRA THE EVOLUTION OF THE VAISHNAVA PANTHEON SHIVAISM THE CULT OF THE GREAT GODDESS THE WORSHIP OF OTHER DEITIES BUDDHISM Kumarajiva (343–413 CE) JAINISM A CLASSICAL AGE OF ART? RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE SCULPTURE SANSKRIT LITERATURE  The cloud messenger The Natyashastra ASTRONOMY AND MATHEMATICS Ancient mathematical and medical manuscripts MEDICAL KNOWLEDGE The ideal hospital, according to Charaka CONCLUSIONS 10 Emerging Regional Configurations, c. 600–1200 CE SOURCES, LITERARY AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL New evidence regarding Wang Xuance’s missions to India POLITICAL NARRATIVE AND POLITICAL STRUCTURE The image of the ideal king in inscriptions of Orissa Rudramadevi, the female king THE DECCAN The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin THE FAR SOUTH Religious and political symbolism in the Tanjavur temple NORTH INDIA: THE PUSHYABHUTIS, HARSHVARDHANA The life and travels of Xuanzang EASTERN INDIA Some origin myths of the dynasties of Orissa THE RAJPUT CLANS The Tomaras and Delhi in legends and inscriptions KASHMIR AND THE NORTH-WEST Didda ROYAL LAND GRANTS BRAHMANA BENEFICIARIES THE NATURE OF BRAHMADEYA SETTLEMENTS Kara-shasanas and kraya-shasanas THE IMPACT OF BRAHMANA SETTLEMENTS ON AGRARIAN RELATIONS LAND GRANTS AS PART OF LARGER SOCIAL AND CULTURAL PROCESSES RURAL SOCIETY: REGIONAL SPECIFICITIES Popular agricultural sayings of early medieval Bengal URBAN PROCESSES IN EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA HISTORICAL PROCESSES IN EARLY MEDIEVAL SOUTH INDIA THE NATURE OF SOUTH INDIAN STATES The segmentary state, according to Southall and Stein ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURES RURAL SOCIETY The history of a Karnataka village AGRICULTURE AND IRRIGATION Irrigation devices in early medieval Tamil Nadu Betel leaves and areca nuts URBAN PROCESSES Weavers and weaving in early medieval Tamil Nadu TRADE AND TRADERS Aihole and the Ayyavole THE RELIGIOUS SPHERE BUDDHISM IN EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA A letter from Xuanzang to Prajnadeva MAJOR CENTRES OF JAINISM SHANKARA AND ADVAITA VEDANTA  THE HINDU CULTS Vishnuism and Shivaism The Shakti cult The Goddess as killer of the demon Mahisha SOUTH INDIAN BHAKTI: THE ALVARS AND NAYANMARS Songs of the Nayanmar saint Appar Andal’s songs Karaikkal Ammaiyar—her life and songs THE PHILOSOPHICAL UNDERPINNINGS OF SOUTH INDIAN BHAKTI AND LATER DEVELOPMENTS The vachanas of Basavanna PATRONAGE TO TEMPLES Temple women in Chola inscriptions THE ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE OF EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA THE NAGARA, DRAVIDA, AND VESARA STYLES OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE WESTERN INDIA AND THE DECCAN The discovery of an early medieval quarry site near Pattadakal THE PALLAVA KINGDOM THE CHOLA TEMPLES CHOLA METAL SCULPTURE Archaeometric analysis of Nataraja images CONCLUSIONS A Note on Diacritics Glossary Further Readings References Credits  What the reviewers say about this book... Professor Singh seems to have given us a singularly learned, well-written, and detailed introduction to the study of ancient India... It is possible to have disagreement with Professor Singh on various issues, but that, in fact, lends charm to what she writes because what would a book like this be worth unless it can generate debates in the class-room? —Dilip K. Chakrabarti, University of Cambridge [The book’s] unusual format consists of not only a narrative text, but boxed information from original sources and research works, and on key concepts, which the students will find instructive.... The website for further references and reading makes a supplement to the narrative. The list of further readings is impressive.... Due attention is paid to regional histories, especially South India and sources in regional languages.... —R. Champakalakshmi, The Hindu , 13 October 2008... a well illustrated, marvellously produced textbook covering the vast history from the Stone Age to the 12th century.... Singularly impressive for its make-up and appearance, this textbook is the first of its kind in the country.... Each chapter of the book contains a critical reappraisal of sources and the development of historical knowledge... helping students understand the rigorous methodology that underlies the process.... ‘[U]nsettled’ issues have been dealt with through the debates without losing their complexity and thus creating awareness of various scholars’ valuable contributions towards the construction of historical knowledge.... Singh’s book... educates its readers as to how history can stake claims on various areas of knowledge in the domain of interdisciplinary studies like gender various areas of knowledge in the domain of interdisciplinary studies like gender studies, environmental history, human geography, landscape archaeology and human ecology. —Rajan Gurukkal, The Book Review , October 2008 Professor Singh has succeeded in her venture of producing a balanced and stimulating textbook on the early Indian past. She has followed recent trends in historiography, incorporating into her book new theoretical perspectives, scientific technologies, and the enormously growing archaeological data. Often neglected South Indian history is also adequately represented. —N. Karashima, University of Tokyo With its in-depth assessment of the literary and archaeological sources and theoretical discourses, [this book] provides a unique and long overdue introduction to the study of Indian history to the 12th century, which gives full coverage also to peninsular India. —Hermann Kulke, University of Kiel This is the first work on ancient India where the text has been constructed at different levels. Ten chapters pan across the whole canvas, from prehistory and protohistory to ancient and early medieval history. The panorama is interspersed with inset capsules where some themes are picked out to illustrate larger elements in the chapters.... Singh’s deep affection for all kinds of ancient Indians has ensured that... she does not lose sight of ordinary people, or for that matter, their eating habits, or even their pets. Early India is not merely humanised through such capsules and sources, it is also illuminated by the roughly 450 illustrations that accompany the text. —Nayanjot Lahiri, India Today , 11 August 2008 [T]his up-to-date, lavishly illustrated, and thoughtfully-designed volume is clearly the new standard against which future texts will be measured.... Singh’s overview of early Indian history deftly integrate[s] archaeological data in a way few, if any, other reviews have achieved or ventured.... [Singh] stresses the complexity and diversity of experience... while also crafting a composite image, a mosaic, of a unified Indian past. That she is able to do justice to regional specificity, occupational diversity, and cultural complexity is a testament to [her] powerful historical vision.... The most enduring value of Upinder Singh’s new synthesis is the way in which it aims to create not simply consumers but producers of historical thought. —Kathleen D. Morrison, Seminar , 593, January 2009 Singh... writes with a refreshing openness, and her constant aim is to communicate clearly, without simplifying the complex subject matter before her. [T]his is the major contribution of the book.... In an era when most historians are torn between different and contending theories, Singh remains rooted to facts and analysis without ever committing the error of claiming that she has said the last word on the subject. —Rudrangshu Mukherjee, The Telegraph , 14 November 2008... a fascinating and up-to-date account of South Asia’s past, from the dim beginnings of the hunter-forager way of life to the early medieval period. It is based on an objective assessment of both literary and archaeological sources... the book will be useful to students of history and archaeology at all levels and to all educated laymen who desire to know about South Asia’s past. —K. Paddaya, Deccan College, Pune The language is refreshingly gender-sensitive and direct. The visuals are chosen with care and several of them are spectacular. Access to primary sources (both visual and textual) enriches the book enormously. It is more than apparent that the author has carefully deliberated over each sentence in order to create a text that is comprehensive. —Kumkum Roy, IIC Quarterly , Autumn 2008  The Author Upinder Singh is Professor in the Department of History at the University of Delhi. She studied history at St. Stephen’s College, Delhi, and went on to receive her M.A. and M.Phil. from the University of Delhi, specializing in ancient Indian history. She obtained her Ph.D. from McGill University, Montreal. She taught history at St. Stephen’s College, Delhi, from 1981 until 2004, after which she joined the faculty of the Department of History at the University of Delhi. Professor Singh’s wide range of research interests and expertise include the analysis of ancient and early medieval inscriptions, social and economic history, religious institutions and patronage, the history of archaeology, and the modern history of ancient monuments. Her research papers have been published in various national and international journals. She is the author of several books —Kings, Brāhmanas, and Temples in Orissa: An Epigraphic Study (AD 300–1147) (1994); Ancient Delhi (1999; 2nd edn., 2006); a book for children, Mysteries of the Past: Archaeological Sites in India (2002); The Discovery of Ancient India: Early Archaeologists and the Beginnings of Archaeology (2004); and Delhi: Ancient History (edited, 2006). Professor Singh lives and teaches in Delhi. She is married and has two sons.  