Developmental Psychology Lecture Notes PDF

THURSDAY'S DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 15 November 2024 13:56 Ms. Jo Christine Scicluna LESSON 1- DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY LESSON 1: DEVELOPMENT...

THURSDAY'S DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 15 November 2024 13:56 Ms. Jo Christine Scicluna LESSON 1- DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY LESSON 1: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY TOPIC 1: BASIC ISSUES IN THE STUDY OF DEVELOPMENT Introduction to developmental psychology: History, Basic Issues, Theories, and Research Methods in Child Development TOPIC 1: BASIC ISSUES IN THE STUDY OF DEVELOPMENT INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY History  Introduction to developmental psychology Sources of Help in the Past: History Parish priests, family elders (e.g., great-grandparents/parents), or local figures responsible for burials during high infant mortality periods. Basic Issues (perspectives on developmental Advice was often loose and based on old wives' tales.  Theories of development Shift to Expertise:  Research methods in child developmental Freud’s influence marked the transition to scientific approaches. Early 20th century: Parenting magazines introduced theories like Freud’s. Parents began consulting pediatricians and psychologists instead of older adults. INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: Child Development as a Science John Watson (1878–1958): HISTORY Behaviorist advocating strict feeding/sleep schedules and no emotional displays while children are awake. Promoted rigid, orderly parenting contrary to American traditions. Who did people used to go for help? Dr. Benjamin Spock (1903–1990): Opposed Watson, emphasizing affection and avoiding conflicts over weaning/toilet training. Parish priests Advocated natural eating/sleeping habits and minimal parental control. Modern views: Watson seen as rigid, Spock as indulgent. Current Trends: The family members → The Great Grandparents or Parents (people who are older). Parents increasingly rely on the internet, with no dominant expert voice. The Person in the village who either used to bury the children → This was important as infant mortality was high. What Does Developmental Psychology Study? The advice they gave them was often very loose and based on old wife's tales. Identifies variables influencing development and their interactions. Explains, describes, and predicts age-related changes in behavior, cognition, emotions, and relationships. At some point, Mr. Freud came long. Key Issues in Development Attachment and Resilience Attachment: Critical for healthy psychological development but reparable later in life if disrupted. CHILD DEVELOPMENT AS A SCIENCE Resilience: Key to navigating life’s challenges, influenced by the environment. Parental pre- occupation with 'expert' child rearing started in the early 20th century, when magazines starting publishing articles on child- rearing that referred to Life Stages and Societal Constructs theories such as Freud's. Life progresses from birth (silence → squeaks → screams) to growth, decline, and eventual acceptance of death. Fear and shame are societal constructs. Shame, especially, is damaging to both children and adults. Parents stated turning to paediatricians and psychologists for advice, rather than to grandparents and older adults. Class Discussions: Parental Authority Post-Loss: Remaining parent must maintain stability after the other parent’s death. Avoiding “Why” Questions: Ask what is happening, what led to it, and feelings instead. John Watson (1878-1958) Adverse Events Scale: Helps identify traumatic influences on development. Prediction: Planning for a child’s future and understanding behavioral changes during adolescence. He was a behaviourist. He believed in strict feeding and sleeping regimen, no love when children are awake. Cognitive Distortions: Personal Fable He advocated rigid feeding schedules for infants and an orderly approach to child rearing, going against American parenting traditions. Teens feel invulnerable due to a cognitive distortion known as the "Personal Fable." Emotional development differs with age (e.g., toddlers lie to avoid trouble; older children develop perspective-taking). Dr. Benjamin Spock’s (1903-1990) LESSON 2: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Child Development: A Definition Radically if views ebbed Watson’s popularity, becoming fashionable in the 1950’s. Orderly, enduring changes in physical/neurological structures, thoughts, and behaviors over time. Development progresses from simple (rolling) to complex (walking) behaviors, typically improving stability, competence, and efficiency. Influenced by Freud, he urged parents not to engage in conflicts over issues such as weaning and toilet training, and to display affection to their children. Brain Development: You shall allow the child to eat when he wants to eat and sleep when he wants to sleep. Let them do what they usually do. At birth: Hindbrain (basic functions like heartbeat) is fully developed; Frontal lobe (higher functions) is not. Today Watson’s views are seen as emotionally cold and excessively rigid, while Spock’s recommendations as overly indulgent. First Communication Steps: 1. Eye Contact 2. Mimicking Parents are increasingly turning to the internet for help, where no single ‘expert’ voice predominates. 3. Turn-Taking Language Development: WHAT DOES DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY STUDY 2–3 months: Cooing. Next: Babbling (patterned). First Words: Holophrases (one-word phrases). Developmental science seeks to identify variables that influence development and to explain how they work together to shape an individual's life, Telegraphic Speech: Two-word phrases with implied meaning (e.g., “biscuit mama”). Neologisms: Made-up words, often creative but not related to articulation. Scientists develop theories and conduct research aimed at describing, explaining and predicting age- related changes in behaviour, thinking, emotions, and social relationships. Three Broad Goals in Child Development: 1. Universal Changes: Understanding cultural and experiential constants. 