Introduction to Industrial/Organizational Psychology PDF

Here's the conversion of the provided text into a structured Markdown format: ### RONALD E. RIGGIO ### Introduction to ### INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY #### SEVENTH EDITION ## Chapter 3 ## Job Analysis ### Understanding Work and Work Tasks #### CHAPTER OUTLINE * Job Analysis * J...

Here's the conversion of the provided text into a structured Markdown format: ### RONALD E. RIGGIO ### Introduction to ### INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY #### SEVENTH EDITION ## Chapter 3 ## Job Analysis ### Understanding Work and Work Tasks #### CHAPTER OUTLINE * Job Analysis * Job Analysis Methods * Observations * Participation * Existing Data * Interviews * Surveys * Job diaries * Specific Job Analysis Techniques * Job Element Method * Critical Incidents Technique * Position Analysis Questionnaire * Functional Job Analysis * Comparing the Different Job Analysis Techniques * O*NET: A Useful Tool for Understanding Jobs * Job Analysis and the ADA * Job Evaluation and Comparable Worth * Summary #### Inside Tips **JOB ANALYSIS: ESTABLISHING A FOUNDATION FOR PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY** The topic of this chapter, job analysis, is the foundation of nearly all personnel activities. To appraise employee performance, hire the right person for a job, train someone to perform a job, or change or redesign a job, we need to know exactly what the job is. This is the purpose of job analysis. Many of the topics we will discuss in the next several chapters rest on this foundation. For example, when we discuss the recruitment, screening, testing, and selection of applicants for a job (in the next two chapters), we determine what knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) are required to perform the job before we hire someone. When we discuss evaluating job performance (Chapter 6), we need to know what the job consists of before we can tell if someone is doing it well or poorly. In addition, the analysis of jobs draws heavily on the research methods and measurement issues studied in Chapter 2, so make sure you have a firm grasp on the previous chapter. In job analysis, we strive to be as objective and precise as possible. Measurement methods and techniques of observing and recording data are critical to analyzing jobs. The topic of job analysis also relates to some of the issues discussed in Chapter 1. For example, when Taylor was applying time-and-motion methods to the study of a job, he was in effect conducting a job analysis. Additionally, one of the job analysis methods we will discuss in this chapter examines the specific processes by which a job gets done. These are the same types of processes Taylor studied in his scientific management methods. Making connections such as these will help you see how the various topics that we will be discussing fit together. Imagine that graduation is on the horizon, and you want to find out about the sorts of jobs for which you might be qualified and what sorts of companies or organizations you might work for. In all likelihood, you would turn to some source of information that deals with personnel, or human resources, issues. You might visit your campus career center or begin with a Web-based search. You need to know about careers and jobs and the requirements needed to succeed in them. In the next five chapters, we will be examining the specialty of industrial/organizational psychology referred to as personnel psychology. Personnel psychology is concerned with the creation, care, and maintenance of a workforce, which includes the recruitment, placement, training, and development of workers; the measurement and evaluation of their performance; and the concern with worker productivity and well-being. In short, the goal of personnel psychology is to take care of an organization's human resources (the organization's personnel). **Personnel Psychology** the specialty area of I/O psychology focusing on an organization's human resources In organizations, human resources departments are responsible for most personnel matters. In addition to maintaining employee records-tabulating attendance, handling payroll, and keeping retirement records-human resources departments deal with numerous issues relating to the company's most valuable assets: its human workers. I/O psychologists who specialize in personnel psychology are involved in activities such as employee recruitment and selection; the measurement of employee performance and the establishment of good performance review procedures; the development of employee training and development programs; and the formulation of criteria for promotion, firing, and disciplinary action. They also need to be well versed in employment laws and regulations to ensure that their organizations are in compliance with federal and state laws and guidelines. I/O psychologists may also establish effective programs for employee compensation and benefits, create incentive programs, and design and implement programs to protect employee health and well-being. ### Job Analysis One of the most basic personnel functions is job analysis, or the systematic study of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities of a job and the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to perform it. Job analysis is the starting point for nearly all personnel functions, and job analysis is critically important for developing the means for assessing personnel (Wheaton & Whetzel, 1997). Before a worker can be hired or trained and before a worker's performance can be evaluated, it is critical to understand exactly what the worker's job entails. Such analyses should also be conducted on a periodic basis to ensure that the information on jobs is up to