Photographs, Maps, and Figures PHOTOGRAPHS The ruins at Bhita R. C. Majumdar D. D. Kosambi A 12th century manuscript of the Prajnaparamita Purana Qila excavations in progress, 1954 The mound of Hastinapura Marine archaeologist at work Ancient ship anchor, Bangaran Island Harappan carnelian beads Nagarjunakonda salvage operations in progress J. F. Fleet D. C. Sircar A Pala period image with a donative inscription A copper plate inscription Hero stone from Khanapur, Karnataka Ratti seeds Silver punch-marked coin of Magadha Uninscribed cast copper coin of Kaushambi Silver coin of Indo-Greek king Demetrius Gold coin of Kushana king Vima Kadphises Gold coin of Gupta king Kumaragupta I Silver Gurjara-Pratihara coin Copper Pallava coin Cowrie shells Re-struck silver coin of Nahapana Arun Sonakia The Bhimbetka rock shelters Quartzite handaxe from the Narmada valley H. D. Sankalia Lower palaeolithic tools from Attirampakkam Borer from Nellor district Middle palaeolithic scraper, Attirampakkam Upper palaeolithic chert blades, Narmada valley Burin from Mukat Manipur Microliths from various sites A pot from Nal, Baluchistan Neolithic stone tools, Burzahom Bone tools, Burzahom Bone arrowhead, Burzahom Perforated harvester, Burzahom Burnished globular jar with long neck, Burzahom Decorated stone harvester, Gufkral Celts from Nayapur and Kuchai Shouldered celt, Kuchai Female figurine, Mehrgarh View of Mohenjodaro (Sindh, Pakistan) John Marshall Rakhaldas Banerji Daya Ram Sahni Painted designs on early Harappan pottery, Nal and Kulli Early Harappan pottery, Zangian and Shahi Tump Well flanked by house walls, Mohenjodaro Main street, Mohenjodaro Narrow lane between house walls, Mohenjodaro Great Bath, Mohenjodaro Main street and house walls, Kalibangan Eastern gate, Banawali Cross-section of defence wall, Banawali Apsidal structure, Banawali Well and drains, Lothal Lothal dockyard Tank and northern gate, Dholavira Eastern gate, Dholavira citadel Well and massive drain, Dholavira citadel Miniature perforated pot, Dholavira Beaker, Dhalovira Pot with pointed base, Dholavira Ring stand, Dholavira Pottery designs Terracotta human and animal figurines Terracotta mask Terracotta circular and triangular cakes Chert blades Stone gamesmen Copper arrowhead and celt Stone sealing and seal The ‘dancing girl’ Shell ladle, Lothal Jewellery and beads Stone weights, Dholavira Terracotta cart, Harappa Harappan seals Female figurine with fan-shaped headdress Female figurine, Banawali The ‘Pashupati seal’ Harappan seals with depictions of tiger and elephant Terracotta figurine Terracotta games and dice Terracotta perforated bird-shaped rattle Terracotta bull with moveable head Terracotta cart A ‘unicorn’ seal Megalithic burial, Hire-Benkal Pottery from late Harappan levels, Bhorgarh Copper harpoons from Shishupalgarh and Hastinapura Marine archaeologists, Dwarka Diver measuring submerged structure, Dwarka Circular stone structure in the inter-tidal zone, Dwarka Bone knife, Daimabad Pottery from different phases, Daimabad Daimabad bronzes Inamgaon artefacts Pottery from different periods, Prakash Period III (late Jorwe) pottery, Inamgaon Period III (late Jorwe) terracotta figurine, Inamgaon Neolithic celt, Brahmagiri Pottery from different periods, Maski Topikal, Cochin Sarcophagus in dolmenoid cist, Sanur PGW sherds from Hastinapura and Ahichchhatra PGW sherds from various sites Chamber tomb with port hole, Brahmagiri Close-up of chamber, Brahmagiri Megalithic cist, Brahmagiri Silver punch-marked coins NBPW from various sites Silver punch-marked coins of Kashi, Kosala, and Magadha Gandhara punch-marked coin Alexander Cunningham Panel showing Ajatashatru’s visit to the Buddha Excavated section, Hastinapura Pottery of different periods, Hastinapura Excavated eastern fortifications, Kaushambi Excavated monasteries and mound, Shravasti Excavations in progress, Piprahwa Relic casket, Piprahwa Pottery of different periods, Ahichchhatra Excavated brick structures, Ujjain The lion capital of Ashoka’s Sarnath pillar Inscription on Delhi–Topra pillar Rocks bearing the Bahapur/Srinivasapuri edict The Delhi–Meerut pillar Stone portrait of Ashoka at Kanaganahalli Ring wells and storage jar, Purana Qila The Bhita mound Panoramic view of Kaushambi The Rummindei pillar incription The Vaishali pillar Sarnath capital The Delhi–Topra pillar Elephant capital, Sankissa Bull capital, Rampurva Dhauli elephant Façade of Lomash Rishi cave Stupa no.1, Sanchi Stone sculpture, Lohaniganj The Parkham yaksha Carved ring stones Red sandstone yakshi, Sanghol Kanishka image from Mat, Mathura Copper coins of Yaudheyas, Ayodhya, and Kunindas The Besnagar pillar inscription of Heliodorus Coins of the Indo-Greeks Silver coin of Appollodotus I Gold coin of Huvishka Copper coin of Soter Megas Gold coin of Kanishka III Copper coin of the Yaudheyas Local coin of Ujjain Coin of Nahapana Silver coin of Rudrasimha I Copper coin of Vasishthiputra Pulumavi Copper coin, Satavahana dynasty Copper coins of Satakarni I Punch-marked coins from Andhra and Pandya country Uninscribed copper coins of Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas Walls of different periods, Purana Qila Terracotta plaque, Purana Qila Stamped and incised pot-sherds, Purana Qila Anthropomorphic pot, Purana Qila Red spouted vessel and sprinkler, Sarnath Panchachuda Chandraketugarh terracottas Yaksha Rishyashringa Sandstone Nagaraja from Chhargaon, Mathura Terracotta figurine, Mathura Terracotta tank Winged creatures worshipping linga, Mathura Nagarjunakonda reliefs Debala Mitra Yakshi on pillar, Bharhut Bharhut railing medallion Sanchi Stupa no.1, gateway and railing details Buddha image, Nagarjunakonda Remains of stupa with ayaka pillars, Nagarjunakonda Stadium, Nagarjunakonda Stupa with spoked-wheel plan, Nagarjunakonda ‘Scythian figure’, Nagarjunakonda Maya’s dream, Amaravati The Buddha’s birth, Nagarjunakonda The Buddha’s birth, Gandhara School Great Departure, Nagarjunakonda First sermon, Nagarjunakonda Ornamented stupa , Nagarjunakonda Chaitya halls: Karle, Bedsa, Kanheri Chaitya hall entrance, Bhaja View of Bhaja caves Nashik Cave 18 Udayagiri–Khandagiri, Cave 1, Ranigumpha Verandah of Cave 10, Udayagiri–Khandagiri Gandhara head Buddha, Gandhara style Standing figure, Gandhara style Fasting Siddhartha, Gandhara school Buddha image from Govind Nagar, Mathura Nagaraja, Mathura Seated Tirthankara , Kankali Tila, Mathura Surya, Kankali tila, Mathura Karttikeya, Kankali Tila, Mathura Terracotta female figurine, Mathura Terracottas plaques, Chandraketugarh A tiger striding out of a Bandhogarh cave Flautists, Mahajanaka Jataka , Ajanta, Cave 1 Copper plates found in a pot Copper plate seals ‘King and queen type’ coin of Chandragupta I ‘Tiger slayer type’ coin, Samudragupta Brahmi script, Allahabad prashasti ‘Ashvamedha type’ coin, Samudragupta ‘Lyrist type’ coin, Samudragupta ‘Lion slayer type’ coin, Chandragupta II ‘Archer type’ coin, Kumaragupta I A set of copper plates, with ring and seal Sarnath: ‘KushanaGupta’ red ware pot, bowl, and lids Hari-Hara in the Badami Caves Krishna Govardhana, Varanasi Vishnu resting on Sheshanaga, Deogarh Gaja-Lakshmi Ekamukhalinga, Khoh (MP) Mahadeva in the Elephanta Cave Buddha, Kanheri Buddha and bodhisattva figures, Cave 2, Kanheri Colossal Buddha, verandah of Cave 3, Kanheri Bodhisattva, Nalanda View of structures, Nalanda Corner of stupa, Nalanda Tirthankara, Kankali Tila, Mathura Dashavatara temple, Deogarh Bhumara temple Nachna-Kuthara temple Lakshmana temple, Sirpur Bhitargaon brick temple Detail of doorway, Nachna-Kuthara The Ajanta caves Cave 19 façade, Ajanta Cave 19 interior, Ajanta Buddha figures, Ajanta Ajanta paintings Buddha head, Mathura View of Udayagiri caves Udayagiri relief Buddha in the dharmachakra pravartana mudra, Sarnath Standing Buddha, Sarnath Buddha figures on stone slab, Sarnath Dancer and musicians, Aurangabad cave Stucco head from Taxila Terracotta images of Ganga and Yamuna, Ahichchhatra Bronze image of Manikkavachakar Detail of Papanatha temple, Pattadakal Brahmi script, Aihole inscription Hero stone, Karnataka Copper coin, Pallava dynasty Gold coin of Chola king Kulottunga I Gold coin of Rajendra Chola Gold coin of Rajaraja Chola Silver coin of Gurjara-Pratihara king Bhoja I Silver Gurjara-Pratihara coin Debased gold coin of Chandella king, Madanavarma The Anangpur dam Suraj Kund reservoir Billon coin of Chahamana king, Prithviraja II Coin of Shahi king Spalapatideva The stupa at Borobudur, Java The 12th century Vishnu temple, Angkor Vat View of temple and relief scenes, Cambodia Spiti valley key monastery, Spiti valley Tabo monastery, Spiti valley Clay statues in assembly hall Painting of shrine, Alchi, Ladakh Tara, Alchi Gommateshvara at Shravana Belagola Details of the Dilwara temple, Mount Abu Shiva with Nandi bull, Aihole Varaha lifting Prithvi, Aihole ‘Durga’ temple, Aihole Varaha sculpture from Lalitapur Yogini sculpture, Chaunsat Yogini temple, Bheraghat Yogini temple, Dudhai, Lalitpur Chaunsat Yogini temple, Khajuraho Sapta-Matrika sculpture Mahishasuramardini from various sites Bronze image of Manikkavachakar Lingaraja temple, Bhubaneshwar Jagannatha temple, Puri Nagara style shikhara, Lingaraja temple, Bhubaneshwar Dravida style shikhara, Brihadishvara temple, Tanjavur Khajuraho temple Trefoiled arches of the Martanda temple, Kashmir Kailashanatha temple, Ellora Ravana lifting mount Kailasha, Ellora Ornamental pillar, Ellora Jaina tirthankara, Ellora Goddess Ganga, Ellora Cave interior and shrine, Ellora Manushi Buddhas, Teen Thal cave, Ellora Cave exterior, ceiling bracket mithuna figures, Badami Cave interior and dancing Shiva, Badami Virupaksha temple, Pattadakal Entrance, Papanatha temple, Pattadakal Gaja-Lakshmi, Papanatha temple Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana, Papanatha temple View, Papanatha temple Pattadakal quarry site Eastern entrance, Hoysaleshvara temple, Halebid Ornamental pillar, Hoysaleshvara temple Nandi, Hoysaleshvara temple Ganesha, Hoysaleshvara temple Huntress, Keshava temple, Belur Shiva and Parvati, Keshava temple Ravana lifting Kailasha, Keshava temple Hanumana, Keshava temple Vishnu resting on Sheshanaga, Mamallapuram cave Mamallapuram temple details Mamallapuram rathas Shore temple, Mamallapuram Brihadishvara temple, Tanjavur Relief panels, Brihadishvara temple, Tanjavur Chola Nataraja bronze MAPS 1 The physical geography of the Indian subcontinent 2.1 Early hominid remains 2.2 Hominid discoveries in the subcontinent 2.3 Major palaeolithic sites 2.4 Some early mesolithic sites 3.1 Centres of agriculture 3.2 Early village settlements in the north-west 3.3 Early centres of agriculture in the subcontinent 3.4 Three major chalcolithic sites of Rajasthan 3.5 Ahar culture sites, Rajasthan 3.6 Village settlements in the middle Ganga plain 3.7 Some important neolithic sites in South India 