Industrial and Organizational Psychology (6th Edition) PDF

6 TH EDITION Industrial and Organizational Psychology Research and Practice PAUL E. SPECTOR Department of Psychology University of South Florida JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. VP A...

6 TH EDITION Industrial and Organizational Psychology Research and Practice PAUL E. SPECTOR Department of Psychology University of South Florida JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. VP AND EXECUTIVE PUBLISHER Jay O’Callaghan SENIOR ACQUISITION EDITOR Robert Johnston ASSOCIATE EDITOR Eileen McKeever EDITORIAL PROGRAM ASSISTANT Mariah Maguire-Fong SENIOR MARKETING MANAGER Danielle Hagey MARKETING ASSISTANT Patrick Flatley PHOTO EDITOR Sheena Goldstein PRODUCTION MANAGER Janis Soo ASSISTANT PRODUCTION EDITOR Elaine S. Chew COVER DESIGNER Seng Peng Ngieng COVER PHOTO CREDIT © Deco Images II/Alamy This book was set in 10/12 Times by Laserwords Private Limited and printed and bound by RR Donnelley, Jefferson City. The cover was printed by RR Donnelley, Jefferson City. This book is printed on acid free paper. 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HF5548.8.S625 2012 158.7--dc22 2011016567 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 To Gail and Steven Spector 䉴 Preface Industrial/organizational or I/O psychology is an exciting field that has been enjoying continual growth in the United States and throughout the industrialized world during its almost 100-year history. In fact, in 2010 the U.S. Department of Labor listed I/O as one of the 25 most rapidly growing occupations. What began as a tiny subspecialty of psychology, known only to a few practitioners and professors, has grown to be one of the major specialties in psychology worldwide. This attention is due to two factors. First, I/O is concerned with the workplace, so its findings and principles are relevant to everyone who holds a job. Second, I/O has developed proven methods that organizations find of value. I/O psychologists are often called on to help organizations develop a more efficient and healthier workforce. The field of I/O psychology has a dual nature. First, it is the science of people at work. This aspect ties it to other areas of psychology, such as cognitive and social psychology. Second, I/O psychology is the application of psychological principles of organizational and work settings. There is no other area of psychology in which a closer correspondence between application and science exists, making I/O a good example of how society can benefit from the study of psychology. The field of I/O is a large and diverse one. Many topics are covered, ranging from methods of hiring employees to theories of how organizations work. It is concerned with helping organizations get the most from their employees or human resources, as well as helping organizations take care of employee health, safety, and well-being. For this reason, a single text can provide only an overview of the major findings and methods that I/O psychologists use. The goal of this book is to provide such an overview, as well as a comprehensive understanding of the field. Each of the major areas that comprise I/O psychology is covered. Part One of this book provides an overview of the I/O field. Chapter 1 covers the nature of the field and its history. I/O psychology is discussed as both a practice and a science. The chapter describes what a career in I/O psychology involves and what it takes to become an I/O psychologist. Chapter 2 is an overview of the basic principles of I/O research methods. The remainder of the book is divided into four parts. Part Two focuses on assessment. Chapter 3 discusses the assessment of jobs, called job analysis; Chapter 4 focuses on the assessment of employee job performance; and Chapter 5 explores the way in which employee characteristics are measured. Part Three contains two chapters. Chapter 6 deals with the methods that organizations use to hire new employees. Chapter 7 follows those new employees, as well as experienced ones, through their training programs. The four chapters in Part Four discuss the relationship between the individual and the organization. Chapter 8 covers theories of motivation. Chapter 9 focuses on how people feel about their jobs—their attitudes about the job and the emotions they experience at work. The topic of Chapter 10 is productive and counterproductive work behavior. v vi 䉴 Preface Chapter 11 deals with occupational health psychology, a rapidly emerging field that is concerned with worker health, safety, and well-being. The final part of the book, Part Five, is concerned with the social context of work. Chapter 12 explores small work groups and work teams and their effect on the individual. Chapter 13 discusses leadership and supervision in the workplace. Chapter 14, the last chapter, takes an organization perspective. It covers organizational development and organizational theory. 䉴 SPECIAL FEATURES In each chapter of the book, there are “Learning by Doing” exercises that actively engage the student with the material in the chapter. All of the exercises ask the student to address an I/O issue or answer a particular question. Some involve interviewing working individuals about an aspect of their work experience. Others require observations of a public work setting, such as a retail store or restaurant. Still others are accomplished through the web. These experiences are designed to enhance the student’s knowledge of how information can be used to address a problem. In all but the first two chapters, there are three special features. First, there is a detailed summary of a research study from one of the major I/O journals. Each “Research in Detail” was chosen to give added insight through a study that is relevant to topics covered in the chapter. The implications of each study for the practice of I/O psychology are also discussed. Second, there is a detailed summary of a research study conducted outside of the United States. Until relatively recently most I/O research has been con- ducted within the United States and a handful of culturally similar Western countries, such as Canada and England. These “International Research” examples highlight studies that were done in other countries to illustrate how international the field of I/O psychol- ogy has become. Third, a case study describes how a practicing I/O psychologist was able to help an organization with a problem. These “I/O Psychology in Practice” cases were chosen to represent the wide variety of settings and applied work that involve I/O psychologists. At the end of each “I/O Psychology in Practice” case are discussion questions. The purpose of these questions is to encourage students to think about the principles discussed in the book. They require students to apply the chapter principles to a real situation. The questions can be used in a variety of ways. They can be assigned to groups of students or to individuals. They can be used for in-class debates, discussions, oral presentations, or written assignments. The cases themselves are provided to help show students the connections between practice and research in the I/O field. Students often have a difficult time seeing the relevance to their lives of much of what they study in college. I/O psychology is a field that is relevant to almost everyone. 䉴 CHANGES TO THE SIXTH EDITION My goal with all six editions is to provide a text that is as current as possible, covering both the traditional core material of the field and the exciting new emerging areas and findings. The first major task I had with the revision was to update the material and add important new developments. The science of I/O psychology is rapidly developing, with  Changes to the Sixth Edition 䉳 vii new findings and insights emerging almost daily. I added more than 170 new references. with almost all of them from 2007 or later. The overall organization of the book retains the original 14 chapters. Although early development of I/O psychology took place primarily in the United States and the United Kingdom, in the 21st century I/O psychology is international in scope. Across all the editions of this book, there has been material concerning the international nature of the I/O field, and the book attempts a broader focus than just the United States. For example, Table 1.4 in Chapter 1 lists I/O graduate programs outside of the United States, and it has grown from edition to edition of the book. In addition, with the third edition came the “International Research” feature. In this edition, I have added material on the development of I/O psychology (or occupational psychology) in the United Kingdom, which occurred at the same time as in the United States. A characteristic of American I/O psychology during most of the 20th century was its major concern with employee performance and productivity—and how these contribute to organizational functioning. Much of this was driven by the applied job market and the sorts of services that organizations were willing to purchase from