Development Psychology PDF

1 DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOLOGY PERIODS OF A LIFE SPAN The division of the life span into periods is a social HUMAN DEVELOPMENT...

1 DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOLOGY PERIODS OF A LIFE SPAN The division of the life span into periods is a social HUMAN DEVELOPMENT construction. (binubuo ng lipunan) Scientific study of processes of change and stability Therefore, there is no objectively definable moment as to throughout the human life span. when for instance a child becomes an adult. It could vary Developmental scientists look at how people change from across cultures. conception through maturity and at different What will be described here would be the sequence of eight characteristics that remain relatively stable. periods that is generally accepted in Western industrial The research of developmental scientist often has societies application in child rearing, education, health, and social (Extended Moratorium: extended time for self; walang policy. structure kung kailan magiging adult) LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT Concept of development as a lifelong process, which can be studied scientifically. Womb to Tomb (conception to death) Development can be negative of positive GOALS OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY The goals of human development include description, explanation, prediction, and intervention INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT The study of human development is ever-evolving. Individual Differences Development is also said to be messy. It is complex, multifaceted, and shaped by interacting arcs of influence - Differences in characteristics, influences, or Describe: Goal in the study of human behavior in order to developmental outcomes. describe what happens in the lives of children and adults. - Vary according sa tao (may maagang nakakaabot sa (ano yung naoobserbahan) puberty, may hindi) Explain: Goal in which scientist attempt to understand, or Heredity, Development and Maturation explain, why observed behavior occurs—the cause of observed behavior. Individuals vary in rate and timing of development, due to: Predict: Goal in which scientist make educated guesses Heredity: Inherited traits from biological parents about what might happen in the future to behavior (namamana) Intervene: Goal in which scientist use the knowledge of Environment: Physical & social influences. (approach causes of behavior to change or control behavior ng parents, influene ng school, etc.) STUDYING LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT Maturation: Sequences of physical & behavioral patterns – unfolding of natural sequence (kailan Three major domains, or aspects, of the self that nauunlock yung growth) developmental scientists study: Physical Development encompasses the growth of the Context of Development body and brain. 1. Family (nuclear and extended families) Cognitive development encompasses patterns of change Nuclear: two generations (parents and ikaw), iba iba in mental abilities din yung development (pag di kasal parents, Psychosocial development encompasses patterns of magkahiwalay, dual income, etc.) change in emotions, personality, and social relationships. 2 Extended: two (maraming family)/three generation (unexpected death, loss of income; hindi lahat, (kasama grandparents) nakakaranas). 2. Socioeconomic status (risk factor, risky behavior, TIMING OF INFLUENCE opportunities) Income, social status Imprinting 3. Culture and race/ethnicity Instinctively following first moving object seen after birth; ✓ Culture is a society’s of group’s total way of life which usually mother includes customs, traditions, beliefs, values, Konrad Lorenz & his ducklings language, and physical products. Indicates predisposition or readiness to learn ✓ An ethnic group is a group united by ancestry, Critical Period race, religion, language or national origins which If a necessary event does not occur during the critical contribute to a sense of shared identity. period of masturbation, normal development will NOT ✓ Ethnic gloss is an overgeneralization about an ethnic occur. or cultural group that obscures differences within the The resulting abnormal patterns may be irreversible group. (Kapampangan = mayayabang; Ilokano = Critical period: specific time when an event (or its matitipid) absence) has specific impact on development. (time na ✓ Race is more accurately a social construct. -we are all dapat may nangyayari; dapat matutunan mo in a specific Homo Sapiens period) 4. Historical context Sensitive period: developmental timing when child is Development mo as a person; paano nag-unfold yung particularly responsive to certain experiences mga events - Plasticity is a range of modifiability of performance NORMATIVE AND NONNORMATIVE INFLUENCE - Pagaadjust or pagadapt - Hanggang 25 yo, high tend yung plasticity Normative Influence - Pag nasa 40yo, ‘di gaanong matindi yung plasticity Normative influences, biological or environmental events LIFE-SPAN APPROACH that affected many or most people in a society in similar ways and events that touch only certain individuals. Paul Bates and his colleagues have identified (7) key principles of a Normative age-graded influences are for significant events life-span developmental approach that sum up many of the concepts that shape the behavior and attitudes of a historical discussed so far. generation. Development is lifelong Normative history-graded influences are highly similar o Historical, nangyayari before and moving for people in a particular age group. forward Nararanasan ng lahat (mensrual period) Development is multidimensional Nonnormative Influence Development is multidirectional o Magkakaiba, some may develop maturity first, Nonnormative inflluences are unusual events that have a done the others. major impact on individual lives because they disturb the Relative influences of biology and culture shift over expected sequence of the life cycle the life span. Either these are typical events that happen at an atypical Development involves changing resource allocations time of life or atypical events. o Yung time and effort Some may be beyond the person’s control and may be Development shows plasticity rare opportunities or severe challenges. o Pag-adjust; ability to learn new things. It may also be created by the person 3 Development is influenced by the historical and cultural Organismic Theories: Stage, Focus on qualitative context. change (Nakakapaglaro na ba siya?) Changes sa different stages. THEORY