Henry VIII and Wolsey, 1509-1529 Textbook PDF

## 1.1 Henry VIII, Renaissance Prince ### Learning outcomes * Understand English society in 1509. * Understand Henry VIII's character and attitudes on becoming king. ### England in 1509: society and government Henry VIII's father, Henry VII (shown in Source A), became king in 1485. Over time, He...

## 1.1 Henry VIII, Renaissance Prince ### Learning outcomes * Understand English society in 1509. * Understand Henry VIII's character and attitudes on becoming king. ### England in 1509: society and government Henry VIII's father, Henry VII (shown in Source A), became king in 1485. Over time, Henry VII became identified with greed and repression. His son, however, was determined to be different. When Henry VIII succeeded to the throne, in 1509, he wanted to become known as a king of great wealth, prosperity and generosity. Aged only 18 in 1509, the young king now ruled over 2.5 million people. His was a mainly rural kingdom, with most people living and working on the land. Only around 6% of the population lived in towns. The city of London was the largest and most important in the country, with 60,000 inhabitants. The next largest towns were Norwich, Bristol, Exeter, York and Coventry, but they had much smaller populations. The religion of the whole of England was Roman Catholicism - a form of Christianity followed throughout Western Europe during much of Henry VIII's reign. ### The young Henry becomes king Henry did not expect to be king. He was born the second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. While his elder brother Arthur, as the Prince of Wales, went off to learn the art of government in Wales, Henry's early childhood was spent in Eltham Palace, just outside London. He was brought up with his two sisters, Margaret and Mary, under the supervision of his mother. An energetic and outgoing young boy, Henry's life changed dramatically in 1502 when his elder brother died of tuberculosis. Aged ten, Henry became the heir to the throne. As the sole surviving male heir, Henry was moved to the royal court at Greenwich to be kept under the close and stern supervision of his father. Having already lost five out of eight children, the king felt that Henry was too precious to risk. Although the teenage prince was strong and athletic, enjoying hunting and archery, his father banned him from the dangerous sport of jousting*. This angered Henry greatly. More surprisingly, he was also denied any role in governing the kingdom, despite being intelligent and having studied with leading scholars. Traditionally, the Prince of Wales was sent to the Welsh Marches (English land along the Welsh border) to learn how to govern. Following Arthur's death, Henry VII had no wish to send another son off to a tough part of the country to build experience. As a result, on his father's death in 1509, Henry VIII was largely untrained in the skills needed to rule as king. *** **Source A** A portrait of the 48-year-old Henry VII by an unknown artist, painted in 1505, four years before his death. *** **Key term** Jousting* A sporting contest where two opponents on horseback try to knock the other to the ground with a lance. *** ## 1.2 The rise of Wolsey and his policies ### Learning outcomes * Understand the reasons for Wolsey's rise to power. * Understand Wolsey's main reforms in England. ### Reasons for Wolsey's rise to power Thomas Wolsey became England's most senior official during the first half of Henry VIII's reign. He was charming and gifted, and he dominated the country's legal, financial and administrative system following his appointment as Lord Chancellor* in 1515. As Lord Chancellor, Wolsey was the king's chief minister and main adviser on all things. Wolsey was also one of England's most important churchmen (as Archbishop of York* and then a cardinal*). He was also skilled in building relationships with other powerful countries. Wolsey built palaces and gained a fortune second only to the king himself, which showed how great his status was in Tudor England. Quite simply, Henry's chief minister lived like a king. Given Henry's own ego, this is surprising enough, but Thomas Wolsey also had the most unlikely of backgrounds. He was the son of an Ipswich butcher. As seen previously, Tudor England was hierarchical. Everyone had their place in society, and those at the bottom were expected to stay there. However, Wolsey became an exception to this rule. His father, a relatively wealthy butcher and cattle dealer, provided his son with an excellent education, allowing him to enter Oxford University to study to become a priest. This was one of the few ways ambitious young men without a noble background could advance in the world. Wolsey was very intelligent and made the most of this opportunity - gaining his degree when he was only 15 years old. Wolsey became his college's treasurer in Oxford and used his new position to undertake a huge college rebuilding programme, showing the ambition and arrogance that would later become