Counterproductive Behavior in Organizations PDF

**Introduction to Industrial and Organizational (I/O) Psychology** **1. Definition and Scope** - **I/O Psychology**: The application of psychological methods and principles to the workplace to understand and improve individual and group behavior in organizational settings. - The "data...

**Introduction to Industrial and Organizational (I/O) Psychology** **1. Definition and Scope** - **I/O Psychology**: The application of psychological methods and principles to the workplace to understand and improve individual and group behavior in organizational settings. - The "data" may come in a variety of forms, including survey responses, interviews, observations, and organizational records. **Definition of Organizations**: - Social entities with more than two people. - Have a common goal and a structured framework. **Characteristics of Effective Organizations**: - Higher productivity. - Provide superior services to customers. - Achieving greater financial success compared to less effective organizations. **Impact on Employees**: - Employees in successful organizations typically experience higher job satisfaction and a greater sense of fulfillment compared to those in less effective organizations. **2. Nature and Importance** - **Scientific Approach**: Utilizes data-based methods (e.g., surveys, interviews, observations) for studying and solving organizational problems. - **Impact on Daily Life**: The coordination of individuals in organizations affects essential aspects of life such as food, housing, and transportation. **3. Types of Organizations** - **Formal Organizations**: - Have an explicitly stated purpose, continuity over time, and examples include businesses, nonprofits, government agencies, and universities. - **Informal Organizations**: - Less explicit purposes and lack continuity (e.g., a group of friends playing poker). - **Focus of I/O Psychology**: Primarily on formal organizations but includes studying informal processes within them, such as friendships impacting workplace dynamics. **Dual Focus**: - **Efficiency and Productivity**: Enhancing organizational output. - **Employee Health and Well-Being**: Ensuring a supportive environment for employees. **Dual nature:** **-\>** Application of the science of psychology to the workplace. -\> Development/discovery of scientific psychological principles at work. **1. Breakdown of I/O Psychology:** **Industrial Side**: Focuses on human resource management. Key topics include: **Recruitment**: Processes for attracting qualified candidates. **Selection**: Choosing the right employees. **Classification**: Categorizing roles and personnel. **Compensation**: Structuring pay and benefits. **Performance Appraisal**: Evaluating employee performance. **Training**: Developing employee skills. **Organizational Side**: Aims to understand and predict behavior within organizational settings. Main areas include: **Socialization**: Integrating new employees into the company culture. **Motivation**: Enhancing employee drive and commitment. **Occupational Stress**: Identifying and managing job-related stress. **Leadership**: Guiding and influencing employees. **Group Performance**: Improving team dynamics and outcomes. **Organizational Development**: Strategies for improving overall effectiveness. **2. Application Examples:** - **Industrial Side Application**: - Example: A life insurance company develops a selection test for sales agents. - Steps include job analysis, defining performance criteria, developing a predictive test, and studying its correlation with job performance. - **Organizational Side Application**: - Example: New employees (insurance agents) must be socialized into the agency and broaden the company culture. - Understanding unique job stressors and attributes that help with coping is essential. **4. Key Themes in I/O Psychology** - **Scientific-Practitioner Model**: - Integration of scientific knowledge generation and practical application. - Students often gain practical experience through internships and projects, emphasizing real-world application and interpersonal skills in organizations. **5. Historical Context** - **Frederick Taylor (1911)**: - Developed **Scientific Management** to enhance employee productivity. - **World War I**: - Introduction of I/O psychology in military settings with the development of **Alpha and Beta tests** for mental ability. - **Between World Wars**: - Expansion into employee and productivity issues; significant research accumulation. - Establishment of the **National Institute of Industrial Psychology (NIIP)**. - **Hawthorne Studies**: - Highlighted the importance of social factors in productivity, showing that work group norms and leadership styles affect employee behavior. - **World War II**: - Further development with a focus on employee selection, training, performance appraisal, and team development. I/O psychology was recognized by the **APA** and saw the formation of **SIOP** (Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology). **6. Contemporary Themes and Challenges** - **Ethics and Social Responsibility**: Upholding ethical standards and contributing positively to society. - **Globalization and Cross-Cultural Issues**: Adapting practices to diverse workforces and international environments. - **Environment