AND RESEARCH THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE Theory FIVE MAJOR PERSPECTIVE A set of logically related concepts that seek to describe and explain behavior and to predict what kinds of PSYCHOANALYTIC behavior might occur under specific conditions Born with biological drives that must be redirected to live in - Important, gives us a framework to understand a the society particular behavior. Id (pleasure principle/unconscious), ego (reality Provides groundwork for hypotheses principle), and superego (moral principle/conscious) (Theory sa physics = they can develop to laws, explain (FORCES) absolutes. Theory sa psychology = hindi pede magdevelop Psychosexual states, sensual pleasures shifts from ng law kasi maraming dapat iconsider.) different erogenous zones. - Theory is a perspective, isa siyang slice sa pizza, hindi o Erogenous zones – point of sexual pleasure buo, and to explain the whole, you may use multiple o SIGMUND FREUD theories. Hypotheses Tentative explanations that can be tested by further research BASIC THEORETICAL ISSUES Is Development Active or Reactive Mechanistic Model: View Development as passive, predictable response to stimuli o People are like machines that react to the environmental input o Researchers/practitioners identify factors that make people behave as they do. Organismic Model: Active and as occurring in a sequence o Oral – (birth to 1 ½ years). Pag sobra or of qualitatively different stages kulang breastfeed pedeng magdevelop ng o People as active, growing organisms who sets oral fixation. =Aggressive verbally their own development in motion o Anal – (1 ½ to 3 years) pleasure focusing sa o They initiate events; they do not just react anus. Pag control sa pagdudumi affects o The driving force for change is internal psychological development. Form of reward. o Buhay; you act accordingly = repulsive, wala nang control, makalat o Phallic – pleasure sa genitals; nagdedevelop Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous ng attraction sa opposite sex yung bata. Fear Mechanistic Theories: Continuous, Focus on of castration sa same sex. Fixation: quantitative change (nakakailang hakbang siya? Promiscuity Gaano katagal naglaro??) o Latency – magfofocus sa development as a person. intellectual skills 4 o Genital – matured relationships. LEARNING Psychosocial Development Learning Erik Erikson (1902-1994) modified and extended Freudian Argued that development was the result of learning, a theory by emphasizing the influence of society on the relatively long-lasting change based on experience or developing personality adaptation to the environment. Erikson also was a pioneer in taking a life-span Behaviorism perspective. Balancing of a positive trait and a corresponding negative Is a mechanistic theory that describes observed behavior one. as a predictable response to experience (we expect a Successful resolution of each crisis puts the person in a response) particularly good position to address the next crisis Behaviorists consider development as a reactive and (epigenetic principle) continuous Development occurs in socio-cultural context Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) Learning based on associating a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a response with another stimulus. Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner) Learning based on association of behavior with its consequences Learning based on reinforcement or punishment Individual learns from the consequences of “operating” on the environment. Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning involves voluntary behavior. Reward: meron kang ginagawa to increase a behavior/gusto mong masustain o + Reward: may binibigay ka para magsipag siya magaral o - Reward: may inaalis ka para maging successul Punishment: you want to inhibit the behavior/ gusto mong matigil 5 o Kukunin mo yung cellphone para d siya Meron kang model, natututo ka by observation. tinatamad. Minsan natututo ka kapag nakikita mong meron May interval sa pagbibigay ng reward. silang reward. COGNITIVE Cognitive Stage Theory (Jean Piaget) Cognitive: Focus sa process ng development ng ating mental capacities Reintroduces the concept of scientific inquiry into mental stages Piaget viewed development organismically as the product of children’s attempts to understand and act upon their world. Qualitative development rather than series of stages Social Cognitive Theory (Albert Bandura) Cognitive development begins with an inborn ability to adapt the environment The impetus for development is bidirectional (reciprocal Cognitive growth occurs through three interrelated determinism). The person acts on the world as the processes: world acts on the person. Observational learning or modeling, people learn Organization appropriate social behavior chiefly by observing and Piaget's term for the creation of categories or systems of imitating models; that is, by watching other people. knowledge. Mnemonic strategy of categorizing material to Cognitive processes are at work as people observe models, be remembered. learn chunks of behavior, and mentally put the chunks o Schemes, ways of organizing information together into complex new behavior patterns. about the world. This can be a though or Self-efficacy (the belief in your capabilities to do behavior something) develop through feedback on behavior and become more selective in choosing models (who Adaptation demonstrate behavior). Piaget’s term for adjustment to new information about Learning occurs in context, in the environment. We the environment, achieved through the process of can affect the environment – RECIPROCAL assimilation and accommodation. DETERMINISM. 1. Assimilation, taking in new information and incorporating it into existing cognitive structures, (4 legged aso) and 2. Accommodation, adjusting one’s cognitive structures to fit the new information. (4 legged pero pusa) Equilibrium A constant striving for a stable balance—motivates the state between assimilation and accommodation. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING 6 Brain to Computer Input (sensory impression) to output (behavior) CONTEXTUAL Sensorimotor – paggamit ng sensation and perception. Preoperation – natutuo nang magbasa, magsulat. Concrete Operational – nagsasalita na pero di pa ganun kalalim Formal Operational – reasoning, explain concept, explain theory. Contextual perspective, development can be understood Sociocultural Theory (Lev Vygotsky) only in its social context. Contextualists see the individual not as a separate entity interacting with the environment but Focused on the social and cultural processes that guide as an inseparable part of it. children’s cognitive development. Bioecological theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner), Vygotsky believed there are as many ways to develop as Bronfenbrenner’s approach to understanding processes there are different cultures and different experiences. and context of human development that identifies five Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), Vygotsky’s term levels of environmental influence. for the difference between what a child can do ALONE The microsystem refers to the setting wherein one lives. and what the child can do WITH HELP. This is the particular system where most direct Scaffolding, Temporary SUPPORT to help a child master interactions with social agents take place. (sa a task. (tutulungan yun gbata para maachieve ang isang environment mo) competency) The mesosystem involves one’s relations between the Pede kang matuto ng mas mabilis depende sa microsystems or connections between contexts exposure. (interaction ng microsystem) Information-Processing Approach The exosystem consists of the links between the social system which one does NOT Have an active role and the 1. Approach to the study of cognitive development by individual’s immediate context. (malayo sayo) observing and analyzing the mental processes involves in The macrosystem involves the culture in which an perceiving and handling information (attention, memory, individual lives. (norms) planning strategies, decision errors, decision- The chronosystem consists of patterning of the making, and goal setting). (Memorize, input) environmental events and the transitions over life course. 2. Approach to the study of cognitive development that (changes across environment) analyzes processes involved in perceiving and handling information. (paggamit sa information, output) EVOLUTIONARY/SOCIOBIOLOGICAL 7 View of human development that focuses on evolutionary and A survey is a standard set of question that are used to biological bases of behavior obtain information on what the researcher wants to know about. Theory of Evolution (Charles Darwin) Issues on social desirability 1. Organisms vary FGD (focused group discussion) sa interview. 2. There are never enough resources for all organisms to survive. Standardized test 3. Individual differences in organisms are heritable. A standardized test is a “test with uniform procedures Ethology, study of distinctive adaptive behaviors of species for administration and scoring” (Santrock, 2019). of animals that have evolved to increase survival of the Several of these standardized tests can allow the species performance of the person to be COMPARED to other A related extension of the ethological approach can be found individuals. in evolutionary psychology One of the criticisms is that using this may assume that the Ethologists focus on cross-species comparisons, whereas behavior of an individual and consistent and stable however evolutionary psychologists focus on humans and apply situations may affect it in reality. Darwinian principles to human behavior. Ginawa siya to measure behavior, so each items are Evolutionary Psychology, application of Darwinian principles meant to capture a certain behavior. (t-scores) of natural selection and survival of the fittest to individual behavior. Case study Cognitive adaptations, products of natural selection in An “in-depth look at a SINGLE individual” (Sanrock, humans 2019). Several methods are used to conduct case studies Evolutionary psychologists place a great weight on the such as interviews and looking through medical records. environment which humans adapt and the flexibility of the Because this is done to looking into an individual’s life, human mind. caution must be used when generalizing the information RESEARCH METHODS gathered. Additionally, case studies involve judgements of unknown METHODS FOR COLLECTING DATA reliability. The researchers who use such a method rarely Observation check if other professionals agree with their findings. Kailangan ng maraming oras. Scientific observations are done systematically for it to be effective Physiological measures A researcher must have some idea of what they are There has been increasing use of physiological measures looking for, whom they are observing, when and in studying life-span development. where the observation will be, how the observation For instance, there has been an increased use in the study of will be done, and how it will be recorded. hormone levels in developmental research. Apart from this, Laboratory (sa loob ng laboratory) and Naturalistic neuroimaging is also used such as using functional (pupunta ka sa environment ng participant) magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and Observation electroencephalography (EEG) Sa lab observation, pag alam ng tao na inoobserbahan Pag measure ng activity ng brain siya, nagkakaron sila ng social desireablity so they may alter their behavior RESEARCH DESIGN Survey and interview Descriptive research 8 A descriptive research involves studies that were designed Time frame to observe and to record behavior. All of the previously Cross-sectional approach discussed data collection methods can be used in this design. Pede rin gamitin correlational pag descriptive. This particular strategy involves studying individuals of different ages and compare them one time Correlational research For example, studying group of children (5yo, 8yo, and 11yo) A correlational research involves research whose goal is to and comparing them to their IQ or attachment to parents, describe the strength of the relationship between two We gather data once or more events or characteristics. Longitudinal approach The stronger the relationship between the two events, the more accurate it is to predict one event from another Involves studying the same individuals over some time After collecting the data, a statistical analysis would be done. Cohort, individuals born at a particular similar point in This would yield a numerical measure called a correlation history, they may share similar experiences. coefficient which would be used to analyze the degree of Cohort effects, characteristics that are due to an individual’s association between two variables. time of birth, era or generation Ang correlational is descriptive din and ang descriptive is correlational. CONDUCTING ETHICAL RESEARCH Goal mo lang is to describe, related ba sila. Survey langg Informed consent – ask permission of client to Predictive