2. Individual Differences: Explaining preferences and reactions (e.g., why one child enjoys solitude while another craves company). TOPIC 1: BASIC ISSUES IN THE STUDY OF DEVELOPMENT 3. Environmental Influences: How context, both immediate and cultural, shapes behavior. Attachment is the capacity of 2 humans being attuned, most important factor of healthy psychological development. Children’s Needs: 1. Structure: Knowing what to expect. Attachment is repelative, if they were disorganized (my mother gave me away or died at 2) doesn’t mean you will do bad in life, the capacity to attach can happen 2. Routine: Provides stability and normalcy. later on in life. 3. Predictability: Helps children plan and feel secure. Resilience is what will get us through life…. The environment will make an impact. Perspectives on Development AEROS AND TANATOS Nature vs. Nurture: Nature: Hereditary traits (e.g., addiction, dimples, freckles). How we go through life → In the beginning there is silence then a little squeak then there is screaming. Nurture: Environmental factors shaping biological/psychological experiences (e.g., language). The voice along the way deepens and matures then turns into a croak and comes death. The body grows then sinks, The hair falls out, teeth rotten then there is ○ Idealists/Rationalists: Knowledge is inborn (Plato, Descartes). when the acceptance of death happens. ○ Empiricists: Mind is a blank slate, shaped by experience (John Locke). What created fear and shame? Society- They are socially constructed. Pre- and Post-Birth Factors Affecting Development Shame is societal and shame is the worst thing you can do to a child or even adult. Before Birth: Stress, trauma, maternal diet, substance use (e.g., Thalidomide, malnutrition). After Birth: Things discussed in Class: Abuse, neglect, postnatal depression, intergenerational trauma. Examples: Lead exposure, cerebral palsy, failure to thrive (emotional deprivation). It is very important for the child to know the remaining parent is in charge, the world as I know it has not fallen apart. (If a parent has died young) ‘I cannot remember what my mothers voice sounded like or her face’. Drip feed system → Don’t feed the child too much information. Brain and Psychology: Neurogeneration: Brain cells die without regeneration. Never ask a child ‘Why?’ Sometimes you don’t know why are sad yourself. So ‘why’ is never helpful. It is better to ask ‘What is happening, What happens Neuroplasticity: Brain rewires itself through learning and experience. before and after, how does it make you feel’ Cerebral Palsy Causes: The variable that influenced the development. Prenatal: Infection or lack of oxygen. Postnatal: Trauma (e.g., falls, drowning). Child’s Adverse Events Scale- It tells you what the child went through. LESSON 3: DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY PREDICTION- Prediction is important because it helps you plan the future. You predict so you plan. 2. SEQUENCES AND STAGES PREDICTING- What will happen to this child if the trauma is not resolved. How does behaviour change from 13 to 16. Continuity vs. Discontinuity Continuous Development: Gradual accumulation of skills (quantitative change). Discontinuous Development: New ways of responding emerge in pre-determined stages (qualitative change). Gait: Refers to the way someone walks. Issues like ataxia involve the cerebellum. PERSONAL FABLE- COGNITIVE DISTORTION 3. INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT Eg. Why do teens think they are invulnerable to danger? Maturation (Arnold Gesell): Genetically programmed, universal, sequential patterns. Personal Fable-Cognitive Distortion → distorts reality→ believing you won’t die as a teen, this is a cognitive distortion, makes you live life thinking in this case Relatively impervious to environmental influences. in adolescence that you are invulnerable to danger. Examples: Menarche is universal and relatively unaffected by the environment. Timing of Experience Theory DEVELOPMENT OF EMOTIONS→ The way a 3 year old processes information is not the same way as a 40 year old. Critical Periods: Specific experiences during a defined time are essential for development (e.g., ducks imprinting within 72 hours). For an example a 2 year old can’t have the sense of envy or lie? So why do children lie? Not to get in trouble. So people lie when they know they will upset the Sensitive Periods: Development is optimal but not impossible outside this window (e.g., language acquisition). other person for an example telling your mother you broke the vase. That’s why children with moderate autism won’t understand or know how to lie Prenatal, Perinatal, Postnatal Risks: Prenatal: Cerebral palsy. PERSPECTIVE TAKING. Perinatal: Anoxia. Postnatal: Accidents, meningitis. Inborn Biases and Constraints Theory: LESSON 2- DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Development is guided by pre-existing biases or constraints (e.g., unsupported objects fall). Experiences are filtered through these biases. Behaviour Genetics Theory: CHILD DEVELOPMENT: A DEFINITION Focus on genetic contributions to individual behaviour using twin and adoption studies. Genetic predispositions influence temperament and pathology. Development is defined as orderly and relatively enduring changes over time in physical and neurological structures, thought processes and behaviour. Gene-Environment Interaction Theory: 1. Genes affect environment (e.g., parents' genes shape home environment). In the first 20 years of life, these changes usually result in new, improved ways of reacting, that is in behaviour that is healthier, better organised, more complex, 2. Child’s behaviour impacts adult responses. more stable, more competent or more efficient. 3. Child interprets experiences through inherited tendencies. Internal Models of Experience: Core ideas about self and relationships filter all future experiences. We speak of advances from creeping to walking, from babbling to talking, or from concrete to abstract thinking as a result of development. Core values (e.g., "I am loved") are shaped in the first 3–4 years through perception and interaction. In each such instance, we judge the later- appearing state to be a more adequate way of functioning than the earlier one. 4. ASLIN’S MODEL OF ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE 1. Maturation: Purely genetic (e.g., eye colour). Once a change happens usually it continues, it progresses. 2. Maintenance: Requires environmental input to sustain a skill (e.g., swimming). 3. Facilitation: Experience accelerates skill development but with no permanent gain (e.g., early language exposure). There is an eary pattern in development for example rolling, sitting eventually they will walk alone. Simple behaviour happens first and more complex behaviours 4. Attunement: Experience leads to permanent gains (e.g., reading proficiency). latter on. This is how development usually occurs. It happens gradually not instantly. 5. Induction: Purely environmental; behaviour only develops if exposed (e.g., piano playing). Is the brain fully formed at Birth? → NO →Which part? → THE FRONTAL LOBE → Which is needed for higher order skills, higher brain functions. 