Development Psychology Reviewer 1st Term PDF

**DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOLOGY** I. ABOUT HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Human Development is a scientific study of the process of change and stability throughout the human life-span. Life-span Development is a concept of development or a lifelong process which can be studied scientifically. THE LIFE-SPAN PERSPECT...

**DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOLOGY** I. ABOUT HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Human Development is a scientific study of the process of change and stability throughout the human life-span. Life-span Development is a concept of development or a lifelong process which can be studied scientifically. THE LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE DEVELOPMENT: the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the human life span. It involves growth and decline. TRADITIONAL APPROACH emphasizes extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in old age. LIFE SPAN APPROACH emphasizes developmental change throughout childhood and adulthood. Note: Decline is part of development. THE LIFE SPAN PERSPECTIVE Life span - based on oldest documented age - currently 122 years Life Expectancy: average number of years that a person can expect to live - currently 78 years In PH, 67/70 for males and 74 for females. -females outlive males Life span refers to one\'s life duration from birth to death. Life expectancy is the average number of years a person is expected to live. B. HOW HUMAN DEVELOPMENT EVOLVED The scientific study of human development began with studies of childhood during the 19th century. Adolescence was not considered a separate phase of development. Until 20th century, the scientific interest in aging also began. As researches became interested in the following development through adulthood, life-span became a field of study. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT TODAY: 4 Goals of Scientific Study of Human Development 1. Describe 2. Explain 3. Predict 4. Modify Behavior ***[Developmental scientists]*** study development *[change,]* *[both quantitative and qualitative]*, as well as *[stability in personality and behavior.]* **THE LIFE SPAN PERSPECTIVE** View development as; **Lifelong** \- early adulthood is not the endpoint of development \- no age period dominated conception to death **Multidimensional** \- consists of biological, cognitive & socioemotional dimensions \- multiple components within each dimensions **Multidirectional** \- some dimensions (or components of a dimension) expand and others shrink. **Plastic** \- plasticity: capacity for change \- characteristics are malleable & changeable. \- development is influenced by contextual and socio-cultural influences **Multidisciplinary** -psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, neuroscientists and medical researchers all study human development and share concern for unlocking the mysteries of development throughout the life-span. **Contextual** \- all development occurs within a context setting \- each setting is influenced by historical, economic, social and cultural factors **Development** is a process that involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss **Development** is constructed through biological, sociocultural and individual factors working together. THREE MAJOR DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT **1. Biological (Physical) development** \- growth of body and brain, and change or stability in sensory capacities, motor skills, and health. **2. Cognitive Development** \- change or stability in mental abilities, such as learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning & creativity. **3. Psychosocial Development** \- change or stability in emotion personality and social relationships **INFLUENCES IN DEVELOPMENT** **HEREDITY** - inborn characteristics inherited from the biological parents in conception. **ENVIRONMENT** - totally of non-hereditary or experiential influences on development **MATURATION** - unfolding of a natural sequence of physical behavioral changes, including readiness to master new abilities. **PHYSIOGNOMY**. Determining Physical attribution **DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES/PERIODS** Fastest growth development stages development period is the time frame in person\'s life that is characterized by certain features tremendous growth or the fastest growth development stage **1. Prenatal stage** (9 months) -conception to birth **2. Infancy** (18-24 months) -dependency upon adults and development of psychosocial acts **3. Early childhood** (end of infancy 5-6) -sufficiency and increased play **4. Middle and late childhood** (6-11 years old) -focus on achievement and self-control knows the 3R\'s - reading, writing, and arithmetic **5. Adolescence** (12-18 years old) -Age of transition **6. Emerging adulthood/young adulthood (18-39)** -try to maintain stability in times of economic **7. Middle adulthood (40-60 years old)** -focus on social involvement and responsibility to assist next generation **8. Late adulthood (60-70 years old)** -life review or reminiscing adjustment of new social roles **a. adulting and old age** -65-74 life review **b. late old age 75+** -adjustment to new social role **c. oldest 85 to