consultants or hire psychologists to provide. In the United Kingdom and other European countries, the emphasis was more on employee health and well-being. In recent years, there has been a cross-fertilization, with many American I/O psychologists becoming interested in health and well-being, while American perspectives on productivity techniques have been adopted elsewhere. One offshoot of the movement toward concern with employees can be seen in the emerging field of occupational health psychology (OHP), which is developing in large part out of I/O psychology. OHP is a multidisciplinary field that is concerned with the health, safety, and well-being of employees. It developed first in the United Kingdom and other European countries and has been making rapid advances in the United States over just the past few years. OHP topics have been included in this book since the first edition, but the sixth edition provides more balance between issues of employee performance and well-being. Content Changes in the Sixth Edition Although all of the topics covered in the first five editions are still here, some have been expanded or modified, and new ones have been added. Of particular note are the following new or substantially updated topics: Alcohol and stress Bullying/mobbing Emotional labor History of I/O psychology in the United Kingdom Humanitarian work psychology Incivility Musculoskeletal disorders Respites Violence prevention climate viii 䉴 Preface As in the fifth edition, an Appendix contains a guide for students interested in applying to graduate programs in I/O psychology. It begins with tips on preparing for an I/O career and offers advice about what programs look for, how to choose the right program, and how to apply. A discussion of etiquette in dealing with student recruitment is also provided. 䉴 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In writing all six editions of this book, I was lucky to have had advice and assistance from many people. I express my sincere thanks to the many colleagues and students who provided such help, as well as the Wiley people who did a superb job. First are the members of the University of South Florida I/O psychology group: Tammy Allen Walter Borman Michael Brannick Michael Coovert Russell Johnson, now at Michigan State University Edward Levine Carnot Nelson Steve Stark There are colleagues and friends from around the world who provided feedback and information: Seymour Adler, Assessment Solutions, Inc. Julian Barling, Queens University, Canada John Bernardin, Florida Atlantic University Stephen Bluen, Gordon Institute of Business Science, South Africa Peter Chen, Colorado State University Yochi Cohen-Charash, Baruch University Steven Cronshaw, University of Guelph, Canada Donald Davis, Old Dominion University Dov Eden, Tel Aviv University, Israel Barbara Ellis, Charleston, South Carolina Michael Frese, University of Giessen, Germany Yitzhak Fried, Wayne State University Barbara Fritzsche, University of Central Florida Joan Hall, Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division Paul Jackson, University of Sheffield, England Richard Jeanneret, PAQ Services, Inc. Steve Jex, Bowling Green State University Boris Kabanoff, University of New South Wales, Australia Filip Lievens, University of Ghent, Belgium John C. Munene, Makere University, Uganda Lakshmi Narayanan, Florida Gulf Coast University Brian O’Connell, ICF International Richard Perlow, University of Lethbridge  Acknowledgments 䉳 ix Mark Peterson, Florida Atlantic University Ivan Robertson, University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technol- ogy, England Juan Sanchez, Florida International University Arie Shirom, Tel Aviv University, Israel Oi-Ling Siu, Lingnan University Dirk Steiner, Universite de Nice-Sophia, France Paul Taylor, University of Waiko, New Zealand In addition, 12 I/O psychologists provided the “Psychology in Practice” cases: Joan Brannick, Brannick HR Connections Jonathan Canger, Marriott Janis Cannon-Bowers, University of Central Florida Jeanne Carsten, JP Morgan Chase Amy Carver, Wachovia Bank Stephen Cohen, Strategic Leadership Collaborative Anna Erickson, Questar Chuck Evans, Jackson Leadership Systems Charles Michaels, University of South Florida Stacey Moran, Moran Realty Company Lynn Summers, North Carolina State Personnel Tom White, Changelink, Australia The reviewers of the various drafts of the book did a superb job, and the comments of every one of them were a tremendous help. Robert B. Bechtel, University of Arizona John Binning, Illinois State University Valentina Bruk Lee, Florida International University David V. Day, Pennsylvania State University Janet Barnes Farrell, University of Connecticut M. Jocelyne Gessner, University of Houston Sigrid Gustafson, American Institutes for Research Jane Halpert, De Paul University Leslie Hammer, Portland State University Joseph Horn, University of Texas at Austin David Kravitz, George Mason University Marjorie Krebs, Gannon University Karl Kuhnert, University of Georgia Dan Landis, University of Mississippi Terese Macan, University of Missouri–St. Louis Karen Maher, California State University at Long Beach Patrick McCarthy, Middle Tennessee State University John Meyer, University of Western Ontario Susan Mohammad, Pennsylvania State University George Neuman, Northern Illinois University Kimberly O’Brien, Central Michigan University Diana Odom-Gunn, University of California x 䉴 Preface Stephanie Payne, Texas A&M University Gerald L. Quatman, Xavier University Ann Marie Ryan, Michigan State University Steven Scher, Eastern Illinois University Susan Shapiro, Indiana University East Kenneth Shultz, California State University at San Bernardino Steven Stern, University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown Ladd Wheeler, University of Rochester H. A. Witkin, Queens College I also would like to thank the people at John Wiley who made the book possible. First is my editor, Eileen McKeever, who ran interference on lots of details and made the process run smoothly. Then there is the production staff who did an outstanding job of turning my manuscript into a book. They are my production editor, Elaine Chew, and photo editor, Sheena Goldstein. Finally, I would like to thank my wife, Gail Spector, for helping in many ways, including helping me make the hundreds of little decisions involved in writing a book. 䉴 PART I INTRODUCTION Brief Contents 䉴 CHAPTER 9 Feelings About Work: Job Attitudes and Emotions 215 䉴 CHAPTER 1 䉴 CHAPTER 10 Introduction 3 Productive and Counterproductive 䉴 CHAPTER 2 Employee Behavior 244 Research Methods in I/O Psychology 24 䉴 CHAPTER 11 Occupational Health Psychology 269 PART II ASSESSMENT OF JOBS, PART V PERFORMANCE, AND PEOPLE THE SOCIAL CONTEXT OF WORK 䉴 CHAPTER 3 䉴 CHAPTER 12 Job Analysis 53 Work Groups and Work Teams 301 䉴 CHAPTER 4 䉴 CHAPTER 13 Performance Appraisal 78 Leadership and Power in Organizations 325 䉴 CHAPTER 5 Assessment Methods for Selection 䉴 CHAPTER 14 and Placement 106 Organizational Development and Theory 352 PART III Appendix: Guide To Graduate School SELECTING AND TRAINING Admission 373 EMPLOYEES 䉴 CHAPTER 6 References 381 Selecting Employees 137 Glossary 421 䉴 CHAPTER 7 Training 167 Author Index 435 PART IV Subject Index 445 THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE ORGANIZATION 䉴 CHAPTER 8 Theories of Employee Motivation 193 xi 䉴 PART I Contents INTRODUCTION 䉴 CHAPTER 1 Introduction 3 What Is I/O Psychology? 5 Activities and Settings of I/O Psychologists 6 I/O Psychology as a Profession 8 I/O Psychology as a Science 8 History of the Field of I/O Psychology 10 I/O Psychology Beyond the United States and United Kingdom 13 What It Takes to Become an I/O Psychologist 14 Internet Resources for I/O Psychologists and Students 19 Ethics of the I/O Field 20 Humanitarian Work Psychology 21 Chapter Summary 22 䉴 CHAPTER 2 Research Methods in I/O Psychology 24 Research Questions 26 Important Research Design Concepts 27 Variables 27 Research Setting 28 Generalizability 28 Control 29 Random Assignment and Random Selection 30 Confounding 30 Research Designs 31 Experiments 31 Survey Designs 32 Observational Designs 33 Qualitative Studies 34 Measurement 34 Classical Measurement Theory 35 Reliability 36 Validity 38 Statistics 39 Descriptive Statistics 39 Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersion 39 Correlation 41 xiii xiv 䉴 Contents Regression 43 Inferential Statistics 44 Meta-Analysis 46 Mediator and Moderator Variables 47 Ethics of Research 48 Chapter Summary 49 PART II ASSESSMENT OF JOBS, PERFORMANCE, AND PEOPLE 䉴 CHAPTER 3 Job Analysis 53 What Is Job Analysis? 54 The Job-Oriented Approach 55 The Person-Oriented Approach 57 Purposes of Job Analysis 57 Career Development 58 Legal Issues 59 Performance Appraisal 60 Selection 60 Training 61 Vocational Counseling 61 Research 61 How Job Analysis Information Is Collected 62 Who Provides the Information? 