date. In other words, it needs to reflect the work actually being performed. For example, as time goes by, an administrative assistant in a small organization might assume additional tasks and responsibilities that did not exist earlier. If the company has to replace this person but does not have an up-to-date job analysis for the position, it is doubtful that the company would be able to hire an individual with all the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics needed to perform the job as it currently exists. **Job Analysis** the systematic study of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities of a job and the qualities needed to perform it Because most jobs consist of a variety of tasks and duties, gaining a full understanding of a job is not always easy. Therefore, job analysis methods need to be comprehensive and precise. Indeed, large organizations have specialists whose primary responsibilities are to analyze the various jobs in the company and develop extensive and current descriptions for each. Most jobs are quite complex and require workers to possess certain types of knowledge and skills to perform a variety of different tasks. Workers may need to operate complex machinery or software to perform their jobs, or they might need to possess a great deal of information about a particular product or service, particularly in this ultra-competitive global marketplace. Jobs might also require workers to interact effectively with different types of people, or a single job might require a worker to possess all these important skills and knowledge. As jobs become more and more complex, the need for effective and comprehensive job analyses becomes increasingly important. It must be emphasized, however, that although job analysis provides us with a greater understanding of what a particular job entails, in with complex and ever-changing, ever-evolving jobs, job analysis should not be a limiting process. Analyses of jobs should allow for flexibility and creativity in many jobs, rather than being used to tell people how to do their work. In addition to understanding how jobs are performed, a work analysis can focus on work methods and procedures in order to discover faster, better, and/or more efficient ways of performing jobs (Wilson, 2012). In recent years, as organizations strive to be more flexible, there is movement away from rigidly defined jobs, so focus is shifting from analyses of "jobs" to a better understanding of how work gets done (Sackett, Walmsley, & Laczo, 2013). Note that the more general term "work analysis" refers to understanding how work tasks are accomplished, but also how the larger bodies of shared work get done in organizations. To perform a good job analysis, the job analyst must be well trained in the basic research methods we discussed in Chapter 2. Job analysis typically involves the objective measurement of work behavior performed by actual workers. Therefore, a job analyst must be an expert in objective measurement techniques to perform an accurate job analysis. In fact, a review of research on job analysis suggests that experience and training in job analysis methods are critical for effective job analysis (Landy, 1993; Voskuijl & van Sliedregt, 2002). A job analysis leads directly to the development of several other important personnel "products": a job description, a job specification, a job evaluation, and performance criteria. A job description is a detailed accounting of the tasks, procedures, and responsibilities required of the worker; the machines, tools, and equipment used to perform the job; and the job output (end product or service). Workers are most familiar with job descriptions. Often new workers are provided with descriptions of their jobs during initial orientation and training. Human resources departments may also make descriptions for various jobs accessible to employees. For instance, you can sometimes see job descriptions posted on bulletin boards or on e-mail listservs as part of announcements for company job openings. **Job Description** a detailed description of job tasks, procedures, and responsibilities; the tools and equipment used; and the end product or service A job analysis also leads to a job specification, which provides information about the human characteristics required to perform the job, such as physical and personal traits, work experience, and education. Usually, job specifications give the minimum acceptable qualifications that an employee needs to perform a given job. A sample job description and job specification are presented in Table 3.1. A third personnel "product," job evaluation, is the assessment of the relative value or worth of a job to an organization to determine appropriate compensation, or wages. We will discuss job evaluation in much more depth later in this chapter. **Job Specification** a statement of the human characteristics required to perform a job **Job Evaluation** an assessment of the relative value of a job to determine appropriate compensation Finally, a job analysis helps outline performance criteria, which are the means for appraising worker success in performing a job. Performance criteria and performance appraisals will be the topics of Chapter 6. These products of job analysis are important because they provide the detailed information needed for other personnel activities, such as planning, recruitment and selection programs, and performance appraisal systems (see Figure 3.1). Job analyses and their products are also valuable because of legal decisions that make organizations more responsible for personnel actions as part of the movement toward greater legal rights for the worker. Foremost among these laws are those concerned with equal employment opportunities for disadvantaged and minority