his trademark. Wolsey rose even further when Henry VIII became king. His appointment as Royal Almoner (in charge of giving charity to the poor) in 1509 made him a member of the Royal Council. The ambitious priest now had access to Henry, and the opportunity to build a personal relationship with the king using his charm, wit and gift for flattery. Wolsey was also lucky. The young king preferred pleasure over administration. Wolsey encouraged this, and carved out a role carrying out all the tedious tasks Henry wanted to avoid. *** **Key terms** Lord Chancellor* The most important post in Henry VIII's government, responsible for advising the king on all matters. Archbishop of York* The second most important religious appointment in England, after the Archbishop of Canterbury. Cardinal* A senior leader in the Roman Catholic Church. *** ## 1.3 Wolsey's foreign policy ### Learning outcomes * Understand Wolsey's main foreign policy aims. * Understand Wolsey's successes and failures in foreign policy. ### Timeline **Foreign affairs, 1512-25** * 1512: England and Spain form an anti-French alliance. * 1512-14: Henry VIII's first war with France: a battlefield victory for Henry. * 1515: Death of Louis XII and accession of Francis I as King of France. * 1516: Death of Ferdinand II and accession of Charles I as King of Spain. * 1518: Treaty of London promising a 'universal peace': a triumph for Wolsey. * 1519: Charles I becomes Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. * 1520: Henry VIII and Francis I meet at the 'Field of the Cloth of Gold'. * 1522-25: Henry VIII's second war with France ends in failure. * 1525: Charles V's victory over Francis I at Pavia shocks Europe. ### Henry's European rivals Young Henry VIII was first and foremost a warrior. His favourite hobbies of jousting, archery and hunting all had the purpose of preparing him for battle. Henry dreamed of military glory and, ultimately, this meant only one thing: the re-conquest of France. However, in reality, England did not have the population and resources to compete with the European superpowers of France and the Habsburg* Empire (see Figure 1.5). ### **Key term** Habsburg* The Habsburgs were a royal Catholic family that ruled Spain during Henry VIII's reign. Many branches of this family also ruled other parts of Europe, including Austria. The difficulties in achieving English glory were made clear to Henry when he invaded France in 1512. It ended in humiliation. His army failed because of drunkenness and disease Henry launched a second campaign in 1513. This time, Henry captured the towns of Therouanne and Tournai, and defeated the French army at the Battle of the Spurs. Henry could boast about this victory as a success. However, in reality, the two towns were of little value and the battle was only a minor one. Also, this second campaign emptied the king's treasury. However, by 1514, Wolsey had established himself as Henry's chief diplomat and became the man who had to balance his master's dreams with reality. For the next 15 years, Wolsey was the driving force behind England's foreign policy. The major players Henry had to contend with in Europe were Francis I, the king of France from 1515, and Charles I, the king of Spain from 1516. *** **Figure 1.5** Europe during the reign of Henry VIII. **The Holy Roman Empire:** A collection of 400 semi-independent states. Each state was ruled over by prince or duke, who held great deal of political power. The Holy Roman Emperor ruled over all the states. In 1519, the Holy Roman Emperor was Charles V, a member of the Habsburg family and ruler of Spain. **Scotland:** An independent nation traditionally allied with France. This posed a threat to England. **England:** A middling power. Wales, the Channel Islands, part of Ireland and Calais were under its direct control. English kings traditionally laid claim to the French throne. **The Netherlands:** Under Spanish control. Mainly exported cloth. **Papal States:** The pope, based in Rome, acted as the head of the Catholic Church, as well as controlling a large area of the Italian peninsula. The independence of the Papal States was under repeated threats from France and Spain who both tried to dominate the area. **Spain:** Ruled by Charles Habsburg from 1516, it was the main source of his wealth and armies. During his reign, he also gained control of the large Aztec and Inca Empires. **France:** The largest kingdom (population) in Europe and very Catholic. It had a fierce rivalry with the Habsburgs. From 1515, it was ruled by Francis I. **The Ottoman Empire:** : A powerful Muslim state backed by a large, well-disciplined army. During this period, it was expanding into Europe and North Africa. **The Mediterranean:** : A dangerous sea route under the control of pirates allied to the Ottoman Empire. *** ## 1.4 Wolsey, Catherine, the succession and annulment ### Learning outcomes * Understand why Henry wanted a divorce from Catherine of Aragon. * Understand the reasons for Wolsey's fall from power. By 