4.1 Distribution of major Harappan sites 4.2 Some early Harappan sites 4.3 Harappan routes of internal trade 4.4 Long-distance trade routes 5.1 Major neolithic–chalcolithic sites in the Indian subcontinent 5.2 Ochre Coloured Pottery sites 5.3 Copper hoard sites 5.4 Major chalcolithic sites in Malwa and the Deccan 5.5 Some neolithic–chalcolithic settlements in South India 5.6 Early finds of iron in the subcontinent 5.7 Some Painted Grey Ware sites 6.1 The 16 mahajanapadas 6.2 Some early historical cities of north and central India 6.3 Major trade routes of early historical India 7.1 Find-spots of Ashokan inscriptions 8.1 Dynasties of India and central Asia, c. 200 BCE 300 CE 8.2 Tamil–Brahmi and early Vatteluttu inscriptions 8.3 Cities of early historical South India 8.4 Major routes connecting Asia, Europe, and Africa 8.5 India and Southeast Asia 8.6 Distribution of Roman coins in India 8.7 The Erythraean sea, according to the Periplus 8.8 Early historical monasteries in Andhra Pradesh 8.9 Buddhist caves in the Western Ghats 9.1 The kingdoms of the Guptas, Vakatakas, and some contemporary dynasties 9.2 Important ports in Indian Ocean trade networks, c. 300–600 CE 9.3 Faxian’s route 10.1 Major dynasties of peninsular India, c. 700–1300 10.2 Some dynasties of India, c. 550–700 CE 10.3 Xuanzang’s route 10.4 Major dynasties of northern, central, and eastern India, c. 700–1100 CE 10.5 Urban centres in Tamil Nadu, c. 1000 CE 10.6 Ports and cities in Indian Ocean trade networks, c. 600–1500 FIGURES 1.1 The period of composition of some important ancient Indian texts 1.2 Languages spoken in India today 1.3 Pots from Gundiyali and Lodai 1.4 Kharoshthi and Brahmi scripts 2.1 Skull structure of gorilla, homo erectus , homo sapiens sapiens 2.2 The percussion technique of making flakes 2.3 Lower palaeolithic tools 2.4 Isampur tools 2.5 Preparation of a Levallois flake 2.6 Middle palaeolithic tools 2.7 Upper palaeolithic tools 2.8 Decorated ostrich eggshell objects 2.9 Microliths 3.1 The evolution of maize from the wild grass teosinte 3.2 A flotation apparatus 3.3 Burial with grave goods, Mehrgarh, Period I 3.4 Nal pottery 3.5 Kulli pottery from Nindowari 3.6 Burzahom pottery 3.7 Hunting scene engraved on stone, Burzahom 4.1 Amri pottery 4.2 Kot Dijian pottery from various sites 4.3 Painted motifs on pre-Harappan pottery, Kalibangan 4.4 Horned deity on terracotta cake and pot, Kalibangan, Period I 4.5 Citadel and lower town, Mohenjodaro 4.6 Citadel and adjacent area, Harappa 4.7 Plan of Dholavira 4.8 Harappan pottery 5.1 Diagram of sacrificial arena 5.2 Designs on Cemetery-H pots 5.3 Gandhara grave culture burial, Loebanr 5.4 Ochre Coloured Pottery pottery from Ambakheri 5.5 Copper hoard objects 5.6 Inamgaon figurines 5.7 Different types of megalithic monuments 5.8 Black and Red Ware from megalithic sites in the Deccan and South India 5.9 Painted Grey Ware pottery 6.1 Northern Black Polished Ware 7.1 Some symbols on Magadhan punch-marked coins 7.2 Schematic plan of a fortified city based on the Arthashastra 8.1 Sirkap: plan of the great stupa-temple and neighbouring block; stone masonry of different periods 8.2 Reconstruction of the Vidisha temple; Naga temple and its southern gate, Sonkh 8.3 Plan of the Ashtabhujasvamin temple, Nagarjunakonda 8.4 Plan of monastic complex, Takht-i-bahi 8.5 Plan of Sanchi Stupa no. 1 8.6 Plan of a stupa-monastery complex, Nagarjunakonda; Thotlakonda monastery 8.7 Evolution of Buddhist chaitya architecture 9.1 Buddhist complex, Pallavaneswaram, Kaveripattinam 10.1 Plan of Keshava temple, Belur 10.2 Plans of Shiva temple at Narttamalai; Brahmapureshvara temple at Pullamangai; Nageshvarasvami temple, Kumbakonam 10.3 Plan of Brihadishvara temple, Tanjavur  Preface From 1981, I spent over twenty years teaching the undergraduate course on ancient and early medieval India at St. Stephen’s College, Delhi. It was a daunting course, demanding coverage of many different areas and issues over enormous spans of time. I was fortunate to have students with sharp and inquisitive minds, whose questions constantly forced me to re-think my perspectives and conclusions, and who made me realize that teaching is ultimately about the quality of communication between student and teacher. Undergraduate teaching, with its enormous pressures of teaching and marking work, left very little time for research. Nevertheless, I did manage to keep my research going, and explored issues related to social and economic history, religious institutions, inscriptions, archaeology, and the modern histories of ancient sites and monuments. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century emerged from the intersection of my experiences as a teacher and researcher. Primarily a textbook and reference work for both undergraduate and postgraduate students, this book will, I hope, also appeal to the general reader. Its aim is to provide an introduction to ancient and early medieval India through a comprehensive overview of historical issues and details within a firm chronological framework; explanations of basic concepts and terminology; an exposure to the flavour of textual, material, and visual historical sources; and a highlighting of new discoveries and research. Perhaps most importantly, this book focuses on the process through which historical knowledge is formed, and the intellectual inquiry and debate that form part of this process. This book is not a mere summary of existing knowledge. Rather than offer students a smoothened narrative, which they will then be expected to absorb passively, it is necessary to expose them to the complex details and textures of history. Where there are unresolved issues, they have been presented as such, rather than conveying a false sense of certainty. Where there are debates, the rather than conveying a false sense of certainty. Where there are debates, the different perspectives have been presented, along with my own assessment of which arguments are convincing and which ones are not. Historians and teachers invest far too much time and energy in telling students what to think, rather than how to think for themselves. Students need to learn to evaluate evidence and hypotheses, to relentlessly question and critique what they read or are told, and formulate and express their independent views. It is essential to acknowledge the valuable contributions made by various scholars towards the construction of historical knowledge and to understand the rigorous methodology that underlies this process. However I hope that this book encourages readers to think courageously and creatively beyond the current boundaries of academic discourse and debate. Since this is a macro-history of the Indian subcontinent, and in a single volume at that, it outlines broad trajectories, always aware of the fact that these are only a few of multiple trajectories. Thus, for instance, while the account of the beginnings of food production may suggest that this was the inexorable direction in which things were moving, emphasis is still placed on the fact that hunting and gathering remained a preferred subsistence activity for many communities across the centuries. Similarly, the discussion of the early historical period may seem to suggest that everything was making way for the emergence of city life, but it must not be forgotten that most people of the subcontinent continued to live in villages. The privileging of certain processes over others is partly the result of the training and tendency of a historian to focus on what appear to be significant changes, and also due to the inherent nature and inadequacies of sources and available data. The fact is that whether we look at the archaeological or literary sources, we know much more about agricultural groups than hunter-gatherers, and much more about city-dwellers than village folk. Nevertheless, it is important to constantly remind ourselves about the partial and inadequate nature of our historical narratives. Prehistory to c. 1200 CE is an enormous span of time, and it is not possible to be exhaustive on each and every issue. The structure of this book involves breaking this vast period into broad chronological units. For earlier periods, all radiocarbon dates mentioned in this book are calibrated dates. Following current usage, BCE (Before Common Era) is used instead of BC, and CE (Common Era) instead of AD. Against the background of the controversy over the dates of the Buddha’s life, c. 480 BCE has been taken as the date of the parinibbana. Within the broad chronological units, profiles have been constructed of the various geographical regions, incorporating the range of available literary and archaeological evidence, bringing out the complex strands of historical processes within and across different regions. The coverage of regions is necessarily dependent on available information, and the gaps and inadequacies in this information should inspire young scholars to take on the challenge of addressing them. Each chapter looks at various aspects of a particular period on the basis of a critical survey of the available sources. The narrative is punctuated by boxes focusing on key concepts, primary sources, further discussion of specific issues or details, recent discoveries, and new directions in research. From the beginning of the historical period, the chapters start with a synopsis of political history and a discussion of political processes. This is not because these are necessarily the most important aspects of history, but because it is useful for students to have a basic understanding of political context and chronology. Political narrative has been accompanied, to every possible extent, with a discussion of political structures and processes. Political, social, economic, religious, and cultural history are discussed sequentially in order to bring out their inter-connectedness within a chronological and contextual frame. The discussion of social history looks at issues such as class, caste, gender, and subordinate and marginalized groups. Philosophical ideas are treated as an important part of the intellectual life of different periods. Religious doctrines and practices are discussed as important areas requiring detailed investigation, and not merely as part of an ideology reflecting existing power structures. I