62 Approaches to Collecting Job Analysis Information 63 Perform Job 63 Observe Employees Working 63 Interview Employees 63 Administer a Questionnaire 63 Multiple Approaches 64 Methods of Job Analysis 65 Job Components Inventory 65 Functional Job Analysis 65 Occupational Information Network 66 Position Analysis Questionnaire 68 Task Inventory 69 Choosing a Job Analysis Method 71 Job Analysis Methods for Work Teams 71 Reliability and Validity of Job Analysis Information 71 Reliability 72 Validity 72 Job Evaluation 73 Comparable Worth 74 Chapter Summary 75  Contents 䉳 xv 䉴 CHAPTER 4 Performance Appraisal 78 Why Do We Appraise Employees? 79 Administrative Decisions 79 Employee Development and Feedback 80 Research 80 Performance Criteria 80 Characteristics of Criteria 81 Actual Versus Theoretical Criterion 81 Contamination, Deficiency, and Relevance 81 Level of Specificity 83 Criterion Complexity 84 Dynamic Criteria 85 Contextual Performance 86 Methods for Assessing Job Performance 86 Objective Measures of Job Performance 87 Subjective Measures of Job Performance 89 Graphic Rating Forms 89 Behavior-Focused Rating Forms 89 Development of Behavior-Focused Forms 92 Cognitive Processes Underlying Ratings 93 Models of the Rating Process 93 Content of Subordinate Effectiveness 94 Rater Bias and Error 95 Halo Errors 95 Distributional Errors 96 Control of Rater Bias and Error 96 Error-Resistant Forms to Assess Performance 97 Rater Training to Reduce Errors 97 Other Factors That Influence Job Performance Ratings 99 360-Degree Feedback 100 The Impact of Technology on Performance Appraisal 101 Legal Issues in Performance Appraisal 101 Chapter Summary 103 䉴 CHAPTER 5 Assessment Methods for Selection and Placement 106 Job-Related Characteristics 108 Psychological Tests 108 Characteristics of Tests 109 Group Versus Individually Administered Tests 110 Closed-Ended Versus Open-Ended Tests 110 Paper-and-Pencil Versus Performance Tests 110 Power Versus Speed Tests 110 Ability Tests 111 Cognitive Ability Tests 111 Psychomotor Ability Tests 112 xvi 䉴 Contents Knowledge and Skill Tests 114 Personality Tests 115 Emotional Intelligence Tests 116 Integrity Tests 117 Vocational Interest Tests 118 Drug Testing 119 Biographical Information 119 Interviews 121 Work Samples 125 Assessment Centers 125 Electronic Assessment 130 Electronic Administration of Psychological Tests 130 Computer Adaptive Testing 131 Chapter Summary 132 PART III SELECTING AND TRAINING EMPLOYEES 䉴 CHAPTER 6 Selecting Employees 137 The Planning of Human Resource Needs 139 Recruiting Applicants 140 Selecting Employees 142 How Do Organizations Select Employees? 143 Conducting a Validation Study 144 Step 1: Conduct a Job Analysis 144 Step 2: Specify Job Performance Criteria 145 Step 3: Choose Predictors 145 Step 4: Validate the Predictors 146 Step 5: Cross-Validate 147 Validity Generalization 147 How Predictor Information Is Used for Selection 147 Multiple Hurdles 148 Regression Approach 148 Alternatives to Conducting Validation Studies 151 Getting Applicants to Accept and Keep Jobs Offered 152 The Utility of Scientific Selection 154 How Valid Selection Devices Work 154 Baserate 154 Selection Ratio 155 Validity 155 How Valid Predictors Increase Success Rates 155 Computing the Utility of Scientific Selection 156 International Differences in Selection Practices 158 Legal Issues 158 Legal Selection in the United States 159 Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection 160  Contents 䉳 xvii Essential Functions and Reasonable Accommodation 162 Affirmative Action 162 Legal Selection Outside the United States 164 Chapter Summary 164 䉴 CHAPTER 7 Training 167 Needs Assessment 168 Objectives 169 Training Design 170 Trainee Characteristics 171 Design Factors That Affect Transfer of Training 172 Feedback 172 General Principles 172 Identical Elements 172 Overlearning 173 Sequencing of Training Sessions 175 Work Environment 176 Training Methods 176 Audiovisual Instruction 176 Autoinstruction 177 Conference 177 Lecture 178 Modeling 178 On-the-Job Training 178 Role-Playing 178 Simulations 179 Electronic Training 179 Mentoring 180 Executive Coaching 181 Delivery of a Training Program 182 Evaluation of a Training Program 182 Set Criteria 183 Choose Design 185 Pretest-Posttest 185 Control Group 186 Choose Measures of the Criteria 187 Collect Data 187 Analyze and Interpret Data 187 Chapter Summary 188 PART IV THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE ORGANIZATION 䉴 CHAPTER 8 Theories of Employee Motivation 193 What Is Motivation? 194 Work Motivation Theories 194 xviii 䉴 Contents Need Theories 196 Need Hierarchy Theory 196 Two-Factor Theory 197 Reinforcement Theory 198 Expectancy Theory 199 Self-Efficacy Theory 201 Justice Theories 204 Goal-Setting Theory 207 Control Theory 210 Action Theory 210 Chapter Summary 212 䉴 CHAPTER 9 Feelings About Work: Job Attitudes and Emotions 215 The Nature of Job Satisfaction 216 How People Feel About Their Jobs 217 The Assessment of Job Satisfaction 219 Job Descriptive Index (JDI) 219 Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) 221 Job in General Scale (JIG) 221 Is Global Satisfaction the Sum of Facets? 222 Antecedents of Job Satisfaction 222 Environmental Antecedents of Job Satisfaction 223 Job Characteristics 223 Pay 226 Justice 227 Personal Antecedents of Job Satisfaction 227 Personality 227 Gender 229 Age 229 Cultural and Ethnic Differences 230 Person-Job Fit 231 Potential Effects of Job Satisfaction 232 Job Satisfaction and Job Performance 232 Job Satisfaction and Turnover 233 Job Satisfaction and Absence 234 Health and Well-Being 234 Job and Life Satisfaction 234 Organizational Commitment 235 Assessment of Organizational Commitment 236 Organizational Commitment and Other Variables 237 Emotions at Work 239 Causes and Consequences of Emotions at Work 240 Emotional Labor 240 Chapter Summary 241  Contents 䉳 xix 䉴 CHAPTER 10 Productive and Counterproductive Employee Behavior 244 Productive Behavior: Task Performance 245 Ability and Task Performance 246 Motivation and Task Performance 246 Personal Characteristics and Task Performance 247 The “Big Five” and Task Performance 247 Locus of Control and Performance 248 Age and Performance 249 Environmental Conditions and Task Performance 249 Job Characteristics and Task Performance 250 Incentive Systems and Performance 251 Design of Technology 252 Displays and Controls 252 Computer-Human Interaction 254 Organizational Constraints 256 Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) 257 Counterproductive Work Behavior: Withdrawal 259 Absence 259 Lateness 261 Turnover 261 Counterproductive Work Behavior: Aggression, Sabotage, and Theft 263 Labor Unrest and Strikes 266 Chapter Summary 266 䉴 CHAPTER 11 Occupational Health Psychology 269 Occupational Health and Safety 271 Accidents and Safety 271 Infectious Disease Exposure 274 Loud Noise 275 Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs) 276 Harmful Substance Exposure 278 Workplace Violence 278 Work Schedules 280 Night Shifts 280 Long Shifts 282 Flexible Work Schedules 283 Occupational Stress 283 The Occupational Stress Process 283 Job Stressors 285 Role Ambiguity and Role Conflict 285 Workload 286 Social Stressors 287 Organizational Politics 289 Control 289 xx 䉴 Contents Machine Pacing 291 The Demand/Control Model 292 Alcohol as a Coping Mechanism 293 Work-Family Conflict 293 Burnout 295 Chapter Summary 296 PART V THE SOCIAL CONTEXT OF WORK 䉴 CHAPTER 12 Work Groups and Work Teams 301 Work Groups Versus Work Teams 303 Virtual Teams 303 Important Group and Team Concepts 304 Roles 304 Norms 304 Group Cohesiveness 305 Team Conflict 306 Process Loss 306 Team Commitment 306 Team Mental Model 308 Group and Team Performance 308 Performance in the Presence of Others 308 Group Versus Individual Performance on Additive Tasks 309 Brainstorming 311 Group Problem Solving 312 Group Decision Making 312 Group Polarization 313 Groupthink 314 Team Innovation 316 Team KSAOs 316 Group Diversity 317 Interventions With Work Groups in Organizations 318 Autonomous Work Teams 318 Quality Circles 320 Team Building 321 Chapter Summary 322 䉴 CHAPTER 13 Leadership and Power in Organizations 325 What Is Leadership? 326 Sources of Influence and Power 327 French and Raven’s (1959) Bases of Power 327 Yukl’s (1989) Sources of Political Power 328 Political Skill 329  Contents 䉳 xxi Abuse of Supervisory Power: Sexual and Ethnic Harassment 329 Approaches to the Understanding of Leadership 331 The Trait Approach 332 The Leader Behavior Approach 333 Fiedler’s Contingency Theory 336 Path-Goal Theory 338 Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory 340 Transformational Leadership Theory 341 Vroom-Yetton Model 343 Women in Leadership Positions 345 Gender and Leadership Style 346 Cross-Cultural Issues in Leadership 347 Chapter Summary 349 䉴 CHAPTER 14 Organizational Development and Theory 352 Organizational Development 353 Employee Acceptance of Change 354 Management by Objectives 355 Survey Feedback 357 Team Building 358 T-Group 358 Effectiveness of OD Programs 359 Organizational Theories 359 Bureaucracy Theory 360 Division of Labor 360 Delegation of Authority 361 Span of Control 361 Line Versus Staff 362 Theory X/Theory Y 362 Open System Theory 364 Sociotechnical Systems Theory 366 Comparison of the Theories 369 Chapter Summary 370 Appendix: Guide To Graduate School Admission 373 References 381 Glossary 421 Author Index 435 Subject Index 445 䉴 PART I INTRODUCTION (PhotoDisc, Inc./Getty Images, Inc.) 