Design – to establish yung prediction, if x participate (expectation, vulnerabilities, goals, relates y. benefits, withdrawal) Confidentiality – hindi pagsasabi yung datas, Experimental research anonymous An experimental is a procedure to use when one wants to Debriefing – explaining yung nature ng study, could study causality. This procedure is a “carefully regulated cause distress. procedure in which one or more of the factors believed to Deception – kasama yung di mo sasabihin yung influences the behavior being studied are manipulated while actual topic, to avoid bias. all other factors are held constant. MINIMIZING BIAS There are two types of changeable factors or variables: 1. The independent variable is the one that is Studies would be most useful if they would be conducted manipulated and the one that is a potential cause without bias or prejudice towards certain groups of people. (pinapalitan) Researchers must be sensitive to gender biases and on 2. The dependent variable is the one that can change culture or ethnicity biases. in the experiment. (gusto mong makikita kung Avoid overgeneralization magbabago ba siya kung binago mo yung ___________________________________________________________________ independent) An experimental group is the group of participants that would experience the independent variable. A control group is a group that is very similar to the experimental group except for the independent variable. This group would serve as a baseline to see the effects of the independent variable. A random assignment would be done in experiments PERIOD OF RESEARCH 9 FORMING A NEW LIFE CONCEIVING A NEW LIFE How Fertilization Takes Place Fertilization (or conception) is the process by which sperm and ovum combine to create a single zygote. Process uniting the sperm cell and egg cell. PRENATAL development starts here!! A zygote is a one-called organism resulting from fertilization. It duplicates itself again and again by cell division to produce all the cells that make up a baby Ovulation – rupture of a mature follicle in either ovary and expulsion of its ovum – occurs about once every 28 days until menopause [MENSTRUAL FLOW] Sperm are produced in the testicles, (testes) or reproductive glands, of a mature male at a rate of several hundred million a day and are ejaculated in the semen at sexual climax. Deposited in the vagina, they try to swim through the cervix, the opening of the uterus and into the fallopian tubes; but only a tiny fraction make it that far. OVULATION --> INTERCOURSE --> FERTILIZATION Fertilization Will occur while the album is passing through the fallopian tube. If not occur, the sperm and the ovum die. o Sperm are absorbed by the woman's white blood cells. o Ovum passes through the uterus and exits through the vagina. Causes of Multiple Births Monozygotic (MZ) One egg – one sperm 10 Identical twins Autosomes: The 22 pairs of chromosomes not related to Share 100% of genes sexual expression. Sex chromosomes: Pair of chromosomes that determines Dizygotic (DZ) sex: XX and the normal female XY and the normal male. Two eggs – two sperm o X-chromosomes: Chromosomes containing the More common. genes for femaleness. Fraternal twins o Y-chromosomes: Chromosomes containing the Share 50% of genes- just like non-twin siblings. genes for maleness. o About 6-8 after conception, embryos normally MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY start producing the male hormone testosterone. GENETICS GENETIC TRANSMISSION Study of HEREFITY: the genetic transmission of heritable Gregor Mendel’s experiment on pea plants. Genes that can produce characteristics from parents to offspring alternative expressions of a characteristic are called ALLELES. (can GENETIC CODE either be HOMOZYGOUS OR HETEROZYGOUS) Heredity: The inborn factors inherited from the biological Alleles: Paired jeans, (alike or different) that affect a trait parents that affect development. Dominant Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): The double-helix structure of a DNA molecule resembles a long, spiraling Heterozygosity, with the dominant allele (alleles are the ladder whose seps are made of pairs of chemical units called same) bases; Chemical that carries inherited instructions for the When an offspring receives contradictory alleles for a trait, formation and function of body cells. only the dominant one will be expressed. Bases: Chemical units that make up DNA: adenine The tendency of one characteristics to express itself thymine, cytosine and guanine are the “letters” of the over another. Ex: dark hair, curly hair, brown eyes, genetic code. normal vision Genetic code: Sequence of the base pairs within DNA that Recessive determine inherited characteristics. Chromosomes: Coils of DNA that carry the genes; Homozygosity, with no dominant allele, (alleles are consists of smaller segments called genes, the functional different) units of heredity. The expression of a recessive trait, occurs only when a Genes: Small segments of DNA located in definite positions person receives 2 recessive alleles, 1 from each parent. on particular chromosomes. Basic units of heredity Punnet Squares Human genome: The complete sequence of genes in the human body. POLYGENETIC INHERITANCE – pattern of inheritance in Every cell in the normal human body except the sex cells (sperm and which MULTIPLE genes at different sites on chromosomes ova) has 23 pairs of chromosomes- 46 in all. Through a type of affect a complex trait. cell division called meiosis, which the sex cells undergo when they MULTIFACTORIAL TRANSMISSION - Combination of are developing each sex cells and up with only 23 chromosomes- one genetic and environmental factors to produce certain from each pair. When sperm and ovum fuse at conception, they complex traits. produce a zygote with 46 chromosomes. 23 from the father and 23 from the mother. Phenotype SEX DETERMINATION Observable expression of genetic makeup. 11 Product of the genotype. Females are carriers of genetic disorder. Examples: Duchenne muscular dystrophy, Hemophilia, Color Genotype blindness Actual genetic makeup or allele combinations. Individuals. OTHER SEX CHROMOSOME ANOMALIES Genetic composition. OK Tongue curling ability: DD or Dd Turners Syndrome o The phenotype is the product of genotype and any o Only one X chromosome is present. relevant environmental influences. o Short stature, underdeveloped ovaries, edema, cardiovascular and kidney deficits. Multifactorial transmission. Klinefelter syndrome. Experience modifies the expression of a genotype. o Too many sex chromosomes. o XXY. EPIGENESIS/EPIGENETICS o Nonreproductive meals, small testes, tremors, Epigenesis: Mechanism that turns genes on or off and enlarge breasts. determines the functions of body cell. At conception, then the single celled zygote has all the biological Genome or genetic imprinting: The differential information needed to guide its development into a unique individual. expression of certain genetic traits, depending on whether Through mitosis, a process by which the non.