workers. Employers cannot make hasty or arbitrary decisions regarding the hiring, firing, or promotion of workers. Certain personnel actions, such as decisions to hire or promote, must be made on the basis of a thorough job analysis. Personnel decisions that are not are difficult to defend in court. Sometimes a job analysis and a job description are not enough. Courts have also questioned the quality of job descriptions and the methods used in job analysis by many companies (Ghorpade, 1988). The passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in 1990 requires that employers make “reasonable accommodations” so that people with physical, mental, or learning disabilities can perform their jobs. This means that job analysts must sometimes be concerned with analyzing jobs specifically with disabled workers in mind, to make accommodations so that those workers can perform the jobs (we will discuss the ADA in more depth later in this chapter). | | Example of a Job Description and a Job Specification | | :--------------------- | :---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | | **Partial Job Description for Human Resources Assistant** | | Job summary: | Supports human resources processes by administering employment tests, scheduling appointments, conducting employee orientation, maintaining personnel records and information. | | Job tasks and results: | Schedules and coordinates appointments for testing; administers and scores employment tests; conducts new employee orientation programs; maintains personnel databases, involving assembling, preparing, and analyzing employment data; must maintain technical knowledge by attending educational workshops and reviewing publications; must maintain strict confidentiality of HR information. | | | **Partial Job Specification for Human Resources Assistant** | | | Minimum of two years' experience in human resources operations. Bachelor's degree in business, psychology, social sciences, or related area; master's degree in HR-related discipline desired; proficiency in database management programs and statistical analysis software; good interpersonal skills, with training and presentation experience. | Source: Adapted from: Plachy, R. J., & Plachy S. J. (1998). More results-oriented job descriptions. New York: AMACOM. ### Job Analysis Methods A variety of methods and procedures are available for conducting a job analysis, including observational techniques, examination of existing data on jobs, interview techniques, and surveys. Each method will yield a different type of information, and each has its own strengths and weaknesses. In certain methods, such as interviewing, the data may be obtained from a variety of sources, such as the job incumbent (the person currently holding the job), supervisory personnel, or outside experts. Moreover, different job analysis methods are often used in combination to produce a detailed and accurate description of a certain job (Bran-nick, Levine, & Morgeson, 2007). Figure 3.1 shows a diagram of the links between job analysis and personnel functions, including "Job Design," "Personnel Planning" "Personnel Recruitment and Selection," "Compensation," "Employee Training and Development," "Equal Employment Opportunity," and "Performance Appraisal" ### Observations Observational methods of job analysis are those in which trained job analysts gather information about a particular job. To do this, the analyst usually observes the job incumbent at work for a period of time (Figure 3.2). Job analysts may also make use of videos to record work behavior for more detailed analysis. Typically in observational analysis, the observer takes detailed notes on the exact tasks and duties performed. However, to make accurate observations, the job analyst must know what to look for. For example, a subtle or quick movement, but one that is important to the job, might go unnoticed. Also, if the job is highly technical or complex, the analyst may not be able to observe some of its critical aspects, such as thinking or decision-making processes. Observational techniques usually work best with jobs involving manual operations, repetitive tasks, or other easily seen activities. For example, describing the tasks and duties of a sewing machine operator is much simpler than describing the job of a computer technician, because much of the computer technician's job involves cognitive processes involved in troubleshooting computer problems. With observational techniques, it is important that the times selected for observation are representative of the worker's routine, especially if the job requires that the worker be engaged in different tasks during different times of the day, week, or year. For example, an accounting clerk may deal with payroll vouchers on Thursdays, may spend most of Fridays updating sales figures, and may be almost completely occupied with preparing a company's tax records during the month of January. **Stop & Review** List and define three products of a job analysis. Figure 3.2 shows an image of a job analyst using observational methods to analyze a machinist's job. One concern regarding observational methods is whether the presence of the observer in some way influences workers' performance. There is always the chance that workers will perform their jobs differently simply because they know that they are being watched (recall the Hawthorne effect discussed in Chapter 1). ### Participation In some instances, a job analyst may want to actually perform a particular job or job operation to get a firsthand understanding of how the job is performed. For example, several years ago, I was involved in conducting a job analysis of workers performing delicate microassembly operations. These microassemblers were working with fitting together extremely tiny