䉴 CHAPTER 1 Introduction CHAPTER 1 OUTLINE 䉴 WHAT IS I/O PSYCHOLOGY? 䉴 ACTIVITIES AND SETTINGS OF I/O PSYCHOLOGISTS 䉴 I/O PSYCHOLOGY AS A PROFESSION 䉴 I/O PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE 䉴 HISTORY OF THE FIELD OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY 䉴 I/O PSYCHOLOGY BEYOND THE UNITED STATES AND UNITED KINGDOM 䉴 WHAT IT TAKES TO BECOME AN I/O PSYCHOLOGIST 䉴 INTERNET RESOURCES FOR I/O PSYCHOLOGISTS AND STUDENTS 䉴 ETHICS OF THE I/O FIELD 䉴 HUMANITARIAN WORK PSYCHOLOGY 䉴 CHAPTER SUMMARY 䉴 LEARNING BY DOING Most people in the industrialized world come into direct or indirect contact with orga- nizations every day. If you go to a supermarket to buy groceries, that store is part of an organization. On a given day, you might encounter a few employees, such as the produce manager who helps you find some fresh grapes, the checker who rings up your order, and the bagger who puts all your items in bags. The organization, however, might employ thousands and even tens of thousands of individuals who are collectively respon- sible for seeing to it that the products you wish to purchase are continually available at each of its stores. This requires the coordinated action of many individuals, likely cutting across many countries. Needless to say, managing such a complex enterprise is extremely difficult. The managers responsible hire a great many specialists to assist them. They often turn to industrial/organizational (I/O) psychologists for help with many of their employee-related problems. For example, I/O psychologists have helped: AT&T develop assessment centers to choose the best managers. General Electric (GE) develop systems to provide job performance feedback to employees. The U.S. Army use psychological tests to place recruits in the appropriate jobs. The U.S. Postal Service develop procedures to reduce assaults by employees. 3 4 䉴 Chapter 1. Introduction If you go to work for a large organization, there is a good chance that your work life will be affected by I/O psychology. An I/O psychologist may have designed the application form that you will fill out to get the job, the salary and benefit package that you will be offered, the training that you will receive, and the structure of the tasks that will comprise your job. I/O psychologists are involved in issues related to employee health, job performance, motivation, safety, selection (hiring), and training. They can also deal with the design of equipment and job tasks. This book discusses all of these areas, and more. There are two equally important aspects of the I/O psychology field. First, I/O psychology involves the scientific study of the human side of organizations. Many I/O psychologists, particularly those who are professors at universities, conduct research about people at work. Second, I/O psychology includes the application of the principles and findings of I/O research. Most I/O psychologists are involved in practice, either as consultants or as employees of organizations. What distinguishes the practice of I/O psychology from that of many other fields is that I/O psychology is an evidence-based field, meaning that the things practitioners do are based on scientific methods and princi- ples. This book reviews the major findings from I/O science and explores how practicing I/O psychologists apply those findings in organizational settings. I/O psychology is an eclectic field that has borrowed concepts, ideas, techniques, and theories from many other disciplines. Experimental psychology provided the historical basis of the I/O field. Its principles and techniques, such as psychological testing, were applied by several early experimental psychologists to problems of organizations. As we will discuss later in this chapter, one of the earliest examples occurred when psycholo- gist Robert Yerkes convinced the army to use psychological tests during World War I. Other influences on the I/O field have come from industrial engineering, management, social psychology, and sociology. Although I/O psychology had its beginnings largely in the United States, it has become an international activity, especially in industrialized countries. This chapter contains an overview of the I/O field. It covers the major activities and employment settings for I/O psychologists and presents a brief history of the field. The chapter discusses what training is needed to become an I/O psychologist and where that training is offered, not only in the United States but also throughout the world. The research process will be discussed, and the major publication outlets for I/O research will be listed. I/O psychologists are very concerned with the ethical treatment of people, which is another topic that we will cover. Chapter 2 contains a discussion of the research methods used in I/O psychology. Chapters 3 to 14 cover the major topics of the field, beginning with a focus on the assessment of jobs and people in Chapters 3 to 5. Covered in Chapters 6 and 7 are two major areas that are relevant to developing productive employees—selecting good people and training them to do their jobs well. Chapters 8 to 11 are concerned with the individual in the context of the organization and cover motivation, how people feel about their jobs, employee behavior, and employee health and safety (i.e., occupational health psychology). Chapters 12 to 14 deal with the individual employee in the social context of the organization. Major topics discussed include groups and teams, leadership, techniques to change organizations, and theories of organizations.  What Is I/O Psychology? 䉳 5 Objectives: The student who studies this chapter should be able to: 䉴 Define I/O psychology. 䉴 Describe the major activities of I/O psychologists. 䉴 Summarize the history of the I/O field. 䉴 Explain the importance of research and how it relates to practice. 䉴 WHAT IS I/O PSYCHOLOGY? Psychology is the science of human (and nonhuman) behavior, cognition, emotion, and motivation. It can be subdivided into many different specializations, some of which are concerned primarily with psychological science (experimental psychology) and others of which are concerned with both psychological science and the application of that science to real-world problems outside of the research setting. I/O psychology (along with clinical psychology) falls into the latter category of being concerned with both psychological science and its application. As its two-part name implies, the field of I/O psychology contains two major divisions: the industrial (or personnel) and the organizational. Although the contents of the two major divisions overlap and cannot be easily separated, each grew out of different traditions in the history of the field. Industrial psychology, which was the orig- inal name for the field, is the older branch and tends to take a management perspective of organizational efficiency through the appropriate use of human resources or people. It is concerned with issues of efficient job design, employee selection, employee train- ing, and performance appraisal. Organizational psychology developed from the human relations movement in organizations. It is concerned with understanding behavior and enhancing the well-being of employees in the workplace. Organizational topics include employee attitudes, employee behavior, job stress, and supervisory practices. The major topics of the field, however, cannot easily be characterized as strictly industrial (I) or organizational (O). Motivation, for example, is relevant to the I concerns of employee efficiency and performance, but it is also relevant to the O concern with the happiness and well-being of employees, as well as understanding human behavior in organizational settings. Even though the I and O areas cannot always be clearly distinguished, together they suggest the broad nature of the field. The largest subarea of psychology concerned with application of scientific findings is clinical psychology. Clinical psychologists deal with the study and treatment of psychological disorders and problems. Industrial/organizational psychology is a smaller, but more rapidly growing psychology subfield that is concerned with the development and application of scientific principles to the workplace. I/O psychologists do not deal directly with employees’ emotional or personal problems. This activity falls in the domain of clinical psychology. An I/O psychologist, however, might recommend hiring a clinical psychologist to help with such problems as employee alcoholism or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). 