and Sustainability**: Integrating eco-friendly practices in organizational operations. - **Technological Change**: - The rise of communication technology allows for faster operations and more flexible work arrangements but poses challenges in balancing work and non-work life. **Counterproductive behavior in organizations** - Behavior that explicitly runs counter to the goals of the organization. If an employee engages in behaviors that make it more difficult for an organization to achieve its goals, then they are engaging in counterproductive behavior. - Counterproductive behaviors intentional or unintentional are different and important because the solution might be different - When an employee performs his or her job poorly, this may be due to **limited ability (individual characteristic),** but may be partially caused by **poor task design (environmental characteristic** - **Example:** lack of justice may make people lower on productivity. First, we should look into the authoritarian organization climate rather than the individual itself. Not: don't just think about the employee, sometimes a company may not inform the individual enough or don't take safety precautions carefully **Causes of ineffective job performance** - Employees' inability to perform their jobs effectively - Lack of ability, lack of skills, poor training - Lack of willingness to perform effectively - Putting efforts in the wrong direction - Aspects of the environment that prevent the employee from performing well - Ineffective coworkers - Work-life balance - Personal life and responsibilities The cause(S) of ineffective performance is determined by **attributional process (**suggests that people make use of several pieces of information when determining causes of another person2s behavior) **Zero tolerance** - Physical violence, substance use, sexual harrastment are zero tolerance policies however some companies may evolve it into Employee Assistance Programs **Theories of motivation** Campbell's -\> declarative knowledge \* procedural skill \* motivation Mitchell -\> motivation \* ability \* environment (ability is the procedural skill + declarative knowledge from the Campbell's model and environment is a new) **Motivation:** why people initiate behavior and effort at work, and the process that determines its [intensity, direction] towards goals and [maintenance] over time. ! when we talk about motivation and hard work, we talk about motivation and hard work towards the right way, not going on the wrong path. **Framework for motivation theories** 1. **Need theories of motivation** Maslow's hierarchy of needs, ERG theory and McClelland's acquired-need theory (the one with the most scientific Is Mc's one) A pyramid of needs Description automatically generated **Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:** this theory is based on a simple premise: human beings have needs that are hierarchically ranked. As we satisfy the basic needs, we start looking to satisfy higher order needs. This model is a clinical model not an organizational, not enough scientific information. - **Criticism 1:** It is possible to imagine that individuals who go hungry and are afraid of their lives might retain strong bonds to others, suggesting a different order of needs. **ERG Theory (Alderfer)**  **McClelland Acquired Needs Theory** Motivation stems from trait-like inner needs: 1. Need for achievement 2. Need for affiliation 3. Need for power We all need them but at different levels, usually one is dominant Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to assess the dominant need. TAT If the story contains themes of success, meeting deadlines, or coming up with brilliant ideas, you may be high in need of achievement. These are important to know in the case of giving rewards to the employees. 2. **Cognitive process theories of motivation** **Equity theory** - Our sense of fairness is a result of social comparisons we make - We compare our inputs and outcomes with other people's inputs and outcomes. - When the two ratios are equal, equity exists - Referent should be comparable to us otherwise the comparison is not meaningful A screenshot of a computer Description automatically generated Which one is not a strategy that can be useful or matching the examples could be an exam question. !! the term equity changed into **justice** in the 80s (sınav sorusu)!! **Organizational justice** **Interactional Justice** - the degree to which people are treated with respect, kindness, and dignity in inter-personal interactions. **Procedural Justice** - the degree to which fair decision-making procedures are used to arrive at a decision. **Distributive Justice** - the degree to which the outcomes received from the organization are perceived to be fair. **Expectancy theory**  Can I, do it? If I try harder, can I really achieve this number? What is it for me? What are the outcomes that will follow? Do I feel that a 2% pay raise is desirable A diagram of a company\'s performance Description automatically generated It is important to give employees a choice over the reward but not too many or else it might be distressing. **Goal setting theory** - Goals serve to direct our attention and focus our efforts on a particular direction. - Goals help us to maintain task persistence - The existence of goals