death** -longest development span **CONCEPTIONS OF AGE** "how irrelevant is chronological age to understanding a person\'s psychological development?" -how should age be conceptualized? **CHRONOLOGICAL AGE** -number of years that have elapsed since birth **BIOLOGICAL AGE** -a person\'s age in terms of biological health **PSYCHOLOGICAL AGE** -an individual\'s adaptive capacities compared with those of other individuals of the same chronological age **SOCIAL AGE** -social roles and expectations related to a person\'s age **DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES** 1\. ***[Nature vs. Nurture]*** \- "completes each other" -according to many theorists, there should be no competition or arguing because without nature there will be no sense of environment at the same time with nurture that\'s why with these two they complete each other 2\. ***[Stability and Change]*** -degree to which early traits and characteristics persist through life and change *[stability]* - traits and characteristics is seen as the result of heredity and early life experiences *[change]* - traits and characteristics can be altered by later experiences -The role of early and later experience is hotly debated in this issue. **Maam Matt:** Manifestation of intelligence can change. **How?** -because we are always influenced from one\'s environment or our habits. ***[3. Continuity and Discontinuity]*** -Focus on whether development is a process or gradual. Cumulative change (continuous) -ei. (the growth of an ivy plant) -ei a seed of growing cycle with stages or metamorphosis or butterflies is a set of distinct stages (Discontinuous) 4\. ***[Universal Context]*** **-Specific Development -**focus on whether there is one path of development or several. -In other words, does development follow the same general path in all people, or is it fundamentally different depending on the socio-cultural context. **Evaluating Development Issues:** -there is always something common in between or area in a commonality. **4 Interactive Forces: Bio Physiology Framework** 1. **Biological Forces** -genetic, health-related 2. **Psychological Forces** -cognitive-perceptual, emotional 3. **Sociocultural Forces** -societal, cultural, ethnic, interpersonal 4. **Lifecycle Forces** -identical events, different age grou **CONTRIBUTION OF NEUROSCIENCE** -It helps in understanding the study of brain interactions among activities and behavior relationships. ***[Opposite of science is (Art).]*** **THEORIST DEVELOPMENT** Scientific Method has 4 steps: 1\. **C**onceptualize a process or begin with a problem or questions. 2\. **C**ollect research info or data. 3\. **A**nalyze Data 4\. **D**raw Conclusion ***[Theory]*** an interrelated coherence set of ideas that helps explain phenomena that makes predictions of the proponent. ***[Hypothesis]*** specific question and prediction that can be tested. **2 PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES** **Psychoanalytic Theories:** describe development as ***[primarily conscious.]*** \- True understanding requires analyzing the symbolic meanings of behavior. \- Early experiences with parents extensively shape development. 1. - Focus on sexual impulses change throughout development **5 stages of Psychosexual Development** - **Oral** - **Anal** - **Phallic** - **Latency** - **Genital** - Adult personality is determined by the way we resolve conflict within each stage - Modern Theorists place less emphasis on sexual instincts and more on cultural experiences. 2. - Building on Freud\'s idea, Erik proposed the first comprehensive life-span view of psychosocial development, in which he identified eight universal stages, each characterized by a particular struggle. -The sequence of Erikson\'s theory is based on the epigenetic principle, which means that each psychosocial strength has its own special period of particular importance. **Evaluating Psychoanalytic Theories** ***[Contributions]*** -Emphasis on developmental framework, family relationships, and unconscious aspects of the mind. ***[Criticism:]*** 1. lack of scientific support 2. Too much emphasis on sexual underpinnings 3. Negative image of people - concentrate on how learning influences behavior. - Emphasize the role of experience. - stress the influence of consequences on behavior. - Recognize that people learn by watching others. 1. **BEHAVIORISM (J.B. Watson)** - We can study scientifically only what can be directly observed and measured. - development is observable behavior that can be learned through experience with the environment. - Experience is sufficient to explain the course of development - Watson did little research to support his claims. 