hope that the many excerpts from original sources and photographs create sensitivity towards the aesthetic dimensions of Indian cultural traditions reflected in literature, art, and architecture. As far as possible, references have been cited to enable the interested reader to go to the original source. Translations have often been slightly modified to make them more accessible. Punctuation has been altered to suit the style of the book, especially since diacritical marks have been dispensed with. Since historical literature generally uses such diacritics and students should understand them, the conventionally used systems of transliteration for Sanskrit and Tamil have been provided towards the end of the book. It is a matter of great satisfaction for me that this book contains over 400 illustrations—line drawings, photographs, and maps—many of a quality and range that are not to be found in any book on ancient and early medieval India. The visual element is as important for understanding prehistoric stone tools as for appreciating art and architecture. The illustrations are much more than an adjunct or supplement to the text. In many cases they convey much more than words possibly can, illuminating the past and making it vivid, meaningful, and exciting. In spite of my best effort, I am aware that this book has certain limitations. For instance, largely because the book was already very long, the last chapter does not discuss the Delhi Sultanate or the history of Islam in the subcontinent, which are very important parts of the early medieval period. For similar reasons, the rich and varied cultural developments of this period could not be surveyed exhaustively. I have instead given a brief overview, with a focus on South India, hoping that the photographs will to some extent make up for the lack of detailed discussion. This book provides students and scholars with a foundation, encouraging them to pursue further reading, depending on their needs and interests. The historical narrative given in the book relies not only on my own research but also on a vast array of writing and research produced by others. My debt to this scholarship is acknowledged in the in-text references and the readings suggested at the end of the book. Readers are encouraged to follow these references for more detailed treatment of various issues. The Web supplement carries forward the features of this book, especially in terms of excerpts from original sources and illustrations. This resource allows a reader access to constant additions and updates to the material. This open- endedness is essential, given the fact that new data and changes in perspective are an integral part of the discipline of history. I hope that this book communicates how exciting and challenging an exploration of the history of ancient and early medieval India can be. My students, initially at St. Stephen’s College, and subsequently in the History Department of the University of Delhi, have been an important part of my own Department of the University of Delhi, have been an important part of my own exploration of this history. That is why this book is dedicated to them. Upinder Singh  A Reader’s Guide to A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India A first of its kind in India, this book has been developed and designed as a textbook for students of ancient Indian history. It brings together an exhaustive coverage of a large span of India’s ancient past in a lucid narrative style. Pedagogic elements built into the book make the study of history a thought provoking and enjoyable experience. In order to help you make the best use of this book, this section provides a window into the various components of the text. Each chapter constitutes a chronological unit within a larger framework, providing a comprehensive overview of historical issues and details, and constructing profiles of the various geographical regions in the subcontinent. The chapter outline provides a view of the broad organization of the chapter. An opening story from a variety of sources serves as an engaging start for the chapter and also presents a strand from the rich thematic core of the chapter’s discussion. Boxes Five kinds of boxes appear throughout the book. Each kind has a separate role in helping you explore and understand different dimensions and key issues related to history learning and teaching. to history learning and teaching. Numerous important concepts and terms used by historians (sometimes drawn from different disciplines) such as state, tribe, class, and caste are explained with their specific and complex meaning in KEY CONCEPTS. This helps in using these terms and concepts with greater clarity and appropriateness, and in gaining a better idea of the inherent interdisciplinary nature of history. KEY CONCEPTS Lineage, clan, tribe Historians use several sociological terms and concepts while describing ancient cultures. Kinship refers to socially and culturally recognized relationships among people, commonly assumed to be based on natural or biological ties. These ties may be based on birth/descent (con-lineal or agnatic. Unilineal kinship systems which recognize descent through the mother are known as matrilineal. Multi-lineal or cognatic systems are those in which descent through both the mother and father is recognized. In both patrilineal and matrilineal systems, Learning about the original sources of history, and how they are interpreted, makes history truly exciting. Familiarity with primary sources is an integral part of the appreciation and evaluation of historical theories and arguments. The PRIMARY SOURCES boxes provide you with descriptions and illustrations of archaeological source material, interesting information about literary sources and their authors, and many translated excerpts from original texts and inscriptions. PRIMARY SOURCES The analysis of ancient plant remains The study of ancient plant remains is known as palaeobotany or archaeobotany. Botanical remains from ancient sites often include macro-  botanical remains such as seeds or grains. These can get preserved through desiccation, waterlog-analysed under microscopes to determine what types of plants they represent and whether these were wild or domesticated. Plant remains can also take the form of micro-botanical remains. Tiny particles History is full of debates on various issues. We intersperse our macro-level main narrative in the book with a more detailed look at specific issues. FURTHER DISCUSSION boxes enrich your understanding of the multi-layeredness of our past, and the need to be ready to move beyond generalities and on-the-surface narratives, to closer, more detailed investigations. FURTHER DISCUSSION Female figurines—ordinary women or goddesses? At one time, scholars tended to use the ‘Mother Goddess’ label for all female figurines found at sites. This was largely because of the belief that the worship of fertility goddesses was an important part of agricultural societ-In the light of such problems, the term ‘Mother Goddess’ should be replaced by the longer but more neutral phrase— ‘female figurines with likely cultic significance.’ This does not mean that none of these figurines might have had a reli- Historical knowledge is constantly growing. New discoveries can often radically change our understanding of the past. RECENT DISCOVERIES boxes direct attention to new exciting discoveries, the people and circumstances related to these discoveries, and how these discoveries have made an impact on our understanding of India’s early past. RECENT DISCOVERIES  Isampur: a centre of stone tool manufacture Isampur (Gulbarga district, Karnataka) is a village located in the north- western part of the Hunsgi valley, drained by a small seasonal stream known as the Kamta Halla. The palaeolithic site lies about 2 km north-west of the village, close to large flakes, and debitage (waste material). The main tool types were chopping tools, knives, handaxes, cleavers, and scrapers. While unfinished tools occurred in large numbers, there were relatively few finished ones. Hammer stones of dif- While it is important for you to be aware of new historical research, this research is often not easily accessible. NEW DIRECTIONS IN RESEARCH boxes bridge the gap between students and researchers by presenting samples of interesting new research, and by explaining their methodology and results in a clear and straight- forward way. This exposes you to new trends in history writing, and provides a sense of the constantly changing understandings of the past. NEW DIRECTIONS IN RESEARCH Pictures on stone Pictures made on granite rocks can be seen in many places in Karnataka and Andhra at sites such as Kupgal, Piklihal, and Maski. They are difficult to date, but a rough chronology can be worked out on the basis of style, content, and weather-are also people standing in a chain-like formation, usually interpreted as dancers. Other less frequently occurring motifs include the elephant, tiger, deer, buffalo, birds, footprints, and abstract designs. In general, the scenes tend to be small Maps, Photographs, and Figures Moving ahead from dreary text-based history writing in India, Ancient and Early Medieval India has over 450 illustrations—maps, photographs, and sketches— that bring history alive. History becomes an exciting exploration when we can visually situate our learning, and appreciate the richness of our subcontinental past and culture. Maps are one of the most important tools for a history student. Note the use of legends and captions, different colours for topographical and elevation details, a scale to give an idea of respective distances, and the use of latitude and longitude coordinates to show the location of the mapped area. Over 350 photographs of various artefacts, such as stone tools, terracottas, pottery, and coins, excavated sites, temples, and sculptures, enliven the text. Chert burin Chert core Period IV: stamped and incised red ware  SEE CHAPTER 8, P. 28 FOR MORE DETAILS ON THE MAHAYANA AND HINAYANA SCHOOLS. The first connected life story of the Buddha occurs in the Nidanakatha (1st century). The Pali or Sri Lankan chronicles—the Dipavamsa (4th-5th century) and the Mahavamsa In order to help you follow a certain idea in detail, or to follow a