electrical components. The only way to gain a true understanding of (and appreciation for) the fine hand-eye coordination required to perform the job was to attempt the task myself. ### Existing Data Most large, established organizations usually have some information or records that can be used in the job analysis, such as a previous job analysis for the position or an analysis of a related job. Such data might also be borrowed from another organization that has conducted analyses of similar jobs. Human resources professionals often exchange such information with professionals at other organizations. In addition, government sources, such as the U.S. Department of Labor, might provide data that can assist in a specific job analysis (Dierdorff, 2012). Existing data should always be checked to make sure it conforms to the job as it is currently being performed and to determine if the existing data accounts for the inclusion of new technology in the job. **Applying I/O Psychology** **A Detailed Job Analysis of Real Estate Agents** In one project, the state of California hired an industrial/organizational psychologist to undertake a detailed job analysis of real estate salespersons and brokers (Buckly, 1993). The state wanted to understand the real estate professional's job better in order to improve the existing state licensing exam for real estate agents/brokers. The I/O psychologist began by surveying nearly 1,000 real estate salespersons and brokers, asking them about the activities they engaged in and the knowledge they needed to perform their jobs. The results of this job analysis indicated that real estate salespersons typically engaged in the following activities: 1. Locating and listing property-Includes inspecting the property, performing a market analysis, and suggesting a price range for the property. 2. Marketing property-Includes promoting the property through advertising, finding prospective buyers, and showing and describing features of the property to prospective buyers. 3. Negotiating sales contracts-Includes preparing and presenting offers and counteroffers and negotiating deals. 4. Assisting with transfer of property-Includes arranging for escrow; assisting the buyer to find financing; coordinating with inspectors, appraisers, and the escrow and title companies; and reviewing closing documents with clients. 5. Maintaining professional image-Includes staying informed about changes in real estate laws, market trends, and the community. In addition to these activities, real estate salespersons had to demonstrate knowledge of: * Types of properties and ownerships (e.g., leases, common interest properties) * Land use controls and regulations (zoning, property taxes, building codes, etc.) * Market value and market analysis * Property financing and financing regulations * Contracts * Transfer of property rules and laws The result of this project was that the I/O psychologist recommended that the state change the licensing examination test items in order to better reflect the job as described by real estate salesperson job incumbents. ### Interviews Interviews are another method of job analysis. They can be open-ended (“Tell me all about what you do on the job"), or they can involve structured or standardized questions. Because any one source of information can be biased, the job analyst may want to get more than one perspective by interviewing the job incumbent, the incumbent's supervisor, and, if the job is a supervisory one, the incumbent's subordinates. The job analyst might also interview several job incumbents within a single organization to get a more reliable representation of the job and to see whether various people holding the same job title in a company actually perform similar tasks. ### Surveys Survey methods of job analysis usually involve the administration of a pencil-and-paper questionnaire that the respondent completes and returns to the job analyst. Surveys can consist of open-ended questions ("What abilities or skills are required to perform this job?"); closed-ended questions ("Which of the following classifications best fits your position? (a) supervisory, (b) technical, (c) line, (d) clerical"); or checklists (“Check all of the following tasks that you perform in your job."). The survey method has two advantages over the interview method. First, the survey allows the collection of information from a number of workers simultaneously. This can be helpful and very cost effective when the analyst needs to study several positions. Second, because the survey can be anonymous, there may be less distortion or withholding of information than in a face-to-face interview. One of the drawbacks of the survey, however, is that the information obtained is limited by the questions asked. Unlike an interview, a survey cannot probe for additional information or for clarification of a response. Often in conducting job analyses, job incumbents or knowledgeable supervisors of job incumbents are referred to as **subject matter experts (or SMEs)**. Subject matter experts can provide job analysis information via interviews or through survey methods. **Subject Matter Expert (SME)** an individual who has detailed knowledge about a particular job ### Job Diaries Another method for job analysis is to have job incumbents record their daily activities in a diary. An advantage of the job diary is that it provides a detailed, hour-by-hour, day-by-day account of the worker's job. One difficulty of diary methods, however, is that it is quite time consuming, both for the worker who is keeping the diary and for the job analyst who has the task of analyzing the large amount of information contained in the diary. An important concern in all the preceding methods of job analysis is potential errors and inaccuracies that occur