5. THE ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE (Urie Bronfenbrenner) Emphasizes how social environments impact development. Which part of the brain is FULLY FORMED at birth? → The HIND brain is fully formed at birth Micro System: Direct interactions (e.g., parents, teachers). Heart beat, rest, the basic physiological functions is what the baby needs to do. Meso System: Relationships between social agents (e.g., teacher-parent dynamics). Exo System: External factors indirectly affecting the child (e.g., parent’s job). In the first 20 years of life these changes usually result in new improved ways of reacting that is in behaviour that is healthier, better organised, more complex, more Macro System: Broader influences (e.g., war, economy, culture). stable, more competent or more efficient. Chronosystem: The timing of events in history or the child’s life. We speak of advances from creeping to walking, from babbling to talking or from concrete to abstract thinking as a result of development. In each such instance we 6. VULNERABILITY AND RESILIENCE judge the later appearing state to be a more adequate way of functioning than the earlier one. Vulnerability: Characteristics that increase susceptibility to harm (e.g., gender, age, social class). The first thing the baby learns in conversation is: Includes factors like sickness or discrimination (e.g., LGBTQ+ youth facing harassment). Resilience:  In the first 20 years of life these changes usually result in new improved ways of reacting that is in behaviour that is healthier, better organised, more complex, more Macro System: Broader influences (e.g., war, economy, culture). stable, more competent or more efficient. Chronosystem: The timing of events in history or the child’s life. We speak of advances from creeping to walking, from babbling to talking or from concrete to abstract thinking as a result of development. In each such instance we 6. VULNERABILITY AND RESILIENCE judge the later appearing state to be a more adequate way of functioning than the earlier one. Vulnerability: Characteristics that increase susceptibility to harm (e.g., gender, age, social class). The first thing the baby learns in conversation is: Includes factors like sickness or discrimination (e.g., LGBTQ+ youth facing harassment). Resilience: Eye contact Ability to withstand challenges despite adversity. Influenced by temperament, genetic traits, and upbringing. Mimicking Resilience fluctuates throughout life and doesn’t negate emotional pain TURN- TAKING. At 2-3 months old what does the baby do? Cooing (make noises) Next is babbling (a pattern usually) Then we start with the first words, the FIRST WORDS are called → HOLOPHRASES. Telegraphic speech → 1 or 2 word phrases. Implies that the child is going to say 2 words like a telegram and with those 2 words you have to understand what the child needs or want ‘biscuit mama’ ‘hungry papa’ NEOLOGISMS → Doesn’t mean anything, just made up. (clever children come up with neologisms it is not articulation it is different). Neo → New / Logos → Words There are 3 BROAD GOALS in the study of child development: 1. To understand changes that appear to be universal (those that occur regardless of culture or personal experience) 2. To explain individual difference and preferences between children. (E.g. Why infants react in particular ways to their mother, leaving the room while others play happily or why one likes sleeping alone and one with their mother). 3. To understand how children's behaviour is influenced by the environmental context or situation (contexts include immediate environment as well as wider social and cultural influences) CHILDREN NEED: 1. STRUCTURE- When you know what to expect and things are not unexpected. So when I inform the child what is going to happen, by making the child predict what will happen. 2. ROUTINE- Children and people crave routine, why? Routine gives us stability, a sense of normalcy. 3. PREDICTABILITY- Knowing what’s going to happen, when I inform the child what is going to happen, by making the child predict what will happen. INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: PERSPECTIVES ON DEVELOPMENT Perspectives on Development→ What does the word perspective mean? The way you view/ see something. A different way of seeing the same thing. A number of questions you have to do with loss, nightmares, changes that are set to investigate the ENVIRONMENT. (ex. Ice cream, ice cream van, eating it at a young age, eating it at school) Another thing is GENETICS (does everyone get sick with ice cream in the family) 1. 1st PERSPECTIVE IS NATURE- NURTURE NATURE is the hereditary information from our parents → (Eg. Addiction, Dimples, Flat feet, red hair, curly hair, freckles, some things are just resulted from the genetic heritage). Nature refers to hereditary information we receive from our parents. NURTURE→ Nurture refers to complex forces of the physical and social world that influences our BIOLOGICAL MAKEUP and PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPERIENCES before and after birth. (E.g. language development). The Idealists and the Rationalists principally Plato and Descartes, believed that at least some knowledge is inborn. On the other hand, a group of British philosophers called Empiricists, including John Locke, insisted that at birth the mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa). Hence, knowledge is created by experience as result of external, environmental factors acting on a child, whose only relevant internal characteristic is the capacity to respond. What is a syndrome and not a condition Eg. Alcohol fetal syndrome or Down syndrome→ It is a syndrome as you MAY have problems with your organs. This is a child that THROUGH NATURE WAS PERFECT, HENCE HIS MOTHER WHICH IS THE ENVIRONMENT got affected of NURTURE. THINGS BEFORE BIRTH THAT AFFECT PHYSIOLOGICALLY When the mother smokes during the pregnancy Crack babies → When mother takes drugs during birth they have a problem with temperature regulation because they are going through withdrawals. Eating Habits → What is the basic building block of the cell → Protein, so if the mother is not eating well, the baby’s brain is not developing well. So malnutrition is very harmful for the baby, and so is overeating. Gestational diabetes → Diabetes that has travelled during the pregnancy period. Thalidomide → Drug people used to take so that people wouldn’t throw up, what happened with this drug was that it created a lot of disabilities. Chernobyl THINGS AFTER BIRTH THAT AFFECT PHYSIOLOGICALLY LEAD → The child swallowed a lead pallet from his brother’s pen top. It is removable but can still impact on the biology of the child after birth. NEURO GENERATION → When the brain cells die, there is no regeneration. Brain cells can’t be regenerated. NEUROPLASTICITY →The lifelong capacity of the brain to change and rewire itself in response to the stimulation of learning and experience. HOW DOES NURTURE IMPACT ON PSYCHOLOGICALLY BEFORE AND AFTER BIRTH: BEFORE BIRTH: Stress Trauma. ADHD AFTER BIRTH: Abuse Depression Neglect FAILURE TO THRIVE → Emotional abuse or absence of attention/ emotional deprivation towards a child. Failure to thrive is both a biological thing and psychological. There is no consistency, routine, structure. Still face experiment → The baby is desperately trying to gain the mother’s attention Post natal depression Inter generational trauma Victor Franklin → Logo therapy → Men’s search for meaning→ People will try to find meaning and that is what made them survive. CEREBRAL PALSY Pre natal → Infection or lack of oxygen to the baby Post natal → Some type of trauma to the brain, falling from a height, drowning, heart accident. LESSON 3- DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2. SEQUENCES AND STAGES Another big issue in developmental psychology is the continuity-discontinuity issue. This basically answers the question, ‘Is the development continuous or discontinuous?’ Continuous development implies that it is a cumulative process of gradually adding more skills to already existing ones  (i.e. a quantitative change). Discontinuous development states new and different ways of responding to the world emerge at particular times, in pre-determined stages (Ie. a qualitative change) GAIT → The way someone walks (Ataxia problems walking/ with the cerebellum) INTERNL AND EXTERNAL INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT (Modern developmental psychology) Maturation: Arnold Gesell coined the term maturation to describe genetically programmed sequential and relatively impervious to environmental influences. A maturationally determined behaviour happens regardless of training or practice. Any maturational pattern is UNIVERSAL → Effects/ Impacts everyone SEQUENTIAL→ One after the other (Eg. getting your period BEFORE being able to get pregnant.) MENARCHE (your first period) → Is UNIVERSAL and it is relatively IMPERVIOUS to the environment. Genetically you will mature but there is a sort of environment impact 3. INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT (MODERN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY) MATURATION: Arnold Gesell coined the term maturation to describe genetically programmed sequential patterns of change. Any maturational pattern is universal, sequential and relatively impervious to environmental influences. A maturationally determined behaviour happens regardless of training or practice. THE TIMING OF EXPERIENCE THEORY CRITICAL PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT Specific experiences interact with maturational patterns in complex manners. Hence, both timing and experience may impact on development, leading to the concepts of critical and sensitive periods in development. If it does not develop in that time period, the behaviour will not develop at ALL. A critical period is defined as any time period during development when an organism is especially responsive to and learns from a specific type of stimulation. The same stimulation at other points has little or no effect (e.g. the 15 hour period wherein ducks may develop a following response to any moving or quacking object). A sensitive period is defined as any time period during which a particular experience can best incorporated in the maturational process (e.g. language development in infancy). Eg. If you cover the eyes of a new born kitten for a few hours, the kitten will NEVER develop that perception. So it is critical Geese or ducklings will imprint to any moving object which they see after birth (first 72hours after birth, not after 3 weeks) The foetus is initially female (there is no penis) so there is penile growth in the penis if the penis does not grow in that period, he won’t grow a penis (critical period of development) SENSITIVE PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT Is a period of time where the behaviour at its best in a particular time period. The behaviour still develops but not as good or functional as a manner. Eg. Being a singer and training your voice → The younger you are the less developed your voice is Ballerina → Good when young less when older. - Cat Duckling Video A critical period is defined as any time period development when an organism is especially responsive to and learns from a specific type of stimulation. The same stimulation at other points has little or no effect. (Eg. The 15hour period wherein ducks may develop a following response to any moving or quacking object). A sensitive period is defined as any time period during which a particular experience can best incorporated in the maturational process (Eg. Language Development in Infancy) PRENATAL→ Cerebral palsy PERINATAL→ Anoxia POST NATAL→ Accident Meningitis INBORN BIASES AND CONSTRAINTS THEORY Development is a result of experience filtered through initial biases. But those biases constrain the number of developmental pathways that are possible (E.g. limitations imposed by flight). Elizabeth Spelke (1991) claimed that babies are born with certain ‘pre-existing biases’ or ‘constraints’ on their understanding of the behaviour of objects (E.g. Unsupported objects will move downwards). Potential experiences are filter → THROUGH BIASES WE ARE GEARED TO LOOK FORWARD AND DOWNWARDS (Babies) This theory speak about these 2 things: CONSTRAINTS AND BIASES BEHAVIOUR GENETICS THEORY This involves the study of genetic contributions to individual behaviour, implying that nature contributes to variations from one individual to another. Research focuses primarily on identical and fraternal twins and adopted children. Hereditary affects a vast range of physical aspects, pathology and temperamental issues. EVERY SERIAL KILLER IS A PSYCHOPATH BUT NOT EVERY PSYCHOPATH IS A SERIEL KILLER Showed mutilated children to 2 groups Serial Killers→ Part of their brain/ limbic system doesn’t light up. No empathy. HABITUATION → The brain get’s used to it. Trauma, PTSD, etc. Control group→ the limbic system lights up (empathy etc.) GENE- ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION THEORY Firstly, A child’s genetic heritage may affect his environment. Children inherit their genes from their parents who also usually create the environment they live in. Secondly each child's unique pattern of behaviour affects the way adults and other children respond. Thirdly, children’s interpretations of their experiences are affected by inherited tendencies such as intelligence, temperament and pathology. This theory comes in 3 stages, which deals with how our behaviour develops in relation to others. INTERNAL MODELS OF EXPERIENCE Although often experiences are associated with external forces, the individual’s view of his/ her own experience, that is the internal aspect of experience, is also significant. This internal mode of experience is a set of core ideas about the self and relationships with others, through which all subsequent experience is filtered (Eg. I usually look good). This self- model is based on experience but it also shapes the future. THE CORE VALUE→ A core value is something you gain in the first 3-4years of life which shapes you as an individual, we all carry these values. You hear this when you are working with people, Core values are the values you get from the adults around you. Values you here in clinical ‘I am loved’ ‘ I am different’ ‘I am unwanted’.  How do we get these values? We either PICK THEM UP or PERCEIVE them. ASLIN’S MODEL OF ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE Richard Aslin’s model attempts to explain environmental influences on development: 1.THE FIRST MODEL MATURATION→ A POSSIBIBLY GENETIC EFFECT Represents a purely maturational pattern with NO ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECT (Eg. Colour of Eyes) 2. The SECOND MODEL MAINTENANCE → Describes a pattern in which some environmental input is necessary to sustain a skill that has already been developed maturationally (E.g.. Swimming at birth, you through a baby in the water). SOME ENVIRONMENTAL INPUT IS NECESSARY FOR THAT SKILL TO BE MAINTED 3rd and 4th model is the EXACT SAME THE 3RD THE GAINS ARE TEMPORARY THE 4th MODEL THE GAIN ARE PERMENANT 3. THE THIRD MODEL FACILITATION → States that a skill or behaviour develops earlier than it normally would because of experience (Eg. Language) The skill still develops eventually in other individuals and there are NO PERMENANT GAINS. 4. THE FOURTH MODEL ATTUNEMENT →Describes how a particular experience leads to a PERMANANT GAIN or an ENDURINGLY HIGH LEVEL of PERFORMANCE (Eg, Exposure to reading). Sports, Athletics, Reading etc.