-sex cells divide in the trait has been inherited from the mother or father. half over and over again, the DNA replicates itself so that its Incomplete Dominance – When a dominant gene newly formed cell has the same DNA structure as all the others. incompletely dominates a recessive partner gene. Each cell division creates a genetic duplicate of the original cell with o Light brown skinned offspring of dark skinned and the same hereditary information. light skinned parents. Codominance - When two genes both influence a trait and MUTATION both are expressed. Sometimes a mistake in copying is made, and a mutation o Type AB blood of offspring from type A and type B may result. blood of parents. Mutations are permanent alterations in genetic material. Mix up of the protein that makes up the genetic material. Random or environmental influence Mutations related to autism become more likely as a father's age increases. Permanent alterations in genes or chromosomes. AUTOSOMAL BIRTH DEFECTS SEX-LINKED CHARATERISTICS Cystic fibrosis, myotonic dystrophy. Most frequently encountered: TRISOMY Influenced by single genes located on sex chromosomes Example: rather than on other 22 pairs of chromosomes. o Trisomy 21 or Down syndrome. X-linked characteristics. o Mental retardation, Altered facial features, GENETIC DISORDERS OF THE SEX CHROMOSOMES delayed motor development, heart problems. o Age (Parents older than 40 yrs) Referred to as X-linked disorders. o Radiation Associated most often with X-chromosome. Males are more likely to exhibit sex- linked diseases than are GENETIC AND CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES females. 12 Dominant abnormal gene. Behavioral Genetics - quantitative study of relative Recessive abnormal gene. hereditary and environmental influences on behavior o Incomplete dominance. Heritability: statistical estimate of heritable influence on o Pattern if inheritance in which a children receives trait variance in a population. two different alleles, resulting in partial Concordance - Tendency of twins to share the same trait expression of a trait. or disorder. Disorders linked to genes on sex chromosomes. HOW HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT WORK TOGETHER. Affects male and females differently. Carrier Reaction range: potential variation in the trait o Individual unaffected by disorder but passes pn Canalization: Heritable restrictions on the range of trait gene to offspring. development. Errors in cell division. Genotype- environment interaction: The portion of Resulting in missing or extra chromosomes during meiosis. phenotypic variation that results from the reactions of Can occur in sex chromosomes or autosomes. genetically different individuals to similar environmental conditions. GENETIC COUNSELING AND TESTING Genotype – environment correlation: Tendency of Helps prospective parents assess risk of bearing a child with certain genetic and environmental influence to reinforce a genetic defect. each other. (Passive, reactive, active) Karyotype chart shows chromosomal abnormalities. o Niche-Picking - tendency to seek out Especially helpful when. environments compatible with once genotype. o Already have biological children with defect. Passive correlations: The parents who provide the genes o Family history. that predispose a child toward a trait also tend to provide an o Ethnicity. environment that encourages development of that trait. Reactive, or evocative, correlations: Children with PRENATAL DIAGNOSTIC TESTS differing genetic makeups evoke different responses from ULTRASOUND SONOGRAPHY- A prenatal medical adults. procedure in which high- frequency sound waves are Active correlations: Older children actively choose or directed into the pregnant woman's abdomen. create experiences consistent with their genetic tendencies. BRAIN-IMAGING TECHNIQUES- MRI, which stands for Nonshared environment Magnetic Resonance Imaging, uses a powerful magnet and o Development reflects unique environment in radio images to generate detailed images of the body's which child grows up organs and structures. ▪ Accidents CHORIONIC VILLUS SAMPLING - Cryonic villus sampling, ▪ Illnesses or CVS, is a prenatal medical procedure in which a small ▪ Unique interactions with friends or sample of the placenta (the vascular organ that links the peers. fetus to the mothers uterus) is removed. SOME CHARACTERISTICS INFLUENCES BY HEREDITY AND AMNIOCENTESIS - A prenatal medical procedure in which ENVIRONMENT a sample of amniotic fluid is withdrawn by a syringe and tested for chromosomal, or metabolic disorders. PHYSICAL and PHYSIOLOGICAL TRAITS MATERNAL BLOOD SCREENING o `Obesity FETAL SEX DETERMINATION INTELLIGENCE PERSONALITY and PSYCHOPATHOLOGY NATURE AND NURTURE o Temperament HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT o Schizophrenia, Depression, Alcoholism 13 PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT Gestation: Period of development between conception and birth. o Normal range is between 37 and 41 weeks. Gestational Age: Age of an unborn baby, usually dated from the first day of an expectant mother's last menstrual cycle. STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT Development proceeds according to two fundamental principles: Embryonic Stage o Cephalocaudal principle: Upper parts of the body develop before the lower parts of the trunk. Begins once implantation has occured o Proximodistal principle: The parts of the body Second stage of gestation (2 to 8 weeks) characterized by near the center develop before the extremities. rapid growth and development of major body systems and organs. Germinal Stage Amniotic Sac – fluid filled membrane that encases the First 2 weeks of prenatal development, characterized developing embryo by rapid cell division, increasing complexity and Organs and major body systems develop rapidly. differentiation, and implantation in the wall of the uterus. o Respiratory Stage of the zygote (the “fertilized egg”) o Digestive AKA “germinal stage” or “stage of the ovum” o Nervous Zygote has the following activities: Placenta o Forms of protection against repeated penetration o Connect the baby and the mother. from additional sperm. o Provide nourishment. o Repeated cell division by mitosis. o Site for gas exchange. o Connected to the embryo by the umbilical cord. 2 -9 week of gestation: human like nd th o Beating heart (Third week) o external genitals o Face with mouth, eyes and ears o Arms and legs o Trunk and limb musculature. o Gross movements. 