6 䉴 Chapter 1. Introduction 䉴 ACTIVITIES AND SETTINGS OF I/O PSYCHOLOGISTS I/O psychologists do many different jobs in a wide variety of settings. We often divide I/O settings into those that are concerned with practice and those that are concerned with scientific research. The practice activities involve the use of psychological principles to solve real-world problems, such as excessive job stress or poor job performance. Research provides principles that can be applied in practice. Both practice and research are equally important within the I/O field. One major objective of I/O psychology is to help organizations function more effectively. In order to do so, the field must have research findings on which to base practice. Not all research is done with practice in mind, however. Some psychologists study work behavior just to learn why people do the things they do at work. As with all forms of basic research, often the findings of such activities can be applied to important human problems. Although settings can be classified as either practice or research, there is considerable overlap in activities across the two. Many I/O psychologists in research settings get involved in practice, and psychologists in practice settings do research. Furthermore, some practice activities require research to determine the best approach to solve the problem at hand. Existing principles might not be available in all cases. In fact, I/O psychologists often don’t have ready-made answers, but rather they have the means of finding answers. Most research settings are the colleges and universities at which I/O psychologists are professors. Practice settings include consulting firms, government, the military, and pri- vate corporations. Consulting firms provide I/O services to organizations that hire them. Large consulting firms might have hundreds of employees providing services to organiza- tions throughout the world. I/O psychologists often work for governments (city, county, state, or national), the military (usually as civilian specialists), and private corporations. I/O psychologists in each of these practice settings might be doing the same sorts of activities. Figure 1.1 shows the percentage of I/O psychologists found in each of the major settings. Universities 39% Consulting firms 25% Gove rnme nt 9% Other Private companies 10% 17% Figure 1.1 Percentage of I/O psychologists who work in various settings. From Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology 2006 member survey: Overall report. Available at http:// www.siop.org/reportsandminutes/survey_results06.aspx.  Activities and Settings of I/O Psychologists 䉳 7 Many I/O psychologists are college or university professors. Most are in psychology departments, but frequently they can be found in colleges of business administration or other places on campus as well. Although they spend much of their time doing research and teaching students, they do far more than that. Many are involved in practice as consultants to organizations, and some have started their own consulting firms to pursue this interest. The following list describes the major activities of professors: Teach courses Do research Write research papers and present them at meetings Publish articles in scientific journals Provide consulting services to organizations Write textbooks Mentor graduate and undergraduate students Provide information to the public Develop courses Keep up with their field Help administer the teaching function of their university The basic functions of a professor are to create and disseminate knowledge. Each activity in this list is concerned with one or both of these functions. Practicing I/O psychologists do many of the same things as their academic colleagues, including conducting research and teaching college courses. The major focus of a practice job, however, is the application of the findings and principles of the field. The following list of activities shows what practicing I/O psychologists do: Analyze the nature of a job (job analysis) Conduct an analysis to determine the solution to an organizational problem Conduct a survey of employee feelings and opinions Design an employee performance appraisal system Design an employee selection system Design a training program Develop psychological tests Evaluate the effectiveness of an activity or practice, such as a training program Implement an organizational change, such as a new reward system for employees who perform well Much of the effort of I/O psychologists is directed toward enhancing the effec- tiveness and functioning of organizations. They do so by focusing on several aspects, including selecting people who can do the job better, training people to do the job better, designing jobs that can be done better, and designing organizations to function better. I/O psychologists also attempt to change organizations so that they are healthier and safer places for people to work, even if the effectiveness of the organization is not improved. 8 䉴 Chapter 1. Introduction 䉴 I/O PSYCHOLOGY AS A PROFESSION I/O psychology is a profession that is in many ways like the profession of account- ing or law. Some states in the United States require that I/O psychologists be licensed, but in other states, only clinical psychologists must be licensed. Many I/O psycholo- gists work for consulting firms that provide services for a fee to client organizations. These services are provided in much the same way that an accounting firm or law firm provides them. I/O psychologists belong to several professional/scientific societies. In the United States, there are several national and regional societies. The Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP), which is a division of the American Psychological Association (APA), is the largest organization in the United States that is comprised entirely of I/O psychologists. It has more than 8,200 members, with about 48% of them being student affiliates. Although SIOP is an American association, it is rapidly becoming international, with about 12% of its members from other countries, which rep- resents a doubling in the international membership in the past four years. The Academy of Management is a larger organization than SIOP, but the majority of its members are not psychologists. It is comprised of people who have interests in the broad field of management, mostly professors from colleges of business administration. Many I/O psychologists, primarily those who are college professors, are active members of this organization. In addition to the national associations, there are many regional and city associations of I/O psychologists. These smaller local associations can be found in many areas, including central Florida, Michigan, New York City, Ottawa, San Francisco, and Washington, DC. The newest American organization relevant to I/O psychology is the Society for Occupational Health Psychology (SOHP), which was established in 2006. More than half its members are I/O psychologists who are interested in issues concerning employee health, safety, and well-being. There are also professional associations of I/O psychologists in many other countries throughout the world. Australia has the College of Organisational Psychologists, Canada has its own Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, the British Psycholog- ical Society has its Division of Occupational Psychology, and many similar associations exist throughout Europe. Over a dozen of them have formed the European Association of Work and Organizational Psychology (EAWOP). Also very relevant to I/O psycholo- gists is the International Association of Applied Psychology, Division of Organizational Psychology, which is the largest division. I/O psychologists from around the world, and especially those with interests in cross-cultural and international issues, are members. 䉴 I/O PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE Research is one of the major activities of I/O psychologists. Research can develop new methods and procedures for such activities as selecting and training employees. Often such research is conducted for a specific organization to solve a particular problem—for example, for a company that has a high employee turnover (quitting) rate. Other research focuses on understanding some organizational phenomenon, such as the cause of employee theft or the effect of job attitudes. Results of these sorts of research studies are presented at professional meetings and published in scientific journals.  