→ PERMANANT GAIN 5. THE FIFTH MODEL INDUCTION → PURELY ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECT. In the absence of experience, a particular behaviour does not develop at all BECAUSE YOU ARE NOT EXPOSED TO IT (Eg. You can be the best at Playing the Piano) An example of multiple choice: IN ESSENCE MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT THE ONE THAT LEADS TO PERMENANT GAINS: INDUCTION FACILITATION ATTUNEMENT MAINTAINANCE PURELY ENVIRONMENTA L → INDUCTION Jack is an excellent reader, his teachers also say he is really good at creative writing This is best explained by→ FACILITATION INDUCTION ATTUNEMENT, MAINTAINANCE → ATTUNEMENT 4. THE ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE This approach focuses on external forces which may impact on a child. A key proponent us Urie Bronfenbrenner, who proposed that a child grows up in a complex social environment (ECOLOGY), with a number of significant people. His model focuses on how the components of this complex system interact to affect the development of the individual child. Culture, whether individualistic or collectivist is an integral part of this model. THE ENVIRONMENT might be more HOLISTIC. It is not only the relationship with my parents but can be MUCH MORE complex then that, he came up with: 1st CIRCLE → MICRO SYSTEM OR MICRO COSM In the middle of the INNER CIRCLE → There is the CHILD, who has contact with → ALL THE IMPORTANT SOCIAL AGENTS THE CHILD INTERACTS WITH→ THE AGENTS EFFECT THE CHILD. The child affects the agents. Parents, Teachers, Peers, Extended Family, Childcare, extra curricular activity like dance, Catechism. This inner circle, have the child, in relation with the parents. The parents also influence the child, the coach of the football → RELATIONSHIP IS DIRECTIONAL AN INDIVDUALISTIC SOCIETY→ WORKS FOR THE INDIVIDUAL WORLD AN COMMON SOCIETY→ WORKS FOR THE COMMON GOOD WE THINK INDIVUDUALISTICALLY NOT HOLISTICALLY!! (VERY BAD) 2. MESOSYSTEM OR MESO COSM Parents, Muzew, Football, Dance, Childcare, Extended Family, Peers and teachers. THIS TIME the child is going to be IMPACTED by the relationship between these SOCIAL AGENTS. Eg. Mummy goes to parents day and she parks badly and she closes off someone who cannot leave, and the other woman comes out of the car and starts an argument with the mother. And the mother fuming, goes into parents day and realized that the woman she was screaming This interaction will MOST DEFINITELY IMPACT ON THE CHILD Eg. The football couch calls the mother and says we have a tournament this weekend. The Muzew person says he also needs to attend Catechism also. WHATEVER DECISION IS TAKEN WILL IMPACT THE CHILD Eg. The child has a very naughty best friend Jack, but the child is very quite (BOB) THE CHILD WILL BE IMPACTED BECAUSE OF THESE SOCIAL ENTITIES → 3. EXOCISM → So the child now IS NOT PART / NOT DIRECTLY IMPACTED because of the relationship between the social connections. THESE ARE CIRCUMSTANCES OUTSIDE OF THE CHILD’S CONTROL THAT STILL HAVE AN IMPACT ON THE CHILD. Local Council, Father’s job, mother’s mental health, mother’s training, sister’s hospitalization. Eg. Daddy after work plays with me, if he has overtime he can’t play with me. SOMETIMES THAT HAPPENS OUTSIDE THE FAMILY HOME, STILL HAS AN IMPACT ON THE HOME. Eg. Mother’s mental health These are FACTORS OUTSIDE THE CHILD’S CONTROL THAT STILL HAS AN IMPACT ON THE HOME. Once the sister is sick, the family is disrupted, still impacts the child→ EXOSYSTEM Eg, The child changing school.  MACRO COSM/SYSTEM WAR Global Warming Natural Disasters The Economy Politics Country of Birth Religion MASS MEDIA Ethnic Group GENDER→ VERY IMPORTANT IMPACT ON CHILDREN ALONG ALL THESE, there is something which impacts ALL OF THEM, THIS IS TIME→ THE INFLUENCE OF TIME When in HISTORY AND WHEN IN THE CHILD’S LIFE DID THIS HAPPENED→ TIMING OF DEVELOPMENTAL → Eg. If covid struck when I was 2 years old vs 16 years old. THESE ARE THE THINGS THAT ARE SO IMPORTANT TO SHAPING A CHILD. ETHNICITY IS SO IMPORTANT → WHY? → BECAUSE OF PREJUDICE THE GAS SYSTEM→ HINDU PRACTICE → CAST SYSTEM → When people are born, they are born into a particular category, hierarchy, that cannot change… There are ACADEMICS TO THE UNTOUCHABLES, unfair system. Live their lives being in the past with the untouchables. You don’t change these circumstances or mix with other statuses. THE MAIN ISSUE IS TIME→ WHEN IT HAPPENS AND THE TIMING The way you process it and perceive it also makes a HUGE DIFFERENCE. Eg. For an example AGE→ Are all 8 year olds the same? Are all coloured individuals the same? 5. VULNRABILITY AND RESILIANCE This approach considers the complexity of the interaction between different individual characteristics and the environment. Children may be resilient to outside forces, and similar environments are linked to different outcomes. Children are born with certain protective factors and vulnerabilities, which then interact with the environment may produce different outcomes, depending on what the child brings into the interaction. VULNRABILITY PEOPLE WHO ARE VULNARABLE ARE IN A LESSER POSITION → MORE PRONE TO BEING HARMED. What makes you vulnerable in life? Sickness Gender Social Classical AGE WEIGHT We are saying in any way or FORM DIFFERENT are in a position for VULNERABILITY. IT HAS A LOT TO DO WITH THE PERCEPTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL AND HOW THE INDIVIDUAL USES THAT DIFFERENCE TO HIS/ HER ADVANTAGES VULNERABILTY→ SEXUALITY HOMOSEXUAL YOUTHS→ MUCH HIGHER RISK OF HARRASMENT, SUCIDE, SELF HARM ETC. RESILIANCE IMPLIES DESPITE THAT I DO GET DEPRESSED DESPITE THE FACT THAT I FEEL LIKE STOPPING I HAVE TO CONTINUE THERE IS NO OPTION DESPITE THE FACT THAT LIFE THROWS SO MANY CURVEBALLS → YOU MOVE ON DESPITE HAVING THE CAPACITY TO WITHSTAND NO ONE IS BORN RESILIANT. WE ARE BORN WITH INBORN TEMPERAMENT → Hence there is genetic heritage here. GENETIC TRIATS ARE VERY IMPORTANT → THEY WAY YOU ARE RAISED IS ALSO IMPORTANT The more awareness about (suicide, mental health, depression etc…) The more we see it on social media, and we go on sites We are on that SPEWING ANGER AND HATE ON EACHOTHER → PARADOXICAL REALITY WE ARE LIVING IN But at the same time, we have a generation of people (resilience is very low on the agenda) People give up very easily. Does somebody who is RESILIENT remain RESILIENT all his life? EXTREME RESILIENCE EXAMPLE → Eg. Loosing all your family members, tsunami, natural disasters etc. RESILIENCY IS NOT NEVER FEELING PAIN!! Is there something you are so scared of, that if it happens you stop? MAIN THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT 3 MAJOR PATHWAYS TO UNDERSTAND DEVELOPMENT There are 3 main schools of thought are: 1. Psychoanalytic theories. 2. Cognitive developmental/Information-Processing theories. 3. Learning theories (classical conditioning; operant conditioning; Bandura’s social cognitive theory). 1. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES So in the beginning, there was Freud. Freud’s focus was the psychosexual Jung focused on psychospiritual Adler was interested in birth ordering Erikson interested in Psychosocial Different routes to come to the same identity FREUD’s theory was very DETERMINISTIC → This happens, then that happens DRACONIAN → DICTATORIAL FREUD was really the FIRST person to make something out of PSYCHOLOGY → HIS FIRST THEORY WAS THE TOPOGRAPHICAL THEORY→ ID EGO and SUPEREGO ID→ Innate INSTINCT that we are born with. The ID gives us pleasure is basically the PLEASURE PRINCIPLE → PART OF YOU WHICH IS INNATE AND WHICH PUSHES YOU FOR INSTANT GRATIFICATION → I WANT THIS AND I WANT IT NOW Is it only presence in childhood? NO, it is LIFELONG. Why? Is it important that the ID is NOURISHED and is ALLOWED to flourish. HOWEVER EXCESSIVE ID could be PROBLEMATIC→ Because of it’s IMPULSIVITY  If my ID was a pathological (I would take off my t-shirt→ not something done in society) Even though you have the urge, or you feel like this, we have things that curve it. THE SUPEREGO IS THE REGULATOR→ It is what REGULATES US. For an example if we have a test the next day we are not going to go out and drink and party. Sometimes the SUPEREGO is very EXTREME→ GUILT being so BIG, it can WITHER HER ARM → PSYSOMATISATION (SYMPTOMS) CONSCIOUS→ What we are AWARE OF, what you can tell me NOW PRE CONSCIOUS→ What is present to a degree of pushing of thought. WHICH CAN BE READILY AVAILABLE. Involves things which I can make you aware of. Eg. Recalling long past memories UNCONSCIOUS → IS WHAT IS NOT READILY ACCESIBLE BUT THERE ARE WAYS IN WHICH WE CAN ACCESS SUCH AS: DREAMS or FREE ASSOCIATION FREE ASSOCIATION → I SAY A WORD AND YOU SAY WHAT COMES TO MIND. PSYCHOANALYTIC TECHNIQUE FREUD USED. HYPNOSIS→ WE CAN UNCOVER WHAT LIES IN THE UNCONSCIOUS FREUDIEN SLIPS→ ANYTHING WHICH SHOWS HUMOR IN THE UNCONSCIOUS, SEXUAL JOKES. DREAMS→ ARE THE ROYAL ROAD TO THE UNCONSCIOUS. DREAMWORK HELPS YOU UNCOVER ANOTHER LIFE. IF YOU DISCOVER WHAT YOUR DREAMS ARE TELLING YOU. MANIFEST CONTENT → WHAT SHOWS IN THE DREAM? LATENT CONTENT → WHAT IS THE DREAM TRYING TO TELL ME? DEFENSE MECHANISMS→ HEALTHY THINGS THAT PROTECT THE EGOCENTRIC The problem is when the DEFENSE MECHANISM is when it is used EXCESSIVELY Like denial etc. NOT NATURAL/ TYPICAL → Is if after 10 years you are still looking for a child for an example. REGRESSION→ FAST MECHANISM WHICH MAKES YOU (beg for something you want) There is one defence mechanism which is CONSCIOUS→ SUBLINATION → RATIONALISATION→ You are trying to find a reason why (helps us exist) sometimes we have to face the pain. REACTION FORMATION→ I don’t know you, yet I don’t like it, YET I am nice to you. I do LESSON 4- DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH METHODS IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD Developmental psychology uses research to achieve 4 goals: 1. To describe development (i.e. state what happens) 2. To explain development (ie. why an event occurs) 3. To predict development (i.e. envisage an event) 4. To influence development (i.e. intervention) STUDYING AGE RELATED CHANGES Three methods may be used to study age-related changes: 1. Cross sectional designs (i.e. different age groups at the same time) 2. Longitudinal designs (i.e. same participants over a period of time) 3. Sequential designs (i.e. combining cross- sectional and longitudinal studies) IDENTIFYING RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIABLES There are various ways to study variables (characteristics) which vary between individuals: 1. Case Studies and Naturalistic observation 2. Correlations 3. Experiments CROSS- CULTURAL RESEARCH Comparisons of different cultures allows identification of university and improvement of people’s lives. The main methods used are: 1. Ethnography (i.e. The systematic study of people and cultures) 2. Cross- Cultural comparison studies In all aspects of research, ethical guidelines which protect humans and animals are employed. TOPIC 2: PRE NATAL DEVELOPMENT AND NEWBORN Conception and genetics Development from conception to birth- Atypical prenatal development CONCEPT AND GENETICS THE PROCESS OF CONCEPTION The ovum is released from one of the ovaries roughly midway between periods. If not fertilised the ovum travels from the ovary down the fallopian tube toward the uterus, where it is expelled as a menstrual flow. If sperm fertilises the ovum this results in a zygote. The zygote then continues on its journey down the fallopian tube and eventually implants itself in the wall of the uterus. If intercourse occurs during the days when the ovum is in the fallopian tube, the ejaculated sperm, having travelled through the vagina, cervix and uterus into the fallopian tube may make contact with the ovum resulting in a zygote (single cell formed from separate sperm and egg cells at conception). The zygote then continues on its journey down the fallopian tube and eventually implants itself in the wall of the uterus. THE BASIC GENETICS OF CONCEPTION The nucleus of each cell contains 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).  Most genetic material is contained here. Cells divide through a process called MITOSIS, where each set duplicates itself. In 22 of the chromosome pairs, the members carry identical genetic information. The 23rd chromosome is the sex chromosome that determines the child’s sex and comes in 2 varieties, namely the X and Y chromosome. A healthy FEMALE has 2 X chromosome A healthy MALE has one X and one Y chromosome The sperm and the OVUM collectively called GAMETES (GERM CELLS) are the only cells that do not contain 46 chromosomes. Each gamete has only 23 chromosomes instead 23 pairs. When a child is conceived, the 23 chromosomes in the ovum and the 23 in the sperm combine to form the 23 pairs that will be a part of the human being. Gametes divide through a process called meiosis. Chromosomes are composed of a chemical called DNA The string of DNA can be divided further into genes, each of which control or influence a particular feature of an organism or a portion of some developmental pattern. Genetic mapping is the process by which the locus (place) of every human gene on the chromosome is identified. To simplify, genes are segments of DNA, which collectively make up chromosomes. ECTOPIC PREGNANCY→ Medical emergency, baby is in fallopian tube, they need to remove it. Baby is implanted in fallopian tube. Problem no.1→ Sperm count Problem no.2→ Motility → Sperm goes the other direction Problem no.3→ LIQUIFACTION – The sperm solidifies before the 72hours Problem no.4 → Nutrition Problem no.5→ Advancing age GENOTYPES, PHENOTYPES AND GENETIC TRANSMISSION When the 23 chromosomes meet, they provide a mix of ‘instruction’ 1. Homozygous pattern: The two genes in the pair at any given genetic locus carry the same instructions (Eg. Blood type of hair) 2. Heterozygous pattern: The two genes in the pair at any given genetic locus carry different instructions GREGOR MENDEL AND THE PRINCIPLES OF INHERITENCE When the 23 chromosomes meet, they provide a mix of ‘instruction Gregor Mendel → VIDEOS https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c9dckbhl5g4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mehz7tCxjSE https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GTiOETaZg4w https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOgVM904cPc PATTERNS OF GENETIC INHERITANCE 1. GENOTYPE and PHENOTYPE: The GENOTYPE is the specific set