tends to facilitate the development of task strategies. **Setting goals** - Specific, Measurable, Difficult but attainable, Relevant, Time bound, Employee participation  3. **Behavioral Approach to Motivation** **Disadvantages of punishment** \- Creates a negative work environment (stress, anxiety, diminished trust) \- Leads to temporary behavior change without promoting learning \- Decreases motivation and can cause resistance or retaliation \- Increases employee turnover, raising recruitment and training costs \- Reduces team collaboration and fosters fear-driven competition \- Encourages avoidance behavior, hiding mistakes, and stifling innovation \- Positive reinforcement strategies are more effective for long-term outcome 4. **Job-Based Theories of motivation** **Motivation Hygiene Theory** - The primary source of motivation in the workplace was the content of people's jobs. - at the time primary method of motivation was through compensation and financial -- external. - Every worker has two sets of needs or requirements: **motivator needs and hygiene needs** - Motivational needs are associated with the actual work itself and how challenging it is. (interesting work, responsibility) - Hygiene needs are associated with the physical and psychological context in which the work is performed. (physical working, conditions, pay, security) Figure 03 Hygiene factors are necessary to keep employees from being dissatisfied but do not have power to truly motivate them. In order to motivate an employee, an organization must design work in a way that builds in motivators and makes contact intrinsically rewarding to employees.  **Productive Behavior in Organizations** **Models of Job Performance** - It is important because there is so much research and practice in organizational psychology centers around performance prediction - Performance prediction is the most common dependent variable. - We study variables (motivation, leadership, stress) to see their impact on performance. [two major categories of job performance found across models:] - In-role (task) performance: performance on the technical aspects of an employee's job. - Extra-role (contextual) performance: nontechnical abilities such as being able to communicate effectively. A close-up of a document Description automatically generated - **Dimensions**: - **Job-Specific Task Proficiency**: Core tasks unique to a job (e.g., bank tellers counting money). - **Non-Job-Specific Task Proficiency**: Common tasks across roles (e.g., professors advising students). - **Written and Oral Communication**: Effective writing and speaking skills. - **Demonstrating Effort**: Motivation and persistence in completing tasks. - **Maintaining Personal Discipline**: Adhering to rules and avoiding negative behaviors. - **Facilitating Peer and Team Performance**: Helping coworkers and promoting teamwork. - **Supervision/Leadership**: Managing and leading others. - **Management/Administration**: Organizing and handling critical information. - **Key Insight**: Not all dimensions are relevant for all jobs, but core task proficiency, effort, and discipline are essential for all. - Campbell highlighted three core components vital for all jobs: job-specific proficiency, effort, and discipline. - This model provides a standardized way to assess performance and compare job types, aiding in understanding performance determinants.  **Murphy's Model of Job Performance:** - **Task-Oriented Behaviors**: Similar to job-specific task proficiency. - For supervisory roles, including supervision and management/administration tasks. - **Down-Time Behaviors**: Actions leading to absenteeism (e.g., substance abuse). - These behaviors impact job performance as they can result in frequent absences. - **Destructive/Hazardous Behaviors**: Safety violations and sabotage. - Connects with maintaining personal discipline and demonstrating effort as in Campbell\'s model, particularly when behaviors are due to a lack of effort (e.g., not following safety procedures). - **Interpersonally Oriented Behaviors**: All interpersonal interactions at work. - Examples include a store clerk answering customer questions, a nurse consulting with a doctor, or a mechanic discussing repairs with a service manager. - Mirrors the \"facilitating peer and team performance\" dimension in Campbell's model. **Comparison with Campbell's Model:** - **Interpersonal and teamwork-focused behaviors** in Murphy\'s model align with Campbell's \"facilitating peer and team performance.\" - **Down-time and destructive behaviors** relate to maintaining personal discipline in Campbell's model. - **Overlap with demonstrating effort** is observed when destructive behaviors stem from negligence or lack of effort. **4. Measuring Job Performance** - **Methods**: Paper/pencil tests, job skills tests, hands-on testing, simulations**, task ratings**, and **global ratings**. Two most common methods of performance assessment in organizations are ratings of employees' performance on **specific tasks** and ratings of **overall performance** on the job. **Common Issues**: Biases in ratings, lack of objective measures, and varied observer standards. And also, employees may lack control over objective performance indicators (sales commission person may be good but the economy would affect buyers) **Solutions**: Rater training and using objective measures (though these can be flawed). **5. Instability of Job Performance** **Dynamic Nature**: Performance varies over time, as supported by studies (e.g., Deadrick and Madigan, 1990; Ployhart and Hakel, 1998). Although performance is not stable over time, **it does not fluctuate randomly.