I/O Psychology as a Science 䉳 9 The national and international associations noted earlier all have conferences, usually annually, where results of research are presented. The annual meeting of SIOP, for example, attracts close to 4,000 practitioners and researchers who share and discuss their research findings and ideas. Practitioners often find such meetings to be a good place to learn about new solutions to their organizational problems. Researchers can find out about the latest findings before they are published in the scientific journals. Scientific journals of the field represent the major outlet for research results. Some major journals are produced by professional associations, whereas others are published privately. For example, the Journal of Applied Psychology is published by the APA, and the Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology is published by the British Psychological Society. Table 1.1 lists the major journals that publish research on I/O topics. Most are like magazines that are published in four to six issues per year. One, the International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, is published once a year and summarizes the state of knowledge on various topics. I/O researchers, most of whom are college professors, submit articles for possible publication to these journals. Their work is then sent to experts in the field for a critique. Articles are revised based on the critiques, and often several rounds of revision and resubmission will be necessary before an article is accepted for publication. Only the 10% to 20% of submitted articles that survive a rigorous peer review process will be published in the best journals. Peer review helps maintain high standards for published work so that the best research makes it into print. Publication of research papers is a competitive and difficult endeavor. College pro- fessors, particularly those without tenure, are under tremendous pressure to be successful at publication. I/O programs at most universities have a “publish or perish” system that requires professors to be active researchers who contribute to the knowledge base of the field. This is true of all scientific disciplines in most universities. A publication record in the best journals is a major determiner of career success for a professor, as reflected in the ability to find a job, earn tenure, get promoted, and receive raises. Keep in mind, however, that one of the major functions of a university is to create and dissem- inate new knowledge for the benefit of society, so there is a good reason to emphasize research. TABLE 1.1 Journals That Publish I/O Research and Theory Academy of Management Journal Journal of Applied Psychology Academy of Management Review Journal of Business and Psychology Administrative Science Quarterly Journal of Management Applied Psychology: An International Review Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology Group and Organization Studies Journal of Occupational Health Psychology Human Factors Journal of Organizational Behavior Human Relations Journal of Vocational Behavior Human Resources Management Review Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes International Journal of Selection and Assessment Organizational Research Methods International Review of Industrial and Personnel Psychology Organizational Psychology Work & Stress 10 䉴 Chapter 1. Introduction 䉴 HISTORY OF THE FIELD OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY1 I/O psychology is a twentieth century invention, with roots in the late 1800s and early 1900s. It has existed almost from the beginning of the psychology field. The first psychol- ogists to do I/O work were experimental psychologists who were interested in applying the new principles of psychology to problems in organizations. Early work in the United States focused on issues of job performance and organizational efficiency, and in the United Kingdom, it was on employee fatigue and health (Kreis, 1995). As the field matured during the first half of the century, it expanded into the areas that it covers today. Figure 1.2 shows the major events in the development of I/O psychology that occurred in the Unites States. Two psychologists are credited with being the main founders of the American I/O field. Hugo Münsterberg and Walter Dill Scott were both experimental psychologists and university professors who became involved in applying psychology to problems of organizations. Münsterberg, who came to the United States from his native Germany, was particularly interested in the selection of employees and the use of the new psychological tests. Landy (1992) posits that Münsterberg’s inability to gain the respect of colleagues at Harvard University was the motivation for his shift to the emerging field of industrial psychology. Scott was interested in many of the same things as Münsterberg, as well as the psychology of advertising. Scott wrote a pioneering textbook, The Theory of Advertising (1903), and Münsterberg wrote the first American I/O textbook, Psychology and Industrial Efficiency (1913). A major influence on the I/O field was the work of Frederick Winslow Taylor, an engineer who studied employee productivity throughout his career during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Taylor developed what he called Scientific Management as an approach to handling production workers in factories. Scientific Man- agement includes several principles to guide organizational practices. In his writings, 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act passes 1970 APA adopts the name, Division of Industrial and Organizational Psychology 1964 Civil Rights Act passes 1941 World War II war effort begins 1924 Hawthorne studies begin 1921 First I/O Ph.D. is awarded; Psychological Corporation is founded 1917 Mental tests for job placement are developed 1913 First I/O textbook is published Figure 1.2 A time line of major events in the history of American I/O psychology. 1 Note that this section is based on Katzell and Austin’s (1992) history of the I/O field unless otherwise noted.  History of the Field of I/O Psychology 䉳 11 Taylor (1911) suggested the following: 1. Each job should be carefully analyzed so that the optimal way of doing tasks can be specified. 2. Employees should be selected (hired) according to characteristics that are related to job performance. Managers should study existing employees to find out what personal characteristics are important. 3. Employees should be carefully trained to do their job tasks. 4. Employees should be rewarded for their productivity to encourage high levels of performance. Though refined over the years, these same ideas are still considered valuable today. Another influence from the field of engineering can be seen in the work of Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, a husband-and-wife team who studied efficient ways of performing tasks. They combined the fields of engineering and psychology (Frank was an engineer and Lillian a psychologist) in studying how people perform tasks. Their best-known con- tribution was the time and motion study, which involved measuring and timing people’s motions in doing tasks with the goal of developing more efficient ways of working. Although the basic ideas were Taylor’s, the Gilbreths refined and used their new tech- nique to help many organizations (Van De Water, 1997). Some historians claim that Lillian was the first to receive an American I/O Ph.D. (Koppes, 1997) in 1915, although most historians give this distinction to Bruce V. Moore in 1921. The Gilbreths’ work served as the foundation of what would later become the field of human factors, which is the study of how best to design technology for people. In later years, Lillian turned her attention to designing consumer products and invented the foot-pedal trash can and refrigerator door shelves, among other things (Koppes, 1997). However, the Gilbreths themselves are best known as the subjects of the popular movie Cheaper by the Dozen, which chronicled their lives as working parents of 12 children. World War I saw the beginning of the use of I/O psychology to assist in the war effort in both the United Kingdom and the United States. The beginning of I/O psychology in the United Kingdom is marked by the establishment of the Health of Munitions Committee (HMC) in 1915 in order to deal with issues of employee health, safety, and efficiency that were exacerbated by productivity demands due to the war (Kries, 1995). In the United States, on the other hand, entry into the war in 1917 encouraged a number of Charles Myers Hugo Münsterberg Walter Dill Scott Frederick Winslow Taylor Robert Yerkes (Library of the London (Archives of the History (Archives of the History (Jacques Boyer/Roger- (Archives of the History School of Economics & of American Psychology) of American Psychology) Viollet/The Image Works) of American Psychology) Political Science, NIIP Collection) 12 䉴 Chapter 1. Introduction psychologists, led by Robert Yerkes, to offer their services to the army. The best-known accomplishment of the group was the development of the Army Alpha and Army Beta group tests for mental ability. One of the biggest problems for the army was placing new recruits in jobs for which they were best suited. The newly invented psychological tests seemed to the psychologists to be an efficient way to solve that problem. This was the first large-scale application of psychological testing to place individuals in jobs. It provided a foundation for mass testing that has been used ever since in educational settings (e.g., the Scholastic Aptitude Test, now the SAT) and employment settings. During the decades between the two world wars, I/O psychology expanded into most of the