14 Final stage of gestation (from 8 weeks to birth), ORGANOGENESIS - Development of the organ systems. characterized by increased detail of body parts and greatly Brain growth and development begins during the embryonic enlarged body size. stage. Organs and body become more complex SPONATANEOUS ABORTION/ MISCARRIAGE - Expulsion Finishing Touches’ – toenails, eyelids from the uterus of an embryo of fetus that is unable to Appearance of bone survive. Appearance of bone cells signals this stage It is a critical period for brain development. Three basic layers that arise from the inner cell mass of the Fetus is structurally complete: blastocyst: o Development is FUNCTIONAL not structural. o ECTODERM - Outer layer. 4th to 5th months- bones and external genitalia are o MESODERM - Middle layer. discernible. o ENDODERM - Inner layer. Five months. o Swallows, hiccups, opens and closes eyes, makes facial movements flex and extends limbs, sucks thumb. o Still cannot survive independently. SOMATIC DEVELOPMENT 9 weeks- Structural remodeling of some organs ECTODERMAL DERIVATIVES 10 weeks- face is recognizably human 12 weeks- gender is distinguishable. Lung division Central NS/Peripheral NS successively occurs. Bronchi. Bronchioles... Epithelium of sensory organs. 20-24 weeks- primitive alveoli; Surfactant production Epidermis (absence of alveoli, lungs are useless for gas exchange) Enamel of the teeth 3rd trimester ( 7 months to nine months)- weight triples, Epithelial lining of other organs length doubles as body stores of protein, fat, iron, and Hair calcium increases. Nails Threats to Fetal Development MESODERMAL DERIVATIVES Prenatal period has the highest rate of morbidity and Skeletal system mortality!!! Muscle Cells Spontaneous abortions most often in the first trimester. Dermis and subcutaneous tissue TERATOGENS Pleural and pericardial cavities. Cardiovascular and lymphatic system. Environmental agent that can interfere with normal prenatal Gonads development. Cortical portions of the suprarenals Associated with gross physical and mental abnormalities. ENDODERMAL DERIVATIVES Infectious agents. Chemical agents (Mercury, thalidomide, Ethanol, anti Epithelial linings of the respiratory tract epileptic drugs) Tonsils, thymus, lungs, liver, pancreas High temperature Gastrointestinal tract. Radiation Fetal Stage 15 o Illicit drugs Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Maternal Factors o Combination of mental, motor and development Teratogenic: birth defect producing abnormalities affecting the offspring of some Nutrition and maternal weight women who drink heavily during pregnancy. Drugs & alcohol intake Radiation Nicotine o Chromosomal damage Caffeine o Microcephaly Maternal illnesses o Brain malformation o Sexually Transmitted Diseases (HIV/AIDS) o Mental retardation Maternal age and stress Paternal Factors Outside environmental hazards Parental Factors Parental Risk Factors May affect quality of sperm: Organisms are most vulnerable during periods of maximum o Exposure to lead growth and differentiation, mostly the first time. o Marijuana or tobacco smoke Prenatal exposure to cigarette smoke is associated with. o Alcohol or radiation o Low birth weight o Pesticides o Shorter length o Paternal age o Smaller head circumference Monitoring Prenatal Development o Decreased IQ o Increased rates of learning disabilities Ultrasound and Amniocentesis Severe maternal starvation Chorionic villus sampling CVS) o Low birth weight Embryoscopy Psychologic stress during pregnancy Maternal blood test Caffeine Prenatal Care Maternal age o Very young mothers. Includes: o 35 years old above (Risk of chromosomal o Education problems) o Social services Maternal Health o Nutritional services o Nutrition o 3-4 lbs/ months (25- 30 lbs during pregnancy) Maternal Stress o Release of adrenaline and other hormones. (affects brain and sex organ development) Maternal infections and diseases o German measles. (Rubella) Congenital rubella syndrome- Deafness. Hearts defects, MR, cataracts Maternal drugs o Thalidomide o Nicotine/alcohol intake (LBW, prematurity, death, Fetal Alcohol Syndrome) 16 Historically, childbirth has often been “a struggle with death” for both mother and baby. Childbirth eventually began to be professionalized. BIRTH PROCESS Parturition: The act or process of giving birth 2 weeks before delivery Uterine contractions Cervix becomes flexible Stimulated by rising estrogen levels STAGES OF CHILDBIRTH Stage 1: Dilation of the Cervix Stages of Childbirth Longest, typically 12-14 hours for first child, cervix dilates Stage 2: Descent and Emergence of the Baby 1-2 hours, contractions stronger and closer together, baby’s head moves through birth canal. Stage 2 ends with baby emerging from mother’s body Stage 3: Expulsion of the Placenta 10-60 minutes, placenta and umbilical cord expelled from mother Helps protect the life and health of the infant and mother Not evenly distributed among SES, ethnic groups Preconception care CDC recommendations include: o Physical examinations o Vaccinations VAGINAL VERSUS CESAREAN DELIVERY o Risk screening o Counseling Cesarian Delivery Surgically removing baby from uterus through abdomen Often used when labor progresses slowly ______________________________________________________________________ Changing preferences among women and some physicians BIRTH AND THE FIRST THREE YEARS OF LIFE Common with: o First and/or large babies BIRTH AND PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT o Older moms Early Physical Development o Mothers with previous C-sections Customs surrounding childbirth reflect a culture’s beliefs, MEDICATED VERSUS NONMEDICATED DELIVERY values, and resources. Natural Childbirth 17 Mother receives training in fitness, breathing and relaxation After birth, all of the baby’s systems and functions must operate on their own. Most of the work of this transition Traditional cultures - Use of ‘doula’ occurs during the first 4 to 6 hours after delivery Experienced helper provides emotional support to mother Most babies start to breathe as soon as they are exposed to air. Prepared Childbirth If a neonate does not begin breathing within