2. **OPERANT CONDITIONING (Burrhus F. Skinner)** - The consequences of behavior determine whether it will be repeated. - A positive or negative reinforcement increases the chance that a behavior will be repeated. - **Positive reinforcement** - **Negative Reinforcement** - **Punishment** **-**is the one that decreases the chance that a behavior will be repeated. - Main ideas: observation, imitation, modelling refers learning from the social environment observational learning or imitation - People learn by watching others - Imitation is more likely when the subject of observation is seen as smart, popular or talented. - Imitation is more likely when the subject of observation is rewarded for the behavior - Based on cognition and experience, we understand our abilities, developing differing degrees of ***[self-efficacy]*** (people\'s beliefs about their own abilities and talents). ***[Consequences]*** are insufficient to make us repeat behaviors or imitate them. - High self-efficacy is promoted ***[Evaluation (behavioral and cognitive contribution):]*** Emphasis on scientific research and environmental influences of behavior ***[Criticism: ]*** little emphasis on cognition (Skinner) inadequate attention given to developmental changes **COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY** stresses the development of the thought process Three Approaches the child interacts with the world through sensation and movement 1. Jean Piaget -we develop in discrete stages 2. Lev Vygotsky -societal expectations or what we should know at different ages and apprenticeship experiences shape development 3. Information -processing theory (process) like computers, we become more efficient at processing information as we mature - **Jean Piaget** -children actively learn about how the world works by little everyday experiments in which they test their understanding -Cognitive development consists of stages in which children\'s understanding of their surroundings becomes increasingly complex and accurate. -Stresses conscious thoughts -Emphasizes the processes of organization and adaptation Four stages of cognitive development in children **PIAGET\'S STAGES** **1.Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 yrs)** -develop the ability to hold a mental representation of objects **2. Pre-operational stage (2-7 yrs)** -develop the ability to use symbols **Egocentric**: understands the world only from his or her own perspective 3. **Concrete Operational thought (7 yrs to Adolescence)** - use \"here and now\" - logic and reasoning - cannot accurately consider the hypothetical 4. **Formal Operational thought (Adolescence - beyond)** - thinks abstractly - deals with hypothetical concepts - **Lev Vygotsky** - Emphasizes socio-cultural influences on child development - Focuses on how adults convey aspects of their culture to children. - Views development as an apprenticeship. - Zone of Proximal Development - the range of abilities an individual can perform with guidance of an expert but cannot yet on his own. - \"scaffolding\" - **Information-Processing Theory** - uses computer as a model of how thinking develops. - Mental hardware: psychological structures such as memory capacity - Mental software: cognitive abilities that process information and help us to interact with the world. - Both improve the development - Emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it and strategize about it. -Individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information. -Thinking is information processing -Other term is cognition -Individuals learn strategies for better information processing. **STIMULUS** ↳ Input process→ storage process→ Output process →Response \- ***[Input - processes]*** are concerned with the analysis of stimuli \- ***[Storage - processes]*** cover everything that happens to the stimuli internally in the brain and can include coding and manipulation of the stimuli \- ***[Output - processes]*** are responsible for preparing an appropriate response to a stimuli **Evaluating Cognitive Theories** ***[Contributions:]*** \- Positive view on development \- Emphasis on the active construction of understanding ***[Criticism:]*** \- Skepticism about the pureness of Piaget\'s stages \- Too little attention to individual variations **LAWTON AND NAHEMOW\'S** **COMPETENCE-ENVIRONMENTAL PRESS THEORY** - The theory suggests that there is an optimal \'best fit\' between one\'s abilities and the demands placed on a person by the environment. - People adapt most effectively when there is a good match between their competence or abilities and the environmental press, or the demands put on them by the environment. **Evaluating Ecological Theories** ***[Contributions:]*** - Systematic examination of macro and micro dimensions of environmental systems. - Attention to interaction between environmental systems. ***[Criticisms:]*** - Giving inadequate attention to biological factors. - Too little emphasis on cognitive factors. **3 CURRENT PERSPECTIVES** 1. Life span perspective - Many factors influence development, no one factor adequately explains it, all must be considered. 2. Selective optimization w/ compensation - Describes choices that determine and regulate development and aging. 