areas that we see today. As organizations grew in size, they began hiring I/O psychologists to address many of their increasing employee problems, particularly those that were relevant to productivity in the United States. At the same time, research on I/O topics began to accumulate. In 1921 in the United Kingdom, psychologist Charles Myers co-founded the National Institute of Industrial Psychology (NIIP), an organization devoted to improving efficiency and working conditions of British employees. Its focus on employee well-being follows the work of the earlier HMC and characterizes not only British but also European I/O psychology during the early development of the field (Kwiatkowski, Duncan, & Shimmin, 2006). At the same time, in 1921 Penn State University awarded what many consider the first American Ph.D. in what was then called industrial psychology to Bruce V. Moore. I/O psychologists began organizing into consulting firms that would provide services to organizations for a fee. The most well- known of these was the American company Psychological Corporation, founded in 1921 by James McKeen Cattell, which today is called Harcourt Assessment. One of the most important events of this period was the Hawthorne studies, which continued for more than 10 years at the Western Electric Company in the United States. Before the Hawthorne studies, American I/O psychologists focused almost exclu- sively on issues of employee productivity and organizational efficiency, including the assessment of employee abilities and the efficient design of jobs. Although the Hawthorne researchers set out to study these topics, they quickly discovered what their British colleagues had previously found (Kwiatkowski et al., 2006): It is difficult to separate employee productivity from social aspects of organizational life. Their study of supervi- sion and work groups helped draw attention to the O or organizational side of the field. The best known of the Hawthorne studies was the investigation of lighting-level effects (Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939). The objective of this study was to determine the lighting level that would produce optimal performance on a factory task. The researchers conducted an experiment in which a group of employees was taken to a special room where lighting levels were changed. Lights were made brighter and dimmer from day to day to see the effects on productivity. The researchers were surprised to find that over the course of the experiment, productivity increased and seemed to have little to do with lighting levels. Many explanations of these results have been advanced and debated. The most frequently discussed is that knowledge of being in an experiment, or what has come to be called the Hawthorne Effect, caused increases in performance. Whatever the reason, it seems clear that social factors can be more important than physical factors in people’s job performance. World War II had a tremendous stimulating effect on the development of the I/O field for countries on both sides of the conflict, most notably the United States and United  I/O Psychology Beyond the United States and United Kingdom 䉳 13 Kingdom (Warr, 2007). Psychologists dealt with problems that spanned the entire scope of both I and O work, including the selection of recruits, placement of recruits in dif- ferent jobs, training, morale, performance appraisal, team development, and equipment design. Prior to World War II, the APA limited its interests to experimental psychol- ogy and rejected attempts by I/O psychologists to make practice, which was considered nonscientific, part of its mission. As a result of the war, however, the APA opened its doors to applied psychology, and Division 14 of Industrial and Business Psychology was formed in 1944 (Benjamin, 1997). After the war, the two areas of industrial and orga- nizational psychology continued to expand. For example, Arthur Kornhauser conducted research on how work conditions can have effects on both the mental health and the personal life of employees, thus producing some of the early American work on what is now called occupational health psychology (Zickar, 2003). In 1970, Division 14 of the APA changed its name to the Division of Industrial and Organizational Psychology and is today called the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP). The society’s website (http://www.siop.org) is an important resource for information about the field, including information about graduate school, job postings, and society business. Another event in the United States that helped shape the field of I/O psychology was the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. This act set into motion forces that have had a tremendous impact on how organizations hire and treat employees, and not only in the United States. When discrimination against minorities and women became illegal, organizations had to change many of their employment practices. I/O psycholo- gists were called upon to help develop procedures that would eliminate discrimination in the workplace. The passage of the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) in 1990 extended protection against discrimination to persons with disabilities. Here again I/O psychologists have been called upon to find ways to eliminate unlawful discrimination. The history of the field is full of examples of how I/O psychologists have helped improve organizations and work conditions for employees. The field has grown tremendously from an initial focus on efficiency and productivity, especially in the United States, to the many diverse areas we find today. I/O psychology has much to contribute to the operation of organizations and the well-being of employees. Its future looks bright, as organizations continue to need help with employee issues, as discussed throughout this book. 䉴 I/O PSYCHOLOGY BEYOND THE UNITED STATES AND UNITED KINGDOM Our discussion of the history of I/O has focused largely on the United States and to a lesser extent on the United Kingdom, where the field had its beginnings and most (but not all) of its early development. However, I/O psychology exists throughout the world, and many of its findings and principles have come from other countries. One indication of both the rapid spread of the field and its globalization can be seen in the nationalities of authors who publish in what are considered the leading journals in the field, the US-based Journal of Applied Psychology and Personnel Psychology. Cascio and Aguinis (2008) showed that the percentage of non-US authors of papers published in these two journals increased fivefold, from 5% in the mid-1960s to 25% in the mid-2000s. We are seeing increasing numbers of journal articles coming from Australia, Canada, Greater China, 14 䉴 Chapter 1. Introduction Germany, Israel, Korea, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Scandinavia, and Singapore, just to mention a few places. Another indication of the spread of I/O psychology beyond the United States and United Kingdom is the increasing number of I/O master’s and Ph.D. programs outside of these two countries (see Table 1.3). Throughout the six editions of this textbook, the list has continued to grow as new programs are established throughout the world. Another trend is for researchers to partner across countries to conduct cross- cultural research. This work is important because not all principles used in the West will necessarily work in other countries or cultures. We will discuss some of these studies throughout the book. An interesting aspect of the I/O field internationally is that cultural, historical, and political conditions helped shape the nature of the field and the sorts of things that are studied, giving each country its own I/O flavor (Warr, 2007). Zickar and Gibby (2007) noted that American I/O psychology has historically focused on employee productivity and the assessment of individual differences that can be used for employee selection (see Chapters 5 and 6). Warr (2007) contrasted the American perspective with that of the United Kingdom, noting that the latter had a much greater focus on employee health and well-being. In recent decades, the rapid globalization of the world economy and widespread electronic communication have meant cross-fertilization of the field across countries and a greater convergence of ideas and methods. One factor is that some of the large American I/O consulting firms, such as Development Dimensions International and Personnel Decisions International, established offices around the world, which both introduced American I/O methods overseas and introduced the methods from overseas to the United States. 