of instructions contained in the genes. GENOTYPE is the genetic code or set of instructions in our DNA. PHENOTYPE is the visible traits or characteristics, shaped by both the genotype and the environment. The PHENOTYPE is the set of actual observed characteristics, a product of genotype, environmental influences from the time of conception onward and the interaction between 2 (E.g. Obesity Gene) GENOTYPE – GENE. Genotype: The gene for eye colour. PHENOTYPE- WHAT WE SEE Phenotype: The actual eye colour we see. 2. DOMINANT and RECESSIVE GENES: Inheritance patterns follow well- established rules. A single DOMINANT GENE carries MORE WEIGHT than a recessive gene. Dominant genes includes dimples, curly hair, and freckles, while recessive genes include flat feed, red hair, thin lips. Dominant gene → One copy of the gene from each parent Dominant genes: Only one copy of the gene is needed for the trait to show. Example: dimples, curly hair, freckles. Recessive gene → Two copy of the gene two copies of each parent Recessive genes: Two copies (one from each parent) are needed for the trait to show. Example: flat feet, red hair, thin lips. GENOMIC IMPRINTING and mitochondrial transmission: Genomic imprinting: Some genes are "marked" during inheritance, affecting how they’re expressed. Mitochondrial inheritance: Genes passed only from the mother through the mitochondria. Through a process called genomic imprinting, some genes are biochemically marked at the time 3. POYGENIC AND MULTIFACTORIAL TRANSMISSION: In polygenic patterns of inheritance, many genes are at play. Polygenic inheritance involves multiple genes contributing to a trait. Polygenic inheritance involves multiple genes influencing a single trait, like height or skin colour. NO ONE IS BORN RESILIENT INBORN TEMPERAMENT: We are born with genetic heritage. Each gene has a small effect, and together they create the final characteristic. GENETIC TRAITS: Important, but upbringing matters too. Each gene adds a small effect, and together they influence the final outcome. For example, height or skin colour are controlled by many genes. MENTAL HEALTH AWARENESS Increased visibility of issues like suicide and depression through social media. PARADOX: While connected, we often spew anger and hate online. In multifactorial patterns of inheritance, transmission is affected both by genes and the environment. GENERATIONAL ISSUE: Resilience is low; people give up easily. Multifactorial inheritance involves both genes and environmental factors. RESILIENCE QUESTIONS Does resilience last a lifetime? Traits are influenced by genetic makeup and things like diet, lifestyle, or climate. For example, heart disease can be influenced by both inherited genes and factors EXTREME RESILIENCE: Facing tragedies like losing family, natural disasters, etc. like diet or exercise. RESILIENCE IS NOT PAINLESS: It doesn’t mean never feeling pain. Are there fears that could stop you completely? Similarly, intelligence can be affected by both genetics and the environment (like schooling or upbringing). MAIN THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT THREE PATHWAYS: 4. GENOMIC IMPRINTING AND MITOCHONDRIAL TRANSMISSION: Psychoanalytic Theories 1. Cognitive/Information-Processing Theories Some genes are biochemically marked at the time ova and sperm develop in the bodies of potential mothers and fathers (e.g. Prader Willi Syndrome and Angelman Syndrome) 2. Learning Theories (classical/operant conditioning; Bandura’s social cognitive theory) Mitochondrial inheritance implies that children inherit genes located outside the nucleus of the zygote, found only in the ovum before it is fertilised. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES Hence, this type of transmission is mainly maternal. Freud: Psychosexual focus. Jung: Psychospiritual. The mother herself may be unaffected. Adler: Birth order. Erikson: Psychosocial identity. Genomic imprinting: Some genes are "marked" during egg and sperm development, which affects how they’re expressed. Example: Prader-Willi and Angelman syndromes. Freud’s deterministic and draconian approach introduced psychology. Mitochondrial inheritance: Children inherit mitochondrial genes only from the mother, as the egg contains the mitochondria. FREUD’S TOPOGRAPHICAL THEORY 1. ID: Innate instinct (pleasure principle). This type of inheritance is maternal even if the mother is unaffected. Lifelong presence; drives instant gratification. Needs balance—excessive ID causes impulsivity. 5. TWINS AND SIBLINGS:  Erikson: Psychosocial identity. Genomic imprinting: Some genes are "marked" during egg and sperm development, which affects how they’re expressed. Example: Prader-Willi and Angelman syndromes. Freud’s deterministic and draconian approach introduced psychology. Mitochondrial inheritance: Children inherit mitochondrial genes only from the mother, as the egg contains the mitochondria. FREUD’S TOPOGRAPHICAL THEORY 1. ID: Innate instinct (pleasure principle). This type of inheritance is maternal even if the mother is unaffected. Lifelong presence; drives instant gratification. Needs balance—excessive ID causes impulsivity. 5. TWINS AND SIBLINGS: 2. SUPEREGO: Regulator of impulses. Extreme superego can lead to guilt and psychosomatic symptoms. Some genes are biochemically marked at the time ova and sperm develop in the bodies of potential mothers and fathers (e.g. Prader Willi Syndrome and Angelman Syndrome) CONSCIOUS What we are aware of and can articulate immediately. 3 out of 100 births in the USA are multiple births. Fraternal twins develop when two ova have been produced and both have been fertilised, each by a separate PRECONSCIOUS sperm. Thoughts or memories readily available with minimal effort, such as recalling long-past They are no more alike genetically than any other pair of siblings. Identical twins are a result of a single fertilised ovum, which initially divides in the normal way, but events. then separates into two parts, with each part developing into a separate individual. UNCONSCIOUS Not readily accessible, but can be explored through specific techniques like: Dreams: The "royal road" to the unconscious, revealing hidden meanings through DEVELOPMENT FROM CONCEPTION TO BIRTH dreamwork. Free Association: A psychoanalytic method where a word prompts spontaneous responses. 1. THE GERMINAL STAGE Hypnosis: A tool to uncover unconscious content. Freudian Slips: Unintentional errors that humorously or sexually reveal unconscious This begins at conception and ends when the zygote is implanted in the walls of the uterus. thoughts. The zygote then spends roughly 1 week floating down towards the uterus. MANIFEST CONTENT The observable storyline or details in a dream. Cell division begins 24 to 36 hours after conception. LATENT CONTENT Implantation is complete around 10 days to 2 weeks after conception. The hidden meaning or message the dream is conveying. DEFENSE MECHANISMS Starts at conception and ends when the zygote implants in the uterus (around 1-2 weeks). Healthy ego-protective strategies, problematic only when used excessively (e.g., prolonged denial). Cell division begins 1-2 days after conception. REGRESSION: Reverting to childlike behavior to fulfill desires (e.g., begging). 