topic dealt with in different chapters, cross references are provided in the margins. These are indicated by a cross reference icon with relevant page numbers. www.pearsoned.co.in/upindersingh Photographs of Harappan sites and artefacts Allahdino is a small (1.4 ha) unfortified village site of the Harappan civilization, about 40 km east of Karachi. Houses made of mud-brick, often resting on stone foundations, were laid out in a west–south-west to east– north-east orientation. A large multi-roomed building on a large mud-brick platform in the north-eastern part of the excavated area seems to have had some special significance. Another building was associated with three wells. The wells at A Web supplement available on www.pearsoned.co.in/upindersingh contains additional material such as extracts from original sources, photographs, and points for discussion. A Web supplement icon and a short caption indicate the supplementary material available in relation to the discussion in the text. Diacritic marks, used extensively in academic writing, have been avoided to facilitate easy reading. However, the conventionally used systems of transliteration for Sanskrit and Tamil have been provided at the end of the book. Further Readings for various chapters are provided towards the end of the book. They are meant for readers interested in acquiring more detailed information. We hope that this book will prove to be an important contribution towards transforming the way ancient Indian history is taught and learnt. It is our endeavour to constantly improve this book, and we would be glad to receive suggestions from all our readers. Please write to us with your feedback to [email protected]  Introduction Ideas of the Early Indian Past Chapter outline THE MAIN PHYSIOGRAPHIC ZONES OF THE SUBCONTINENT WAYS OF DIVIDING THE INDIAN PAST CHANGING INTERPRETATIONS OF EARLY INDIAN HISTORY NEW HISTORIES, UNWRITTEN HISTORIES  THE RUINS AT BHITA The Puranas describe a universe shaped like an egg, vertically divided into the celestial worlds, earth, and netherworlds. The earth is a flat disc, consisting of seven land masses ( varshas) arranged in concentric circles, alternating with seas of salt water, molasses, wine, butter, curd, milk, and fresh water. Situated in the centre of the earth is Jambudvipa, in whose southernmost part lies Bharatavarsha, the golden Meru mountain rising from its midst. One of several explanations of the name Bharatavarsha connects it with the Bharata people, descendants of the legendary king Bharata, son of Dushyanta and Shakuntala. Cosmography blends with geography in the Puranas. Bharatavarsha is said to consist of nine divisions (khandas), separated from one another by seas. But the mention of its mountains, rivers, and places—some of which can be identified— suggests that the composers of such texts were familiar with various areas of the Indian subcontinent, and perceived them as parts of a larger cultural whole. For people of other lands, the major subcontinental landmark was the Indus, or Sindhu, the mighty river that originates in the Tibetan plateau, flowing 3,200 km south-west across fertile plains before it merges with the Arabian Sea. The words ‘India’, ‘Hindu’, and ‘Hindustan’ originate from the name of this river. Ancient Chinese sources refer to the land of ‘Shen-tu’, Greek texts mention ‘India’, and Persian inscriptions describe ‘Hidu’ as one of the subject countries of the Achaemenid king Darius. These terms initially referred only to the lower Indus valley, but their connotations expanded swiftly. For Megasthenes, who visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya in the 4th century BCE, ‘India’ meant the entire subcontinent. Many centuries later, Arabic and Persian texts used the word ‘Hindustan’ for this vast stretch of land and ‘Hindu’ for its inhabitants. While the idea of the Indian subcontinent forming a distinct geographic and cultural unit is a very old one, its nation-states—India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka—emerged only in recent times. When exploring the ancient history of South Asia, it is necessary to ignore modern political boundaries and to treat the Indian subcontinent and its many regions and sub- regions as a single canvas. The history of the subcontinent is really about the historical trajectories and interactions of these regions and sub-regions, which at certain points of time—during the peak of the Maurya, Mughal, and British empires—attained some measure of political unity. The Main Physiographic Zones of the Subcontinent The Indian subcontinent has fairly well-defined geographical frontiers but enormous ecological diversity. Its climatic patterns are similar to those prevailing in other areas on the same latitude but are significantly modified by prevailing in other areas on the same latitude but are significantly modified by the Himalayas and the Western Ghats. The Himalayas block the icy northern winds from sweeping across the Indo-Gangetic plains in winter as well as the rain-laden monsoon winds from the south-west in summer. The barrier of the Western Ghats similarly leads to rainfall in the western coastal strip. Most of the subcontinent gets its rains from the south-west monsoon, except for the north- west and Sri Lanka, which rely on winter rains. In the north, the subcontinent is bordered by the Himalayas, fairly young fold mountains. The process of their uplift and folding is still going on, making them geologically unstable. The Himalayas can be divided into the western, central, and eastern zones, each with their own specific characteristics. The north- western part of the subcontinent includes the arid mountainous North-West Frontier Province and the Baluchistan province of contemporary Pakistan. Leaving aside the fertile river valleys, this area is not especially suited for agriculture, but the many routes running along its valleys and passes connect the subcontinent with areas lying to its west. Even more arid conditions prevail in the Thar desert of Rajasthan, where low hills and sand dunes rise over the underlying low, rocky plateau. Between the desert and the north-western mountains lies the Sindh province of southern Pakistan, the Indus providing precious water in an area of very low rainfall. The northern course of this river lies in Tibet and Ladakh, and along with its tributaries, it flows through the fertile plains of Indian and Pakistani Punjab. To the east of the Indus is the shrivelled course of a once mighty river, the Ghaggar- Hakra. The fertile northern alluvial plain of the Ganga and its tributaries is another major geographical zone of the subcontinent. The western part of this plain is known as the doab (literally, ‘the land between two rivers’, the Ganga and Yamuna). The middle part of the plains corresponds roughly to the state of Bihar and the eastern part of the state of Uttar Pradesh in modern India. The eastern part includes the delta of the Ganga and Brahmaputra, comprising of modern West Bengal, Assam, and Bangladesh. The Vindhyan ranges separate the northern plains from peninsular India, while the Aravalli hills divide the Thar desert from central India. The Malwa plateau, with its two major rivers, the Narmada and Tapi, lies between the Aravallis and the central Indian mountains. Peninsular India is an old and relatively stable geological formation, its  Peninsular India is an old and relatively stable geological formation, its landscape marked by plateaux, plains, and the fertile valleys of rivers such as the Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari, Pennar, and Kaveri. The Deccan plateau, formed by the lava flows from very ancient volcanoes, constitutes the dominant part of the peninsula. It is bordered by the Eastern and Western Ghats, beyond which are the narrow Coromandal and Malabar–Konkan coastal plains. The Nilgiri, Annamalai, and Cardamom hills lie in the extreme south of the peninsula, which is separated from the island of Sri Lanka by the Mannar strait. The various geographical zones of the subcontinent have never been isolated units. From very early times, human interaction took place through routes cutting across mountains, rivers, and regions, dictated by geographical features and human needs. The Himalayas could be crossed at points such as the Bolan, Gomal, and Khyber passes, and a network of overland routes connected the subcontinent to China, central Asia, West Asia, and Europe. There was also the over 7,500 km long subcontinental coastline, home to numerous fishing and sailing communities from times immemorial, which linked the subcontinent to the larger Indian Ocean world and to areas such as Southeast Asia and the Persian Gulf. The natural landscape has always been an important part of human life, and has affected and influenced people’s thought and action in many ways. The topography, climate, soil, and natural resources of any land influence modes of subsistence, settlement patterns, population density, and trade. Humans have in turn transformed the environment in many ways. Situating the human past in its specific environmental context helps us understand the different rhythms and patterns of cultural development and interactions in the various regions. However, as we will see further on, ecology too has a history and the subcontinental environments of today differ in many respects from those of the past. Ways of Dividing the Indian Past The English word ‘history’ comes from the Greek historia (inquiry or investigation). History is essentially a discipline that inquires into the experiences of people who lived in the past. Historians often classify the past by dividing it into different periods. Labels are convenient, but they should be meaningful and consistent, and it is necessary to be aware of their limitations. MAP 1 THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT For a long time, historians divided Indian history into the Hindu, Muslim, and British periods. However, this classification is flawed and can be questioned on several grounds. For example, is the religious affiliation of the ruling elite the best basis for labelling a period? In that case, why is the third period described as the British and not the Christian period? From when can we start using the term ‘Hindu’ in the context of