䉴 WHAT IT TAKES TO BECOME AN I/O PSYCHOLOGIST The most common route to becoming an I/O psychologist is to earn a graduate degree (master’s or Ph.D.) in I/O psychology from one of the many I/O psychology graduate programs that exist throughout the world. Many people who do I/O work have other backgrounds, such as in other areas of psychology or in business administration. Some of these people consider themselves to be I/O psychologists and may hold jobs with that title. In the United States, most I/O psychologists hold a Ph.D. degree. Although it is possible to be an I/O psychologist with a master’s degree in the I/O field, such people are often referred to as master’s level I/O psychologists to reflect their lower degree status. One can have a successful career as an I/O psychologist with a master’s degree, but opportunities and salaries are better with the Ph.D. In some countries, such as Canada, the situation is similar to that in the United States. However, in other places, as in much of Europe, the Ph.D. is not as common as the master’s degree. Rather, the master’s degree is considered a practice degree, whereas the Ph.D. is a research credential. An individual who wishes to be a practitioner will likely have only the master’s degree. If one continues on to earn a Ph.D., he or she is most likely to be interested in research and will be found in a research institute or a university. It is possible for a practitioner to have a Ph.D., but it is not considered as important as in the United States and Canada. Table 1.2 lists master’s and Ph.D. programs throughout the United States, and Table 1.3 lists a sample of graduate programs (both master’s and Ph.D.) from other  What It Takes to Become an I/O Psychologist 䉳 15 TABLE 1.2 Universities in the United States With Graduate Programs in I/O Psychology State M.A. Program Ph.D. Program Alabama Auburn University California California State University Alliant University Long Beach Claremont Graduate University Sacramento San Bernardino Golden Gate University San Diego State University San Francisco State University San Jose State University Sonoma State University Colorado Colorado State University Connecticut Fairfield University University of Connecticut University of Hartford University of New Haven Florida Carlos Albizu University Florida Institute of Technology University of West Florida Florida International University University of Central Florida University of South Florida Georgia Valdosta State College Georgia Institute of Technology University of Georgia Illinois Adler School of Professional Psychology Chicago School of Professional Elmhurst College Psychology Illinois State University DePaul University Roosevelt University Illinois Institute of Technology Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville Northern Illinois University University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Southern Illinois University Carbondale Indiana Indiana University–Purdue University at Purdue University Indianapolis Iowa University of Northern Iowa Kansas Emporia State University Kansas State University Kentucky Eastern Kentucky University Northern Kentucky University Western Kentucky University Louisiana Louisiana Technological University Louisiana State University Maryland University of Baltimore University of Maryland Massachusetts Springfield College Michigan University of Detroit–Mercy Central Michigan University Michigan State University University of Michigan Wayne State University Western Michigan University Minnesota Minnesota State University University of Minnesota St. Cloud State University (Continued) 16 䉴 Chapter 1. Introduction TABLE 1.2 (Continued) State M.A. Program Ph.D. Program Mississippi William Carey College on the Coast University of Southern Mississippi Missouri Missouri State University St. Louis University University of Missouri–St. Louis Nebraska University of Nebraska at Omaha New Jersey Fairleigh Dickinson University Kean University Montclair State University New York Iona College Baruch College, CUNY New York University Columbia University, Teachers College Hofstra University SUNY at Albany North Carolina Appalachian State University North Carolina State University East Carolina University University of North Carolina–Charlotte Ohio Cleveland State University Bowling Green State University Xavier University Ohio University Union Institute University of Akron Wright State University Oklahoma University of Oklahoma University of Tulsa Oregon Portland State University Pennsylvania West Chester University Penn State University Temple University South Carolina Clemson University Tennessee Austin Peay State University University of Memphis Middle Tennessee State University University of Tennessee-Chattanooga Texas Angelo State University Rice University Lamar University Texas A & M University University of Houston Clear Lake City University of Houston University of Texas Arlington Virginia Radford University George Mason University Old Dominion University Virginia Technological University Washington Central Washington University Seattle Pacific University Washington State University Washington, DC George Washington University West Virginia Marshall University Wisconsin University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh University of Wisconsin–Stout Distance Programs Kansas State University Capella University Saybrook Graduate School Note: Includes applied psychology, organizational psychology, and other similar psychology programs. Source: Retrieved May 15, 2010, from Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology website: http://www.siop.org/GTP/.  What It Takes to Become an I/O Psychologist 䉳 17 TABLE 1.3 A Sample of Universities Outside the United States That Offer Graduate Degrees in I/O Psychology Country University Country University Australia Curtin University Germany Technical University of Dresden Griffith University University of Frankfurt Macquarie University University of Giessen Monash University University of Konstanz Murdoch University University of Mainz University of New South Wales University of Munich University of Queensland University of Potsdam Belgium Free University of Brussels Hong Kong Chinese University of Hong Kong University of Ghent Lingnan University University of Leuven Ireland University College Dublin University of Liege Israel Bar-Ilan University University of Louvain Technion—Israel Institute of Technology Canada Queen’s University Italy University of Verona St. Mary’s University Korea Kwang-Woon University University of Calgary Sungkyunkwan University University of Guelph Latvia University of Latvia University of Moncton Netherlands Free University of Amsterdam University of Montreal University of Amsterdam University of Quebec in Montreal University of Groningen University of Waterloo University of Nijmegan University of Western Ontario University of Tilburg China Beijing Normal University New Zealand University of Canterbury Beijing University University of Massey at Auckland China Eastern Normal University University of Waikato Institute of Psychology, Chinese Victoria University of Wellington Academy of Science Portugal ISCTE Institute of Management Zhejiang University and Social Sciences–Lisbon Costa Rica Latin University of Costa Rica Puerto Rico Carlos Albizu University University Autonoma Interamerican University of Puerto Rico Monterrey Pontifical Catholic University England Exeter University Romania Babes-Bolyai University University of Hull University of Bucharest University of London West University of Timisoara University of Manchester Institute Russia Moscow State University of Science and Technology Scotland Heriot-Watt University/ University of Nottingham University of Strathclyde University of Sheffield University of Aberdeen University of Surrey Singapore National University of Singapore France University of Bordeaux South Africa University of Stellenbosch University of Metz University of Witwatersrand University of Paul Valéry Spain Complutense University Montpellier University of Barcelona University of Provence University of Santiago Aix-Marseille University of Valencia (Continued) 18 䉴 Chapter 1. Introduction TABLE 1.3 (Continued) Country University Country University Sweden Stockholm University Taiwan Fu Jen Catholic University University of Lund National Chengchi University Uppsala University National Taiwan University Switzerland University of Bern Turkey Koc University University of St. Gallen Middle East Technical University countries. As the size of the lists may suggest, the United States is the world leader in terms of the number of programs, but there are many fine I/O programs throughout the rest of the world. I/O psychology has spread throughout the world—mainly, but not exclusively, in developed countries that have large organizations. Admission to American graduate programs is quite competitive, especially for the well-established Ph.D. programs (see the Appendix for a graduate school application guide). Most base admission largely, but not exclusively, on undergraduate grade point average (usually just the junior and senior years) and Graduate Record Examination (GRE) scores. Prior applied and research experience can be helpful, especially for top Ph.D. programs. Letters of recommendation from faculty members are usually required. I/O graduate programs are challenging and require skills in both communication (verbal a