** There may be **individual differences** that predict patterns of performance variability over time. **Murphy on Instability of Job Performance Over Time** **Concept**: Job performance is dynamic and varies over time rather than being consistent. **Maintenance and Transition Stages:** - **Maintenance Stage:** - Tasks become routine and automatic for the worker. - Example: Driving becomes second nature once learned. - **Transition Stage:** - Occurs when there are significant changes such as new technology or major law changes impacting the job. - Performance during these stages can be better predicted by cognitive ability due to the increased complexity of tasks. - **Insight:** - The dynamic nature of job performance means that what works during routine (maintenance) periods might not be sufficient during transitional periods where higher cognitive skills are needed. **Sturman, Cheramie, and Cashen on Instability of Job Performance Over Time** **Importance of Job Characteristics**: Job characteristics significantly impact the stability of job performance over time. **Performance Assessment Types:** - Job performance over the course of a year was highest for jobs that were low in complexity and assessed through subjective ratings and were lowest for jobs that were high in complexity and assessed through objective indicators. **Determinants of Job Performance** - **Campbell's Model**: Performance results from the interaction of: - **Declarative Knowledge**: Knowing facts and information. - **Procedural Knowledge/Skill**: how to do it and is able to carry out these behaviors. - **Motivation**: Drives to apply knowledge and skill. - **General Mental Ability**: Strongly correlated with job performance (Schmidt and Hunter, 1998). - General mental ability (GMA) links to job performance through job knowledge, with higher GMA leading to better job understanding (Schmidt, Hunter, & Outerbridge, 1986). GMA is a stronger predictor of performance in complex jobs compared to simpler ones (Bertua et al., 2005). **Predictors of Job Performance** - **Job Experience**: - **Density:** exposure to many developmental experiences in a relatively short period of time. (İncreased responsibilities, and even being required to perform under very difficult conditions) - **Timing**: certain experiences might have more, or less, developmental value, depending on whether they occur at the beginning, middle, or latter stage of one's career. (Mistakes have a greater developmental impact when they occur at the eary stages of one's career. - **Personality Traits**: - **Conscientiousness**: Strongest predictor; linked to dependability and achievement. - **Core Self-Evaluation**: Includes self-esteem, locus of control, generalized self-efficacy, and low neuroticism. **Self-Esteem**: Refers to a person's overall attitude and perception of their own worth. **Locus of Control**: Indicates whether individuals attribute the causes of their behavior to their own actions (internal) or external environmental factors (external). **Generalized Self-Efficacy**: The belief in one's ability to accomplish tasks and face challenges effectively. **Neuroticism**: Represents emotional instability and a tendency to experience negative emotions, which negatively impacts core self-evaluation. **Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)** **Definition**: Voluntary behaviors not part of formal job descriptions (e.g., helping others). **Types**: - **Altruism**: Helping coworkers, also referred to as prosocial behavior. **Example**: employee's voluntarily assisting a coworker who is having difficulty operating his or her computer. - **Courtesy**: Consideration for others. - **Example**: to find out how things are going, letting others know where one can be reached. - **Sportsmanship**: Avoiding complaints. **Example**: not engaging in certain forms of behaviors, such as complaining about problems - **Conscientiousness**: Good workplace behavior (e.g., punctuality). - **Civic Virtue**: Supporting the organization (e.g., attending events). - **Antecedents**: positive affect in Job satisfaction, perceived fairness, and personality traits like conscientiousness predispose individuals to engage in OCB. A diagram of a diagram Description automatically generated The most logical conclusion is that affective and cognitive influences combine in an additive fashion to determine OCB. **Innovation in Organizations** - **Definition**: Employees develop novel ideas to benefit the organization. - **Key Employee Attributes**: - **Task-Relevant Skills**: General and task-specific ability, formal education. - **Creativity-Relevant Skills**: Viewing problems from multiple angles, independence. - **Task Motivation**: Enjoyment and intrinsic drive. - **Organizational Factors**: - **Technical Knowledge**: Most influential predictor. - **Specialization and Communication**: Critical for fostering innovation. - **Functional Differentiation**: Presence of distinct specializations aids innovation.