ancient India. How can it be applied to the reigns of the many ancient Indian kings who patronized Buddhism or Jainism? Did the advent of Muslim rulers create a major rupture in the fabric of Indian society, especially when the sway of these rulers—except at the height of the Mughal empire—did not extend over all or even most of the subcontinent? Due to such reasons, most historians have discarded the Hindu–Muslim– British periodization of the Indian past in favour of a more neutral classification into the ancient, early medieval, medieval, and modern periods. The dividing lines may vary, but the ancient period can be considered as stretching roughly from the earliest times to the 6th century CE; the early medieval from the 6th to the 13th centuries; the medieval from the 13th to the 18th centuries; and the modern from the 18th century to the present. The current use of these terms shifts the focus away from religious labels towards patterns of significant socio- economic changes. The ancient or earliest parts of the human past can be further divided into prehistory and history. The enormously long period before the invention of writing and the study of that period are known as prehistory. The part of the past that comes after the invention of writing, and the study of that part of the past (i.e., of literate societies) constitute what is considered history. A language consists of spoken symbols of communication. A script, or writing, is a system of visual communication using signs or symbols associated with specific meanings or sounds, written down on some surface. Human beings used languages long before they invented scripts. The cuneiform script of Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq) was invented in c. 3400 BCE and Egyptian hieroglyphics in c. 3100 BCE. In the Indian subcontinent, the earliest substantial evidence of writing is associated with the Harappan civilization and dates from c. 2600 BCE, but recent discoveries push back the origins of the script to the second half of the 4th millennium BCE. The ancient Mesopotamians pressed letters onto moist clay tablets, while the ancient Egyptians wrote on papyrus sheets made of reeds. The Harappan script is mostly found on seals and sealings. But apart from the specimens of writing that have actually survived, it can be assumed that people must have written on perishable material as well. Writing marked a new stage in human expression and communication. It opened new possibilities for storing and transmitting ideas and knowledge across distance and time. Its impact was complex and varied. Rulers used writing to advertise and exercise power, merchants to record business transactions, priests to preserve religious texts, and poets to give permanence to their creative expression. We can speculate about the precise impulses that led to the invention of writing, but all over the world (with a few exceptions) it coincided with the emergence of cities and states. For these reasons, historians consider the beginning of writing an important watershed in the story of ancient cultures. However, in a situation where relatively few people knew how to read or write, writing gave a certain power and privilege to those who knew it and denied it to those who did not. Further, the invention of writing did not mean the end of oral transmission. The spoken word has always held a special significance in many cultural traditions, and this significance continued even after manuscripts of texts came to be made. Oral versions of many written texts continued to circulate and often had a far greater outreach and impact. The beginning of writing is also an important watershed in the study of the past because written evidence becomes available to the historian. Nevertheless, it must be remembered that such evidence covers only a very small portion of the human past. The past before writing (prehistory) and the history of non-literate people who did not leave behind written sources are also extremely important and have to be recovered. And even when written sources are available, archaeological sources continue to be important for historians. In the Indian subcontinent, the story of writing is a bit complicated. Although the Harappans were a literate people, their script has not yet been deciphered. So historians cannot use the written material they left behind to reconstruct their history. Another mystery is: what happened to writing after the decline of the Harappan civilization in c. 1900 BCE? While it is possible that people continued to write, although on perishable material, there are hardly any surviving specimens of writing between c. 1900 BCE till we come to the 4th century BCE. The oldest script in the subcontinent is the Harappan script, but the oldest deciphered script is Brahmi, known from about the 4th century BCE, and the two scripts seem to be quite different. For these reasons, it is not easy to draw the dividing line between history and prehistory in India and the term protohistory is useful. This word carries different meanings. In the European context, it is sometimes used to refer to people who did not themselves have writing, but who are mentioned in the written records of a contemporary literate group. In the Indian subcontinent, the Harappan civilization—a literate culture with an undeciphered script—is included in protohistory. This term can also include the period c. 1500–500 BCE, for which there is an orally transmitted literature (the Vedas), but no evidence of writing. Archaeologists often use the word protohistory for the long period between the beginning of food production and the advent of iron technology. This would include neolithic and chalcolithic cultures in different parts of the subcontinent. The subcontinent is a huge geographical area, and the transition to literacy did not take place everywhere at the same time. For instance, areas outside the literate Harappan zone were inhabited by non-literate people. Going by the earliest surviving samples of deciphered writing, the beginning of the historical period in north India would have to be placed in the 4th century BCE. However, it can be presumed that this writing had a history on perishable material, one that must go back to at least the 6th century BCE. Lists of historical kings and philosophers of this century are available for parts of north India. Considering all these factors, there is a good case for placing the beginning of the historical period in north India in the 6th century BCE. The evidence of 4th century BCE Brahmi inscriptions from Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka, 2nd century BCE Tamil– Brahmi inscriptions, and the political history reflected in Sangam literature suggest that the transition to the historical period in South India occurred some time between the 4th and 2nd centuries BCE. Of course, if the Harappan script is deciphered some day, the dates for the beginning of the historical period in northern India will have to be pushed back to the 3rd millennium BCE, or even earlier. Changing Interpretations of Early Indian History The historiography (the scholarly activity of constructing and writing history) of ancient and early medieval India reveals many significant changes over time; these can be understood against the background of the political and intellectual contexts in which they emerged and flourished. The various ‘schools’ of history writing are often presented and understood in terms of one school making way for the other in a neat, forward progression. The reality is, however, much more complex. There was considerable variety within the various schools; some of them co-existed (and still do so) in dialogue or conflict with each other, and there are many examples of writings that go against the grain and do not easily fit into the dominant historiographical trends of their time. HARAPPAN WRITING ON SEAL EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS  MESOPOTAMIAN CUNEIFORM The 18th and 19th centuries were dominated by the writings of European scholars, usually referred to as the Orientalists or Indologists, although they often described themselves as ‘antiquarians’. Many of them were employees of the East India Company and later, the British Government of India. The founding of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1784 provided an institutional focus for scholars working in a number of related fields such as textual study, epigraphy, numismatics, and history. A major contribution of the Indologists lay in their efforts to collect, edit, and translate ancient Indian texts. In this, they depended heavily on information provided by ‘native informants’, whose contribution was rarely acknowledged. Indology soon spread beyond the confines of the British empire and became a subject of study in European universities. Apart from the study of ancient texts, the 19th century also witnessed important developments in the field of epigraphy, numismatics, archaeology, and the study of art and architecture. The decipherment of the Ashokan Brahmi and Kharoshthi scripts were major breakthroughs. The analysis of coins contributed to the construction of a framework of political history. Officers of the Geological Survey discovered prehistoric stone tools and laid the basis of Indian prehistory. The Archaeological Survey of India was established in 1871, and over the succeeding decades, this institution made an important contribution towards unearthing and analysing the material remains of India’s past. The contributions and breakthroughs of the 18th and 19th centuries were rooted in a colonial context, and this is evident in certain features of Indological rooted in a colonial context, and this is evident in certain features of Indological writing. The Brahmanical perspective of ancient Sanskrit texts was often uncritically taken as reflecting the Indian past. Social and religious institutions and traditions were critiqued from a Western viewpoint. Indian society was presented as static and its political systems unwaveringly despotic over the centuries. Race, religion, and ethnicity were often confused with each other and there was a tendency to exaggerate the impact of foreign influence on ancient India. This is the time when the classification of the Indian past into the