1527, the king was in love: but not with his wife, Catherine of Aragon. Anne Boleyn - stylish, intelligent and playful - had caught his eye. Although normally reluctant to write, passionate love letters poured out of Henry. He claimed that he had been shot by the 'dart of love'. This love affair, however, was just one part of a wider story developing in the 1520s. Focused on Henry's need for an heir, it resulted in lives being destroyed and Henry's court being transformed. ### Catherine of Aragon and the succession For two decades, Henry had been, in many ways, a caring and affectionate husband, in love with his wife. In return, Catherine of Aragon had been a loyal wife, supporting him when he needed her. Henry first met Catherine when he was a young prince and she was betrothed to his older brother, Arthur. As she was the princess of Spain, this was a political marriage to join the two nations in an alliance. They married in November 1501, but Arthur died unexpectedly the following April. It was decreed by the pope that the marriage had not been consummated*. * **This was important: it meant Catherine could be married to Prince Henry instead, and the Anglo-Spanish alliance maintained.** There was genuine affection between the royal couple, and Catherine became everything a 16th-century queen should be. Deeply religious, educated and regal, she became widely respected among the English people for her charitable work. She also defended Henry's interests. In 1513, Henry appointed her as his regent* while he led an invasion of France. ### **Extend your knowledge** **The Battle of Flodden, 1513** When the Scottish king, James IV, took advantage of Henry's absence in France by marching south to invade England, Catherine sent an army to defeat him in the Battle of Flodden. James IV was killed, and Catherine sent his bloodied shirt to Henry in France as a gift. Catherine had many difficult pregnancies. Primary sources confirm she was pregnant six times, with only one baby, Mary, surviving. The emotional and physical toll on the queen must have been terrible. By 1524, Henry had stopped sleeping with Catherine. Aged 39, her chances of becoming pregnant again were low. Unfortunately for Catherine, she had failed to provide Henry with the one thing he needed: a surviving son. ### **Key terms** * **Consummated*:** Confirming a marriage by having sex: a marriage was not considered valid until then. * **Regent*:** A person who governs the kingdom in the king's absence. ### Henry's reasons for seeking an annulment Catherine's unhappy history of childbirth was not just a personal tragedy. It was also a political problem and led to Henry seeking the annulment* of their marriage in 1527. Henry believed that he needed a healthy male heir in order to guarantee the future of the Tudor dynasty. Having only a female heir might encourage others with a claim to the throne - both at home and abroad - to challenge for the throne. ### **Key term** * **Annulment*:** A legal term declaring that a marriage was never valid, and therefore never existed. An annulment could only be granted by the pope. ### **Extend your knowledge** * **Henry Fitzroy (1519-36):** In his search for a male heir, Henry started to take steps to ensure his illegitimate son, Henry Fitzroy, would succeed him. Henry Fitzroy was the son of Henry and his mistress, Bessie Blount. In 1525, Fitzroy was made Duke of Richmond (see also page 48). Henry also started to view Catherine's failure to produce a son as a sign of God's displeasure. The king reasoned that there could be no physical reason for a lack of healthy children, as he was strong and healthy and had produced a healthy son with his mistress. Instead, God must be punishing him because He disapproved of Henry's marriage to his brother's widow. Henry found support for this in the Bible (see Source B). ### **Source B** * An extract from Leviticus, a book in the Bible, supporting Henry's case for a divorce: *If a man shall take his brother's wife it is an impurity:... they shall be childless.* There was also a more personal reason for seeking an annulment. Henry was deeply in love with Anne Boleyn, who was everything Catherine was not. The queen was in her forties and had lost her looks. As early as 1519, Francis I had commented on Henry's 'old deformed wife'. Anne, in contrast, was young and beautiful. ### **Source C** Anne Boleyn, c1533-36, by an unknown artist. Edward Hall, a Tudor MP, described her as having a long neck, wide mouth and 'eyes which were black and beautiful'. The portrait also shows her wearing her famous 'B' pendant. Henry already knew Anne's family. Anne was the daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, a courtier and minister, and was the niece of the Duke of Norfolk, who was becoming a key adviser to the king. Anne refused the king's initial advances, letting it be known that she would only sleep with him when they were married. This strategy worked and made the king all the more determined to secure an annulment. ### Henry's