3. The life-course perspective - Examines how different generations experience and adjust to biological, psycho, and sociocultural forces w/i the historical time period of their lives. - Its basic premise is that aging is a lifelong process of growing up and growing old, beginning with conception and ending with death. Paul Baltes and colleagues identified four key features of the life span perspective ***[a. Multidirectionality]*** - ***[b. Plasticity]*** - ***[c. Historical Context]*** - development occurs w/in a particular set of circumstances determined by the historical time period and the culture in which we grew up. ***[d. Multiple Causation]*** - how we develop results from biological, psychological, sociocultural and life cycle. **2. THE SELECTIVE OPTIMIZATION WITH COMPENSATION** -with compensation (SOC) model is based on the assumption that three processes (selection, compensation, and optimization) form a system of behavioral ac that generates and regulates development and aging. ***[The selection occurs for 2 main reasons:]*** ** elective selection** (determining one\'s needs, goals, loss-based) **loss-based selection** (accepting facts about old age) - compensation occurs when a person\'s skills have decreased and optimization involves minimizing losses and maximizing gains compensate -look for the abilities that you can do, then optimize. **THE LIFE-COURSE PERSPECTIVE** - - The key feature of the life-course perspective is the dynamic interplay between the individual and society which **involves 3 major factors:** 1. the individual timing events 2. the synchronization of individual transitions 3. the impact of earlier life events **CHAPTER 2 PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT** **I. From Conception to Birth** A. **Prenatal development**, which takes an average of 38 weeks, begins when a sperm successfully fertilizes an egg and describes the many changes that transform that fertilized egg into a newborn human. B. **The Period of the Zygote** (between weeks 1 and 2), begins with fertilization of the egg by the sperm and ends when the zygote becomes implanted in the wall of the uterus at about two weeks after conception. **1*[. Conception]*** can occur through natural means (i.e. sexual intercourse) or by artificial means (i.e. in vitro fertilization). These artificial means raise some controversial issues, including the idea of eugenics, availability, and affordability. 2\. The ***[implanted zygote]*** is less than a millimeter in diameter. Once it is completely embedded in the uterine wall, it is called an embryo. C. **The Period of the Embryo** (weeks 3-8) is a period of rapid growth in which most of the major body structures are created. 1\. Three layers begin to form in the embryo: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. Specialization of cells is under way when the embryo rests in a sac called the amnion that is filled with the amniotic fluid, which cushions and maintains temperature. 2\. The embryo is linked to the mother via two structures: the umbilical cord, which houses blood vessels that join the embryo to the placenta, and the placenta, in which blood vessels from the umbilical cord run close to the mother's blood vessels. 3\. Growth of the embryo follows two important principles: Cephalocaudal principle, where the head develops before the rest of the body, and Proximodistal principle, in which growth of parts near the center of the body occurs before those that are more distant. D. **The Period of the Fetus** (weeks 9 - 38) is the final and longest phase of prenatal development during which the fetus becomes much larger and many bodily systems begin to function. 1. All regions of the brain grow, particularly the cerebral cortex, which is the wrinkled surface of the brain that regulates many important human behaviors. Eyebrows, eyelashes, and scalp hair emerge, and the skin thickens. The skin is covered with a thick, greasy substance called the vernix, which protects the fetus during its long bath in amniotic fluid. 2. The age of viability is the period between 22 to 28 weeks, when most systems function well enough that a fetus born at this time has a chance to survive. II\. **INFLUENCES ON PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT** A. B. 1\. Nutrition is one of three general risk factors that effect prenatal development. a\) The mother is the developing child's sole source of nutrition, so a pregnant woman should increase both her caloric and nutrient intake (proteins, vitamins, and minerals), which is essential for normal prenatal development. b\) Without adequate nourishment, the infant is likely to be born prematurely and underweight, and thus vulnerable to illness. 2\. Stress refers to a person's physical and psychological responses to threatening or challenging situations. a\) Stress causes greater harm when experienced early in pregnancy. b\) Increased stress in a pregnant woman can reduce the flow of oxygen to the fetus while increasing its heart rate and activity level. c\) Stress can weaken a pregnant woman's immune system, making her more susceptible to illness. d\) Pregnant women under stress are more likely to smoke or drink alcohol and less likely to rest, exercise, and eat properly. 3\. The mother's (and father's) age can have an impact on prenatal development. a\) Teenagers and older women experience pregnancy differently. Prenatal development is most likely to proceed normally when women are between 20 and 35 years of age, are healthy and eat right, get good health care, and lead lives free of chronic stress. b\) Compared to women in their 20s, teenage girls are more likely to have problems during pregnancy, labor, and delivery. c\) Women in their 20s are twice as fertile as those in their 30s. d\) For women 35 years of age and older, the risks of miscarriage and stillbirth increase rapidly. e\) Among 40- to 45-year olds, nearly half of all pregnancies result in miscarriage, with women in their 40s more liable to give birth to babies with Down's syndrome. **C. Teratogens: Drugs, Diseases, and Environmental Hazards** 1\. A teratogen is an agent that causes abnormal prenatal development. Most teratogens fall into one of three categories: drugs (alcohol, aspirin, caffeine, and nicotine), disease (AIDS, genital herpes, cytomegalovirus, rubella, and syphilis), or environmental hazards. 