simply because job analysts, job incumbents, and subject matter experts are all human beings. In one review, Morgeson and Campion (1997) outlined 16 potential sources of inaccuracy in job analysis, ranging from mere carelessness and poor job analyst training to biases such as overestimating or underestimating the importance of certain tasks and jobs to information overload stemming from the complexity of some jobs. As you recall from our discussion of research methods, an important theme for I/O psychologists is to take steps to ensure that proper methods are used in all sorts of organizational analyses. Nowhere is this more important than in conducting job analyses. ### Specific Job Analysis Techniques In addition to these various general methods for conducting job analyses, there are a number of specific, standardized analysis techniques. These techniques have not only been widely used but have also generated a considerable amount of research on their effectiveness. We will consider four of these specific techniques: the job element method, the critical incidents technique, the Position Analysis Questionnaire, and functional job analysis. ### Job Element Method The job element method of job analysis looks at the basic knowledge, skills, abilities, or other characteristics-KSAOs-that are required to perform a particular job (Primoff, 1975). These KSAOs constitute the basic job elements. **Job Element Method** a job analysis method that analyzes jobs in terms of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) required to perform the jobs In the job element method the job analyst relies on "experts" (subject matter experts, or SMEs) who are informed about the job to identify the job elements (KSAOs) required for a given job. The experts then rate or rank the different elements in terms of their importance for performing the job. The job element method is "person oriented" (or personality based) in that it focuses on the characteristics of the individual who is performing the job (Foster, Gaddis, & Hogan, 2012). This method has been used most often in jobs in the federal government. Because of its limited scope, the job element method is often combined with other job analysis methods outlined next (Bemis, Belenky, & Soder, 1983). ### Critical Incidents Technique The critical incidents technique (CIT) of job analysis records the specific worker behaviors that have led to particularly successful or unsuccessful job performance (Flanagan, 1954). For example, some critical incidents for the job of clerical assistant might include the following: "Possess knowledge of word processing programs"; "Notices an item in a letter or report that doesn't appear to be right, checks it, and corrects it"; "Misfiles charts, letters, etc., on a regular basis"; and "Produces a manuscript with good margins, making it look like a professional document." All of these behaviors presumably contribute to the success or failure of the clerical assistant. Research indicates that information is best provided by experts on the job and that careful qualitative analysis methods should be used (Butterfield, Borgen, Amundson, & Asa-Sophia, 2005; Mullins & Kimbrough, 1988). Therefore, information on such incidents is obtained by questioning-either through interviews or questionnaires-job incumbents, job supervisors, or other knowledgeable individuals. Through the collection of hundreds of critical incidents, the job analyst can arrive at a very good picture of what a particular job-and its successful performance-is all about. An example of a critical incidents interview form is presented in Figure 3.3. **Critical Incidents Technique (CIT)** a job analysis technique that relies on instances of especially successful or unsuccessful job performance The real value of the CIT is in helping to determine the particular knowledge, skills, and abilities that a worker needs to perform a job successfully. For example, from the critical incidents given for the clerical assistant position, we know that the successful worker will need to know how to file, use a word processing program, check basic grammar and sentence structure, and set up a typed manuscript page. The CIT technique is also useful in developing appraisal systems for certain jobs by helping to identify the critical components of successful performance. In fact, recently the results of CIT analyses have been used to teach “best practices" in professions such as medicine, counseling, and customer service (Rademacher, Simpson, & Marcdante, 2010). Figure 3.3 depicts a critical incidents interview form, with a sample interview question designed to elicit critical incidents for a particular job. The sample question presented focuses on an incident where a subordinate was behaving in a helpful way ### Position Analysis Questionnaire **Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)** a job analysis technique that uses a structured questionnaire to analyze jobs according to 187 job statements, grouped into six categories One of the most widely researched job analysis instruments is the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) (McCormick, Jeanneret, & Mecham, 1969), which is a structured questionnaire that analyzes various jobs in terms of 187 job elements that are arranged into six categories, or divisions, as follows: * Information input-Where and how the worker obtains the information needed to perform the job. For example, a newspaper reporter may be required to use published, written materials as well as interviews with informants to write a news story. A clothing inspector's information input may involve fine visual discriminations of garment seams. * Mental processes-The kinds of thinking, reasoning, and decision making required to perform the job. For example, an air traffic