Hindu, Muslim, and British periods took root. R. C. MAJUMDAR (1888–1980), A LEADING HISTORIAN OF THE NATIONALIST SCHOOL Indian scholars of the late 19th and first half of the 20th centuries made major contributions towards constructing a connected narrative of ancient India. Writing against the background of an emergent, and later increasingly strong, national movement, these historians are generally referred to as Nationalist historians. They were responsible for meticulously weaving together data from texts, inscriptions, coins, and other material remains to amplify the contours of the ancient Indian past. Especially important contributions were made in the field of political history. South India was brought into the narrative and the study of regional polities progressed. The nationalist tinge in the writings of these scholars can be seen in their  The nationalist tinge in the writings of these scholars can be seen in their insistence on the indigenous roots of all major cultural developments. It is also reflected in their search for golden ages, which led to their exalting the age of the Vedas and the Gupta empire. Non-monarchical polities were discovered and were celebrated to counter the idea that India had never known anything but despotic rule. The periodization of the Indian past into the Hindu, Muslim, and British periods was, however, retained. It coalesced with a communal tendency to valorize the ‘Hindu period’ and to project the advent of the Turks and Islam as a calamity and tragedy. The 1950s saw the emergence of Marxist historiography, which went on to play an extremely influential role in the construction of the history of ancient and early medieval India. In the long run, the major achievement of Marxist historians was to shift the focus from an event-centred history dominated by political narrative to the delineation of social and economic structures and processes, especially those related to class stratification and agrarian relations. Marxist historiography also contributed towards uncovering the history of non- elite groups, some of whom had suffered centuries of subordination and marginalization. While making these valuable interventions and contributions, Marxist writings often tended to work with unilinear historical models derived from Western historical and anthropological writings. Texts were sometimes read uncritically, with insufficient attention paid to their problematic chronology and peculiarities of genre. Archaeological data was included, but the basic framework of the historical narrative remained text centric. Initially, the focus on class meant less attention to other bases of social stratification such as caste and gender. Religion and culture were often sidelined or mechanically presented as reflections of socio-economic structures. www.pearsoned.co.in/upindersingh EXCERPTS FROM ORIENTALIST, NATIONALIST, AND MARXIST WRITINGS ON ANCIENT INDIA  Despite their important differences, the major historiographical schools also shared some similarities, for instance, in their emphasis on Brahmanical Sanskrit texts and their tendency to marginalize archaeological evidence. Certain tenets of all these schools continue to thrive in the present. Some of the fundamental premises and methods of Orientalist historiography continue to hold their ground and histories of Third World countries such as India remain Eurocentric in many respects. Appeals to the ancient and early medieval past are still often dictated by nationalist or communalist agendas. Marxist historiography continues to be an influential force in early Indian historiography. D. D. KOSAMBI (1907–66), A PIONEER OF MARXIST HISTORIOGRAPHY A few other aspects of the large volume of historical research of the last 50 years or so can be identified and cited here. New theoretical perspectives, scientific techniques, and a continuing growth in the volume of archaeological data have been transforming our understanding of the early Indian past, especially with regard to subsistence practices, technology, and human interaction with the environment. Palaeo-environmental studies have directed attention to the changing ecology of the different regions and its impact on human life; these important issues are likely to increasingly engage the attention of scholars. Investigations of archival material have begun to reveal in unprecedented detail the complex stories of the people, institutions, and ideas unprecedented detail the complex stories of the people, institutions, and ideas involved in the construction of archaeological knowledge. Such studies also reflect the need to break the disciplinary divides between the ‘ancient’ and the ‘modern’ (and all that lies in between) by inquiring into issues such as the modern histories of ancient sites and monuments. The research of a small group of historians (mostly women) working on gender relations has radically altered the frontiers of early Indian social history. The focus on gender has involved much more than simply inserting women into history. Breaking away from the traditional ‘position of women’ mould, it has asked new questions, broken the artificial divide between the private and political domains, and revealed the power hierarchies within the family and the household. The most important achievement of this line of research is that it has demonstrated the close relationship between gender and hierarchies based on class, caste, and political power. A significant feature of recent historiography of the early medieval period is the detailed study of the changing profiles and configurations of regions and sub- regions. Based on careful empirical examination of epigraphic and textual sources, these studies have identified changes in political, economic, and social structures, with a special focus on agrarian relations and the legitimation of political power. In doing so, they have revealed the varied historical textures and trajectories in different parts of the Indian subcontinent in early medieval times. A critical understanding of historiography, one which recognizes the contributions and limitations of past and present ideological and theoretical frameworks, is essential in order to understand where the history of ancient and early medieval India stands today. However, the major advances of the future are likely to be the result of questioning and thinking beyond the boundaries of existing historiographical positions and methodologies. New Histories, Unwritten Histories History is not one but many stories, only a few of which have as yet been written. The challenges to build on the advances that have already been achieved so far are many. Currently, there are two parallel images of ancient South Asia— one based on literary sources, the other on archaeology. Texts and archaeology generate different sorts of historical narratives and suggest different rhythms of cultural continuity, transition, and change. Historians generally use cultural continuity, transition, and change. Historians generally use archaeological evidence selectively as a corroborative source when it matches hypotheses based on their interpretation of texts. Archaeologists, for their part, have not adequately explored the historical implications of the available archaeological data. Correlations between literature and archaeology tend to be simplistic and devoid of careful reflection on methodology. We need to seriously consider whether, given their inherent differences, textual and archaeological evidence can be integrated, or whether we should simply aim at juxtaposition. The old tradition of extracting supposedly self-evident ‘facts’ from literary sources needs to be replaced by an approach that is more sensitive to their genre, texture, and cadence. However, in view of the information and insights offered by rapidly growing archaeological data, historical narratives can no longer afford to remain text-centric. A more sophisticated approach towards textual study has to be accompanied by a proper incorporation of archaeological evidence. This will lead towards a more nuanced image of ancient India. It will reveal the complexities and diversities of cultural processes in the various regions, and will incorporate the ordinary and everyday into our understanding of the ancient past. Histories of early India should ideally represent the various regions and communities of the subcontinent in all their diversity. However, while the heartlands of great empires and kingdoms are well represented, many regions— for instance the North-East—are not. Such regions have to be brought into the ambit of history. Bringing more people into history also requires further initiatives towards uncovering the past of groups who have been subordinated and marginalized for centuries, such as the labouring poor, lower castes, and tribal communities. This is not easy, given the fact that a great proportion of the source material available to historians has been created by elite groups and therefore reflects their ideas and interests. Nevertheless, the past of people who have been hidden from history has to be uncovered and written, and these histories must become an integral part of the narrative of the ancient Indian past. Explorations of gender, the family, and the household need to be pushed further and have to become part of larger social histories. Issues and institutions such as the family, class, varna, and jati need to be viewed from long-term perspectives, showing how the different bases of social identity intersected and changed over time. India’s varied and complex cultural traditions are also in need of urgent attention. Interestingly, while these continue to be the focus of intensive research attention. Interestingly, while these continue to be the focus of intensive research among scholars working in South Asian studies, religious studies, and art history departments abroad, they have in recent decades remained somewhat marginal to mainstream historical writing in India. Indian historians have often tended to treat religious cults and traditions primarily as ideologies reflecting social and political power structures of the time. It must be recognized that the many different strands of religious thought and practice are an important aspect of history in their own right and need thorough