2. THE EMBRYONIC STAGE (IMPLANTATION TO 8 WEEKS) SUBLIMATION: A conscious mechanism redirecting impulses into acceptable activities. The placenta, the umbilical cord and amniotic fluid develop in this stage. RATIONALIZATION: Justifying actions to avoid facing pain, often aiding in coping. A heartbeat can be detected 4 weeks after conception, and the beginning of lungs and limbs are apparent. REACTION FORMATION: Acting opposite to feelings (e.g., being overly nice to someone you By the end of the embryonic period, rudimentary fingers and toes, eyes, eyelids, nose, mouth, and external ears are all present, as are the basic parts of the nervous dislike). system. LESSON 4 - DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY The embryonic stage ends when organogenesis, the process of organ formation, is complete. RESEARCH METHODS IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT Development of the placenta, umbilical cord, and amniotic fluid. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD Heartbeat detectable at 4 weeks; basic body parts like limbs, eyes, and ears form. Developmental psychology research aims to: 1. Describe development (state what happens). By the end, all major organs begin to take shape 2. Explain development (why events occur). 3. Predict development (envisage events). 4. Influence development (intervention). 3. THE FOETAL STAGE (8 weeks to 40 weeks) STUDYING AGE-RELATED CHANGES All organ systems are refined at this stage. Three key methods: Cross-Sectional Designs: Compare different age groups at the same time. The nervous system also develops mainly in the foetal stage, with the brain and the spinal cord developing from the neural tube. Longitudinal Designs: Follow the same participants over time. Sequential Designs: Combine cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches. The major growth in foetal size occurs late in the foetal period. IDENTIFYING RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIABLES Research techniques: Organ systems are refined, and major growth occurs. Case Studies and Naturalistic Observation. Correlations. The nervous system develops, with the brain and spinal cord forming. Experiments. Significant growth in size happens in the later part of this stage. CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH Comparing cultures to identify universals and improve lives using: Ethnography: Systematic study of people and cultures. Cross-Cultural Comparison Studies. LESSON 5- DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY In all aspects of research, Ethical guidelines ensure the protection of humans and animals in all studies. SEX DIFFERENCES IN PRENATAL DEVELOPMENTAL TOPIC 2: PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND NEWBORN CONCEPTION AND GENETICS The male embryo secretes testosterone as from the 2nd month of conception. THE PROCESS OF CONCEPTION Ovulation: Ovum released from the ovary mid-cycle. No equivalent secretion is seen in female foetuses Unfertilised Ovum: Travels down the fallopian tube to the uterus, then expelled as menstrual flow. Research indicates that prenatal hormones may play a large role in brain development and functioning even in later years. Fertilised Ovum: Sperm meets ovum in the fallopian tube, forming a zygote (single cell). The zygote implants in the uterine wall. Girl progress faster in skeletal prenatal development, though on average boys are born taller and heavier. BASIC GENETICS OF CONCEPTION More males than females are conceived/ More sperms are Y Chromosomes: 46 total (23 pairs) in each cell nucleus. 22 pairs carry identical genetic info. More males are also spontaneously aborted (miscarriage) Cells divide through a process called MITOSIS, where each set duplicates itself. The 23rd pair determines sex: They also are more likely to present with congenital malformations and injuries at birth- hip dysplasia or shoulders Female: XX Male: XY In utero, they are more vulnerable to external stressors. Gametes (Germ Cells): Sperm and ovum have 23 single chromosomes, formed via meiosis. This vulnerability continues throughout life, with males dying younger and being more prone to behavioural and learning difficulties. DNA & Genes: Chromosomes are made of DNA; genes are DNA segments influencing traits and development. Male foetuses are more physically active, while female foetuses are more sensitive to external stimuli. Genetic Mapping: Locates genes on chromosomes. ATYPICAL PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT HOW DO MALES SHOW DEPRESSION Ectopic Pregnancy: Zygote implants in the fallopian tube instead of the uterus, a medical emergency requiring intervention. They don't go for help FACTORS AFFECTING FERTILISATION Cultural representation of male vulnerability 1. Sperm Count: Low numbers hinder fertilisation. 2. Motility: Sperm movement is inefficient or misdirected. Not taking interest in hobbies 3. Liquefaction: Sperm solidifies before 72 hours. 4. Nutrition: Poor sperm health due to inadequate nutrition. Addiction 5. Advancing Age: Reduced fertility with increasing age. GENOTYPES, PHENOTYPES, AND GENETIC TRANSMISSION Not taking interest in hobbies When the 23 chromosomes meet, they provide a mix of ‘instruction’ Anger Homozygous pattern: The two genes in the pair at any given genetic locus carry the same instructions (Eg. Blood type of hair) Self Harm- Alcoholism, wreck less driving Heterozygous pattern: The two genes in the pair at any given genetic locus carry different What does therapy mainly involve? Is this typically a male activity? That is a reason men do not engage in therapy. instructions GREGOR MENDEL AND THE PRINCIPLES OF INHERITENCE PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT Mendel’s studies laid the foundation for understanding genetic inheritance, showing how The foetus reacts to sound with heart rate changes, head turns and body movements (by 25th week). traits are passed through generations. When the 23 chromosomes meet, they provide a mix of ‘instruction A late term foetus displays neurological responses to sound. Gregor Mendel → VIDEOS The foetus can distinguish between familiar and novel stimuli (by 32nd week), which indicates learning. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c9dckbhl5g4 Moreover, new borns seem to remember stimuli to which they had been exposed prenatally https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mehz7tCxjSE By the 25th week, the foetus reacts to sound with changes in heart rate, head turns, and body movements. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GTiOETaZg4w Late-term foetus shows neurological responses to sound. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOgVM904cPc By the 32nd week, the foetus can recognize familiar vs. new sounds, showing early signs of learning. GENOTYPE AND PHENOTYPE New-borns can remember sounds they were exposed to before birth. Genotype: The genetic code or instructions in DNA (e.g., the gene for eye color). Phenotype: The observable traits or characteristics influenced by genotype and environment (e.g., the eye color we see). DOMINANT AND RECESSIVE GENES A TYPICAL PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT A single DOMINANT GENE carries MORE WEIGHT than a recessive gene.