about 5 minutes, Lamaze the baby may suffer permanent brain injury caused by Mother learns to substitute other responses for feelings of anoxia, lack of oxygen, or hypoxia, a reduced oxygen pain supply. Anoxia or hypoxia may occur during delivery (though rarely THE NEWBORN BABY so) as a result of repeated compression of the placenta Neonatal period: First 4 weeks of life, a time of transition from and umbilical cord with each contraction. intrauterine dependency to independent existence This form of birth trauma can leave permanent brain damage, causing mental retardation, behavior problems, or SIZE AND APPEARANCE even death. In the uterus, the fetus relies on the umbilical cord to An average neonate is 20 inches long and 7.5 pounds. bring food from the mother and to carry fetal body Boys tend to be slightly longer and heavier than girls, and a wastes away. firstborn At birth, babies instinctively suck to take in milk, and Neonates lose as much as 10 percent of their body their own gastrointestinal secretions digest it. weight, primarily because of a loss of fluids. During the first few days infants secrete meconium, a stringy, They begin to gain weight again at about the 5th day greenishblack waste matter formed in the fetal intestinal and are generally back to birth weight by the 10th to the tract. 14th day. When the bowels and bladder are full, the sphincter New babies have distinctive features, including a large head muscles open automatically; a baby will not be able to (one-fourth the body length) and a receding chin control these muscles for many months. (which makes it easier to nurse). Three or four days after birth, about half of all babies (and a Newborn infants also have areas on their heads known as larger proportion of babies born prematurely) develop fontanels where the bones of the skull do not meet neonatal jaundice: their skin and eyeballs look yellow. Many newborns have a pinkish cast; their skin is so thin This kind of jaundice is caused by the immaturity of that it barely covers the capillaries through which blood the liver. flows. Usually it is not serious, does not need treatment, and has During the first few days, some neonates are very hairy no long-term effects. because some of the lanugo, a fuzzy prenatal hair, has not However, severe jaundice that is not monitored and yet fallen off treated promptly may result in brain damage. Almost all new babies are covered with vernix caseosa (“cheesy varnish”), an oily protection against MEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT infection that dries within the first few day Apgar scale: Standardized measurement of a newborn’s BODY SYSTEMS condition; it assesses appearance, pulse, grimace, activity, and respiration. Before birth, blood circulation, respiration, nourishment, elimination of waste, and temperature regulation are Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale accomplished through the mother’s body. (NBAS): Neurological and behavioral test to measure neonate’s responses to the environment Neonatal screening for medical conditions. 18 Some babies, known as small-for-date (small- forgestational-age) infants, are born at or around their due dates, but are smaller than would be expected. These babies weigh less than 90 percent of babies of the same gestational age. State of arousal: an infant’s psychological and behavioral They are small, not because they were born early and did not status at a given moment in the periodic daily cycle of have a chance to finish putting on weight, but for other wakefulness, sleep, and activity. reasons, most commonly inadequate prenatal Youngest babies sleep the most and wake up the most nutrition, which slows fetal growth. frequently. A low-birth-weight or at-risk preterm baby may be placed in Parents report that from 0 to 2 months of age, infants an isolette (an antiseptic, temperature-controlled crib) and sleep about 14.5 hours a day and wake 1.7 times per fed through tubes. night Kangaroo care (KC), an intervention involving extended skin- In the daytime, infants from 0 to 5 months will generally to-skin contact, has been theorized to help preemies—and nap about 3 hours a day full-term infants— make the adjustment from fetal life to At 2 months of age, the average baby’s longest nightly the jumble of sensory stimuli in the outside world sleep period will be 5.7 hours long, a number that rises Greater risk of: to 8.3 hours at 6 to 24 months of age. o Neurological and cognitive impairment By a year, most babies will sleep 12.6 hours a night o Lower academic achievement total with 0.7 wakings each evening o Social, behavioral, and attention problems CHILDBIRTH COMPLICATIONS POST MATURITY AND STILLBIRTH Low Birthweight Postmature: A fetus not yet born as of 2 weeks after the due date or 42 weeks after the mother’s last menstrual Weighing less than 5 ½ lbs (2,500 grams) period. Very low birth weight - less than 3 ½ lbs. Stillbirth: Death of a fetus at or after the 20th week of 15.5% of all births, most in developing countries gestation. Prematurity and low birth weight are the 2nd leading cause of infant death, after birth defects Postmature: RISK FACTORS Postmature babies tend to be long and thin because they have kept growing in the womb but have had an insufficient Underage or over-age blood supply toward the end of gestation. Uneducated and poor Possibly because the placenta has aged and become Poor nutrition less efficient, it may provide less oxygen. Smoking and drinking The baby’s greater size also complicates labor; the Stress mother has to deliver a baby the size of a normal 1- Infections and high blood pressure month-old. This puts the mother at higher risk of a cesarean Low Birthweight delivery, perineal tears, and postpartum hemorrhage, and There are two types of LBW babies: those born early and the neonate at greater risk of shoulder dystocia (a condition those born small. in which the baby’s shoulders become stuck behind the Typical gestation is 40 weeks, and babies born before the mother’s pelvic bone during delivery), meconium aspiration, 37th week of gestation are known as preterm (premature) low Apgar scores, brain damage, and death infants. SURVIVAL AND HEALTH 19 INFANT MORTALITY Better cognitive performance Recommendation is babies exclusively breastfeed for 6 The chief causes of neonatal death worldwide are preterm months birth complications (35 percent), childbirth complications Nutritional needs and eating behavior (24 percent), and sepsis (15 percent). Should consume approximately 50 calories per day for each Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS): Sudden and pound they weigh unexplained death of an apparently healthy infant. As motor skills improve, infants change: o Crib Death’ o From using suck-and-swallow movements o Sudden death of infant under 1 year of age o To chew-and-swallow movements with semisolid o Cause of death unexplained and then complex foods o May have underlying biological defect (heart gene Need to have a diet that includes: mutations) May be associated with sleeping on o Fruits and vegetables stomach Breast versus bottle feeding o Breast feeding is better Benefits of breast feeding - Outcomes for the child EARLY PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT o Gastrointestinal infections o Lower respiratory tract infections o Allergies o Asthma o Ear, throat, and sinus infections o Overweight and obesity o Diabetes o SIDS Benefits of breast feeding - Outcomes for the mother HEIGHT AND WEIGHT o Breast cancer Most of the newborns are 18 to 22 inches long and weigh o Ovarian cancer between 5 and 10 pounds o Type 2 diabetes Grow about 1 inch per month during the first year Mother should not breast feed: By 2 years of age o When infected with HIV or some other infectious o Infants weigh approximately 26 to 32 pounds disease o Average 32 to 35 inches in height o If she has active tuberculosis o If she is taking any drug PATTERNS OF GROWTH Malnutrition in infancy CEPHALOCAUDAL PATTERN: Sequence in which the earliest growth o Marasmus: Wasting away of body tissues in the always occurs from the top downward infant’s first year ▪ Caused by severe protein-calorie PROXIMODISTAL PATTERN; Sequence in which growth starts in the deficiency center of the body and moves toward the extremities o Kwashiorkor: Caused by severe protein deficiency NUTRITION ▪ Appears between 1 and 3 years of age Breast milk almost always the best food THE BRAIN o More digestible Contains approximately 100 billion neurons at birth o Reduces allergic reactions Shaken baby syndrome - Brain swelling and o Minimizes numerous infections May reduce risk hemorrhaging of SIDS 20 Positron-emission tomography - Scans pose a radiation Two recent reviews concluded that breast feeding is linked risk to babies to a lower incidence of SIDS Electroencephalogram - Measure of the brain’s electrical Infants whose siblings have died of SIDS are two to four activity times as likely to die of it Brain’s development BRAIN CELLS Mapping the brain Brain has two halves Neurons: Send and receive information Lateralization: Specialization of function in one hemisphere Glia: Nourish and protect neurons of the cerebral cortex or the other Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers Changes in neurons Myelination: Fatty substance helps send faster signals o Myelination EARLY REFLEXES o Connectivity among neurons increases Changes in regions of the brain Postural o Blooming and pruning vary by brain region o Reactions to changes in posture or balance o Peak of synaptic overproduction in the visual Locomotor cortex followed by a gradual retraction o Resemble later-appearing voluntary movements ▪ Heredity and environment influence the o Walking and swimming reflexes timing and course Moro o Pace of myelination varies Darwinian Early experience and the brain Tonic o Children in deprived environment may have Rooting depressed brain activity Babkin and Babinski o Brain demonstrates both flexibility and resilience Neurocontructivist view: BRAIN PLASTICITY o Biological processes and environmental Postnatal brain is molded by development conditions influence the brain’s development ‘Plasticity’ o Brain has plasticity and is context dependent Threats o Development of the brain and the child’s cognitive o Sensory impoverishment Malnutrition development are closely linked Corrective experiences can relieve past deprivations SLEEP EARLY SENSORY CAPACITIES Typical new born sleeps approximately 18 hours a day TOUCH: Infant sleep-related problem – Night time waking Cultural variations influence infant sleeping patterns First sense to develop REM sleep - Eyes flutter beneath closed lids Rooting reflex Shared sleeping Able to experience pain at birth Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS): Occurs when an infant SMELL AND TASTE: stops breathing, usually at night Suddenly dies without an apparent cause Begins to develop in womb SIDS is less likely to occur in infants who use a pacifier when Newborns prefer sweet tastes they go to sleep Fluids and odors may be transmitted through amniotic fluid Low birth weight infants are 5 to 10 times more likely to die HEARING: of SIDS than are their normal-weight counterparts Functional before birth 21 Three-day-olds can tell new speech sounds from ones visual cliff they’ve already heard the process of “learning how to learn” is an outcome of perception and action SIGHT: The sense least developed at birth 20/20 reached by about 6 months Thelen’s Dynamic Systems Theory Binocular vision (depth) develops around 4.5 months dynamic systems theory: motor development is a dynamic MOTOR DEVELOPMENT process of active coordination of multiple systems within the infant in relation to the environment MILESTONES OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Milestones of Motor Development Denver Developmental Screening Test o Gross motor skills Fine motor skills Cultural Influences on Motor Development o “Average” Depends on the pace of the culture ▪ Head control - at birth, head movement African and West Indian cultures actively encourage early is minimal but the strength to turn their motor strength head or hold it up without help is gained Bouncing and stepping exercises over time Other cultures discourage… ▪ Hand control - babies are born with Ache mothers pull infants to their laps when they crawl away grasping reflex ▪ Locomotion - 6-10 months- babies can get around under their own power Walk and Gibson: The Visual Cliff o Do infants perceive depth? o Six-month-old babies would approach ‘ledge,’ but avoided ‘drop’ o Demonstrated ‘depth perception’ Thelen’s Dynamic Systems Theory o Learning occurs through detecting the many features of an environment o With experience, babies learn to gauge their environment ▪ Is that ball moving away from me? ▪ Is that ground too rough to walk on? Motor Development and Perception visual guidance: the use of eyes to guide the movement of the hands depth perception: the ability to perceive objects and surfaces in three dimensions haptic perception: the ability to acquire information through touch Eleanor and James Gibson’s Ecological Theory of Perception