controller must make many decisions about when it is safe for jets to land and take off. * Work output-The tasks the worker must perform and the tools or machines needed. For example, a word processor must enter text using keyboard devices. * Relationships with other persons-The kinds of relationships and contacts with others required to do the job. For example, a teacher instructs others, and a store clerk has contact with customers by providing information and ringing up purchases. * Job context-The physical and/or social contexts in which the work is performed. Examples of job context elements would be working under high temperatures or dealing with many conflict situations. * Other job characteristics-Other relevant activities, conditions, or characteristics necessary to do the job. Each of these job elements is individually rated using six categories: extent of use, importance to the job, amount of time, applicability, possibility of occurrence, and a special code for miscellaneous job elements. The standard elements are rated on a scale from 1, for minor applicability, to 5, for extreme applicability. There is an additional rating for "does not apply" (McCormick, 1979). A sample page from the PAQ is shown in Figure 3.4. Figure 3.4 shows a sample page from the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ). The PAQ results produce a detailed profile of a particular job that can be used to compare jobs within a company or similar positions in different organizations. Because the PAQ is a standardized instrument (meaning it has been extensively validated), two analysts surveying the same job should come up with similar profiles. This might not be the case with interview techniques, where the line of questioning and interpersonal skills specific to the interviewer could greatly affect the job profile. As mentioned, the PAQ has historically been one of the most widely used and thoroughly researched methods of job analysis (Hyland & Muchinsky, 1991; Peterson & Jeanneret, 1997). In one interesting study, the PAQ was used to analyze the job of a homemaker. It was found that a homemaker's job is most similar to the jobs of police officer, firefighter, and airport maintenance chief (Arvey & Begalla, 1975). ### Functional Job Analysis **Functional job analysis (FJA)** has been used extensively by organizations in both the public and private sectors (Fine & Cronshaw, 1999; Fine & Getkate, 1995; Fine & Wiley, 1971). It was developed in part to assist the U.S. Department of Labor in the construction of a comprehensive job classification system and to help create the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) (U.S. Department of Labor, 1991). The DOT was a reference guide that classified and gave general descriptions for over 40,000 different jobs. The DOT has been replaced by the online O*NET system that we will discuss shortly. **Functional Job Analysis (FJA)** a structured job analysis technique that examines the sequence of tasks in a job and the processes by which they are completed **Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT)** a reference guide that classifies and describes over 40,000 jobs Functional job analysis uses three broad categories representing the job's typical interaction with data, people, and things. Data is information, knowledge, and conceptions. Jobs are evaluated with an eye to the amount and type of interaction the person performing the job has with data-numbers, words, symbols, and other abstract elements. People refers to the amount of contact with others that a job requires. These people can be coworkers, supervisors, customers, or others. Things refers to the worker's interaction with inanimate objects such as tools, machines, equipment, and tangible work products. Within each of these categories there is a hierarchy of work functions that ranges from the most involved and complex functions (given the numerical value of “0”) to the least involved and least complex (the highest digit in the category. For example, using FJA, the job of industrial/organizational psychologist requires "coordinating" data (value of “1”), "mentoring/leading" people (the highest value of "0"), and "handling" things (relatively low value of "7"). For the occupation of job analyst, the corresponding numbers are 2, 6, and 7, meaning that this job involves "analyzing" data, “exchanging information" with people, and “handling" things. (see Figure 3.5). **O*NET** The U.S. Department of Labor's Web site that provides comprehensive information about jobs and careers As mentioned, the DOT has been replaced by O*NET-the Occupational Information Network (www.onetcenter.org). The O*NET database contains information about job categories and job KSAOs, as well as information about wages and salaries, job training and licensing requirements for particular jobs, and much, much more. Table 3.3 presents only a small portion of the summary report for the job of industrial/organizational psychologist. Table 3.2 Hierarchy of Work Functions Used in Functional Job Analysis | | Data | People | Things | | :----- | :----------------------- | :--------------------- | :-------------------- | | 0 | Synthesizing | Mentoring, Leading | Setting up | | 1 | Coordinating: Innovating | Negotiating | Precision working | | 2 | Analyzing | Instructing, Consulting | Operating-controlling | | 3 | Compiling | Supervising | Driving-operating | | 4 | Computing | Diverting | Manipulating | | 5 | Copying | Persuading | Tending, Data processing | | 6 | Comparing | Exchanging information | Feeding, Off bearing | | | | Serving | Handling | | 7 | | Taking instructions | | Source: U.S. Department of Labor. (1991). Dictionary of Occupational Titles (Rev. 4th ed). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Fine &Cronshaw. (1999). Today, using functional job analysis, the job analyst may begin with the general job description provided by O*NET. The analyst will then use interviewing and/or observational techniques to conduct a more detailed study of a certain job. FJA is especially helpful when the job analyst must create job descriptions for a large number of positions. It is also quite popular because it is cost effective and because it uses job descriptions based on national databases, which are often considered satisfactory by federal employment enforcement agencies (Mathis & Jackson, 1985). FJA has also proven useful in research designed to gain insight into how workers are performing their jobs. For instance, in a study of over 200 nursing assistants in nursing homes, functional job analysis discovered that nursing assistants were spending too little time dealing with the people aspects of their jobs (e.g., giving attention to elderly residents) and a disproportionately large amount of time dealing with data (e.g., reports) and things, such as changing bedding (Brannon, Streit, & Smyer, 1992). ### Comparing the Different Job Analysis Techniques Several comparison studies of the various job analysis techniques have been conducted. A series of investigations by Levine and his associates (Levine, Ash, & Bennett, 1980; Levine, Ash, Hall, & Sistrunk, 1983) compared various techniques in terms of their accuracy, level of detail, and cost effectiveness. They found that functional job analysis, the critical incidents technique, and the Position Analysis Table 3.3 O*NET SUMmARY REPORT FOR OCCUPATION: INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGISTS (GREATLY ABBREVIATED) | Sample of reported j ob titles: | Consultant, I/O Psychologist, Consulting Psychologist Management Consultant, Research Scientist . . | | :---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | :--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Tasks | | Develop and implement employee selection and placement programs.Anal yze job requirements and content for classification, selection, training.Identify training and developmental needsAssess employee performing | | Knowledge | | Personnel and Human Resources.Psychology.Education and Training.Administration and Management.Customer Personal Service.Sales and marketing. | | skills | | Critical Thinking.Active Listening.Complex Problem Solving.Service Orientation.Speaking. | | Abilities | | Oral and Written Comprehension and Expression.Problem Sensitivity.Deductive and Inductive Reasoning.Originality | | Work Activities | | Getting information and interpreting its meaning for others.Organizing, planning, prioritizing work.Analyzing dataMaking decisions and problem solving.Providing consultation and advice to others.Interacting with computers, etc. | Questionnaire were all reasonably effective job analysis methods. Whereas FJA and the CIT provided detailed, comprehensive types of analyses, the PAQ yielded more limited information, probably because it uses the same general instrument to analyze all types of jobs. The FJA and CIT, by contrast, are tailored to analyze specific jobs, and CIT is particularly suited to analyzing complex jobs (Anderson & Wilson, 1997). However, the PAQ was found to be more cost effective and easier to use than the other methods. Figure 3.5 shows a cook in a restaurant kitchen compiling data, speaking to people, and doing precision work with things. Regardless of the specific instrument used, when job analysis is used to compare different types of jobs, the job analyst must use caution in the interpretation of numerical scale values. For example, both a marketing director and a head janitor could conceivably be rated on the behavior of "negotiation with others" as the same value on a rating scale. Even though these jobs may be similar in the amount of time spent in negotiations, it would be erroneous to conclude that the negotiations have equal weight, that they are equally demanding, or that they require an equal level of skill. One suggested solution to this problem is to rate the "relative importance" (RI) of tasks, including the RI between jobs and the RI within similar jobs, and to evaluate the tasks "qualitatively," rather than relying solely on quantitative evaluation (Harvey, 1991). Overall, no one method or technique of job analysis has emerged as superior to all others. It may be that a trained analyst could conduct very good job analyses using any of several methods (Muchinsky, 1987). Obviously, a combination of methods should lead to a more detailed, more reliable, and "better” analysis than the use of any one technique alone. ### O*Net: A Useful Tool for Understanding Jobs O*NET is the U.S. Department of Labor's Web site that is intended to be the primary source of information about occupations. O*NET is an extensive database of information about jobs. In addition to being the database that replaces the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT), O*NET has career exploration tools to assist individuals in evaluating their career interests; information on the job-related skills and training needed for particular jobs; consumer guides that explain personnel testing and assessment; and a clearinghouse for information for I/O psychologists, human resources professionals, and career and vocational counselors. The Department of Labor intends to make the ever-evolving O*NET the central source for information about jobs, careers, and the world of work. **Close What Do You Want to Do for a Living?- Using O*NET for Your Career Search** "My Next Move” (www.mynextmove.org/) is a useful online tool for your career search. It is managed by the National Center for O*NET Development, and it lists over 900 different careers from the O*NET Database. There are three ways to use this Web