investigation. This also applies to the history of ideas and the aesthetic dimensions of the Indian past reflected in literature, art, and architecture. Our understanding of the history of the subcontinent tends to be far too insular, and much greater attention needs to be paid to its relationships with other areas, especially East Asia and Southeast Asia. Apart from examining trade networks, there is a need to try to explore and understand the complexities of the cultural transactions between the different parts of Asia. These transactions are reflected not only in textual evidence, but also in a rich and exciting storehouse of material evidence in the form of inscriptions, sculpture, and architecture. There is a close relationship between history and identity; the past has, therefore, always been a contested terrain. In contemporary India, the ancient past is invoked in different ways in political discourse, including propaganda with chauvinistic or divisive agendas. There are debates over the state’s right to project and propagate certain interpretations of the past through school textbooks. Communities frequently take offence at things written about them in historians’ scholarly writings. In such a charged and intolerant atmosphere, there are several dangers—of the deliberate manipulation and distortion of the past to achieve political ends, of historical hypotheses being judged on the basis of their political implications rather than their academic merit, and of historians being criticized for writing objective history. The need for defining and enlarging a liberal academic space which nurtures level-headed dialogue and debate has perhaps never been greater. Aside from its role in current identity politics, ancient history is often considered distant, difficult to relate to, even irrelevant to our times and concerns. However, if we look carefully enough, we will in fact find that the roots of some of the social practices, institutions, and ideas of the present lie in the remote past. But even more interesting than the things that are familiar are those that are startlingly different. The most important thing that history can do is to teach us to think historically. It can make us realize that human experiences are diverse and complex; and it can make us aware of the many entangled threads of continuity and change that connect the present to the past. No less important is the fact that the story of the past contains much that is interesting and exciting. That in itself is enough justification for reading and writing history.  Chapter One Understanding Literary and Archaeological Sources Chapter outline READING ANCIENT TEXTS FROM A HISTORICAL POINT OF VIEW ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE EARLY INDIAN PAST EPIGRAPHY: THE STUDY OF INSCRIPTIONS NUMISMATICS: THE STUDY OF COINS CONCLUSIONS  A 12TH CENTURY MANUSCRIPT OF THE PRAJNAPARAMITA In 1148 CE Kalhana, a man with literary and scholarly ambitions, began writing a book. Kalhana belonged to a well-connected Brahmana family of Kashmir. His father Chanpaka was at one time closely associated with the royal court, but by the time Kalhana was born, the family had fallen out of favour. Kalhana worked hard for two years, recording local traditions and examining manuscripts, chronicles, inscriptions, coins, and monuments. He drew on his family members’ political experience and his personal observation of events that were unfolding in his own lifetime. The book was completed in 1150 CE and was titled Rajatarangini (River of Kings). Consisting of eight cantos, each called a taranga (wave), it gave a connected account of the kings of Kashmir from the early ones of legend to the historical rulers of the 12th century. Kalhana is often described as India’s first historian. He asserts in the Rajatarangini that a person who recounts the events of the past must do so like a judge, without bias or prejudice. However, his book does not always distinguish between fact and legend, and often explains events by citing fate. It is not surprising that there are differences in perspective between a 12th century historian such as Kalhana and historians of more recent times. Moreover, Kalhana considered himself primarily a gifted and skilful poet, one who could make pictures of the past come vividly alive. He described the natural beauty of Kashmir with pride and feeling, wove lively character sketches, and gave dramatic descriptions of political events. The past, like the present, is complex and can be looked at from many perspectives. There can never be a single, final, perfect history. There can never be a complete or exact picture of what happened in the past; the task of the historian is to bring us as close as possible to such a picture. Historical analysis involves carefully examining the available sources of information, searching for fresh evidence, and devising creative, innovative ways of interpreting historical data. It involves asking new questions and searching for new answers to old ones. Debate and disagreement are an important part of the growth of all forms of knowledge, and history is no exception. All historical interpretations are ultimately based on evidence derived from the sources of history, conventionally divided into two categories—literary and archaeological. From a historian’s point of view, literary sources include all texts—long or short, written or oral; archaeological sources include all tangible, material remains. But these distinctions are not absolute. All remains of the past, including literary manuscripts, are actually material in nature. And certain kinds of archaeological sources which have writing on them—inscriptions, coins, and inscribed images—can be considered both material objects and texts. The ways in which historians have used different kinds of sources to construct the history of ancient and early medieval India will become clear as you read this book. This chapter gives a broad overview of the major sources, highlighting their general features, and the important issues that have to be kept in mind while using them as windows to the past. Reading Ancient Texts from a Historical Point of View All literary works are connected to the historical contexts in which they are produced and in which they circulate. However, an ancient text does not necessarily offer a simple or direct reflection of the society of its time. It constitutes a complex representation of that society and a refracted image of the past. Information has to be teased out with care, skill, and ingenuity to make historical inferences. Many early religious texts were not primarily meant to be read but to be recited, heard, and performed. They were passed on orally from one generation to the next, even after they were available in the form of written manuscripts. PRIMARY SOURCES Ancient palm leaf manuscripts Paper was invented in China in the 3rd century BCE. New techniques led to its increasing use and by the 4th century, paper had replaced bamboo strips as standard material for writing in that country. Wood block printing probably began during the rule of the Sui dynasty (581–618 CE) and became popular during the Tang period (618–907 CE). In India, on the other hand, traditional writing materials and methods continued to be used for many centuries. Ancient Indian manuscripts were often made with palm leaves. Here is a description of how such manuscripts (known as talapatra in Sanskrit, olai in Tamil) were usually made: The leaf used was either from the talipot palm (Corypha umbraculifera; tali in both Sanskrit and Tamil) or palmyra palm (Borassus flabelliformis, Sanskrit tala, Tamil panai). The talipot leaf is larger, thinner, and more flexible and durable than that of the palmyra. Talipot leaves may measure about 90 × 8–9 cm, and the palmyra ones about 50 × 3–4 cm. The selected leaves were cut to the right shape and size. They were then pierced in one, two, or three places (on the left, middle, and right top). A string was woven through these holes, and then wound around the leaves. One end of the string was knotted or was tied to a small object (e.g., a shell, wooden peg, or button) to prevent it from slipping out of the holes. The cover of the palm leaf manuscript was made of wood, dry palm petioles, or in rare cases, ivory. The writer engraved letters on the leaf with a stylus (a pointed, pen-like object). The leaf was then smeared with soot or powdered charcoal mixed with vegetable juice, so that the black mixture filled the grooves and the writing was easy to read. The letters ran parallel to the length of the leaves. In some cases where the leaf was very long or when the text was in verse, the words were written in two or three columns. If there was a commentary, it was usually written above, below, or sometimes around the text. Page was usually written above, below, or sometimes around the text. Page numbers were often given in the right margin. Palm leaf manuscripts had to be stored very carefully as they were vulnerable to many natural hazards such as heat, insects, water, fungus, dust, and fire as well as the danger of destruction by human hands. Scribes kept the manuscript tradition alive by repeatedly making copies of old manuscripts. This vibrant tradition started declining around the 19th century with the coming of the printing press. There are special techniques for treating and preserving old palm leaf manuscripts. First, the manuscript is fumigated or treated with insecticides (e.g., thymol, chloromate solution, formaldehyde, phosphene gas, or ethylene oxide). The leaves are then cleaned using solvents such as water, detergents, or ethyl alcohol. Next, any split, broken, or damaged portions are repaired. This can be done using special, thin paper and a water soluble mixture including small quantities of polyvinyl acetate and methyl cellulose. Once the repairs are complete, the leaves are oiled to make them flexible and polished gently with a soft, dry cloth. They can then be restrung and the covers attached. The repaired manuscript has to be stored carefully so that it is protected from any fresh damage. The discovery, preservation, and care of ancient manuscripts are crucial parts of the preservation of the historical heritage. There are thousands of old manuscripts in various part