2\. The use of alcohol carries serious risk. Pregnant women who consume large quantities of alcohol often give birth to babies with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). 3\. Environmental teratogens can be the most damaging because people are unaware of their presence in the environment. **D. How Teratogens Influence Prenatal Development** 1\. The impact of teratogens depends on the genotype of the organism, the period of prenatal development when the organism is exposed to the teratogen, and the amount of exposure. 2\. The impact of teratogens changes throughout prenatal development, affects a specific aspect of prenatal development, and their impact may not be evident until later in life. **E. Prenatal Diagnosis and Treatment** 1\. Genetic counseling can help a couple determine if they are at risk of passing a disorder to their offspring. 2. Prenatal diagnosis is a tool to determine if prenatal development is progressing normally. Currently several techniques (ultrasound, amniocentesis, and chorionic villus sampling ) are used to monitor prenatal growth and development. 3. Fetal medicine is a new field concerned with treating prenatal problems before birth. Fetal surgery is another way to correct prenatal problems. Genetic engineering is an additional approach used to replace defective genes with by-synthetic normal genes. **III. LABOR AND DELIVERY** A. **Stages of Labor** 1. Labor is the most intense, prolonged physical effort associated with childbirth. 2. Labor consists of three stages: an initial phase in which the cervix enlarges and contractions begin; the crowning phase when the baby passes through the cervix and enters the vagina; and the phase in which the mother expels the placenta. **B.** **Approaches to Childbirth** 1. The "natural" or prepared approach to childbirth views labor and delivery as a celebrated life event rather than a medical procedure to be endured. The "natural" or prepared approach to childbirth has four basic fundamental beliefs: going to classes to learn about pregnancy and childbirth; using natural methods to deal with pain rather than medication; involving a supportive "coach"; and giving birth in places other than a hospital. 2. In the U.S., approximately 99% of babies are born in hospitals, and only 1% is born at home. The assistance of a trained healthcare professional is the key factor for a safer birth. In the Philippines, the current birth rate is approximately 20 births per 1,000 people (Borgen Magazine, Oct. 2020). In 2008 the Phils. passed the Maternal, Newborn and Child Health and Nutrition Strategy policy --- referred to as the \"no home birth\" policy. The goal was to reduce the country\'s high rates of maternal mortality, from 203 out of 100,000 live births that year to 52 by 2015. Infant mortality rates in the Philippines have dropped from around 25 per 1,000 live births in 2010 to about 19 per 1,000 live births in 2020. Compared to 1950, the number of infant deaths per 1,000 live births in the Philippines has dropped almost 80% and is continuing to decrease. As for mothers, the maternal mortality rate has steadily been on the decline. It has decreased from 149 pregnancy-related deaths per 100,000 live births in 2009 to 121 women out of 100,000 in 2017. **C. Adjusting to Parenthood** 1\. A woman experiences many physical changes after birth. 2\. Parents not only have to adjust physically but psychologically as well. 3\. Some women experience postpartum depression after the birth of their child, which is a serious condition that can harm both the mother and the baby. **D. Birth Complications** 1\. Several birth complications can surface during labor and delivery. 2\. Prolapsed umbilical cord is a complication that can disrupt the flow of blood through the umbilical cord causing hypoxia (a state in which oxygen is not available in sufficient amounts at the tissue level to maintain adequate homeostasis), which can lead to mental retardation or death. 3\. A mother may be forced to deliver a baby via a Cesarean section (C-section) because the baby is in distress, in an irregular position, or too large to pass through the birth canal. 4\. Other complications include babies born prematurely or with low birth weight. Premature babies lag behind full-term babies during the first year but soon catch up. Newborn babies with low birth weights can develop normally when they have excellent medical care and a supportive environment. Babies with very low or extremely low birth weight do not fare well. 5\. Birth complications can have long-term effects. Babies who experience them are at risk for becoming aggressive or violent and for developing schizophrenia. **E. Infant Mortality** 1\. The infant mortality rate is defined as the percentage of infants who die before their first birthday. 2\. Afghanistan has the highest infant mortality rate. In the U.S., infant mortality is quite high among developed nations. The high rate is the result of the high incidence of low-birth weight babies. The U.S. has more babies with low birth weight than virtually all other developed countries.