attempts to gain an annulment The task of getting the annulment of Henry's marriage to Catherine fell to Wolsey in 1527. Although this required the approval of the pope, Wolsey assured Henry that this could be easily achieved. As cardinal and Papal Legate, as well as an internationally respected statesman, Wolsey had influence in Rome. He also assumed the pope would want to help Henry, who was his ally. However, it soon became clear that Rome was not going to co-operate. As seen previously, Charles V was the nephew of Catherine, and his victory over the French at Pavia in 1525 left him dominating Rome. For a short time in 1527, he even imprisoned the pope. This caused problems for Wolsey. For the pope, the risk of upsetting Charles V by granting the annulment was too great. At the same time, the pope did not want to lose the support of his English ally. The result was a papal policy that delayed making a final decision for as long as possible. With pressure mounting from Henry, Anne Boleyn and her supporters, Wolsey tried a range of strategies, hoping one would pay off. *First, Wolsey tried to find evidence in the Bible to support an annulment. Henry had only been allowed to marry Catherine as a result of a special dispensation (permission) from the pope. Based on Henry's interpretation of Leviticus, a book of the Bible, it was argued that the dispensation should never have been granted because it broke God's law. However, this approach ran into three main problems.* 1. Supporters of Catherine pointed to a passage from Deuteronomy, another book of the Bible (Source D), which suggested that a man could marry his brother's widow and have children with her. Despite a huge theological debate, there was no clear answer to who was right or wrong. 2. Henry's Leviticus argument only worked if Catherine and Arthur had been 'properly married'. She consistently denied that the marriage had been consummated. The only evidence Wolsey had that it had been consummated was court gossip, and Arthur's statement after their wedding night that he had spent the night in the 'midst of Spain'. 3. It would be embarrassing for the pope to admit the original dispensation was a mistake. **Source D** An extract from Deuteronomy, a book of the Bible, used to undermine Henry's case for divorce: When brethren dwell together, and one of them dieth without children, the wife of the deceased shall not marry to another; but his brother shall take her, and raise up seed [have children] for his brother. Another approach from Wolsey focused on challenging the pope's original decision to allow Henry and Catherine to marry on technical grounds. By arguing that it was incorrectly worded, it would make the marriage between Henry and Catherine invalid. This approach had the advantage of giving Rome a non-controversial reason for annulling the marriage. However, Catherine's supporters found a correctly worded Spanish version of the decision - Wolsey could no longer use it as an argument for the annulment. Meanwhile, huge pressure was placed on Catherine to renounce her marriage and become a nun. This would automatically terminate the marriage and so avoid the need for the pope's approval. In one message sent to Catherine, the king warned her that, if an attempt was made on his life, she would be blamed for it. The message accused her of hating the king and becoming too friendly with the public by nodding, smiling and waving to them. Furthermore, he would no longer see their daughter, Princess Mary. It was a cruel letter designed to force her into becoming a nun, but it did not work. Wolsey's final attempt to annul the marriage was focused on persuading Rome to allow the case to be decided in England. As Papal Legate, the decision would then fall to Wolsey, who would do as the king wished. Long discussions followed as the precise arrangements were worked out. Eventually, a compromise was reached in April 1528. Cardinal Campeggio and Cardinal Wolsey would rule on behalf of the pope in England. Henry believed nothing else would now get in his way. However promising, this approach also failed. **Why did the case for the annulment fail?** * Cardinal Campeggio had been given instructions by the pope not to reach a final verdict. * Campeggio's delaying tactics made Henry frustrated. The Cardinal only arrived in England in October 1528 - though this was partly due to illness. * When the case finally opened in Blackfriars court in June 1529, Campeggio insisted on doing everything by the book. * In July 1529, Campeggio broke up the court for the summer without a final decision being reached. Unfortunately for Henry and Wolsey, Campeggio was near the end of his life and could not be pressured into making a decision. Instead, Henry's anger was taken out on Wolsey. The fact that this had been another dead-end became clear when the pope decided, at the end of the summer of 1529, that the matter had to be heard in Rome after all. ### Opposition to the annulment The annulment hearing was held at Blackfriars court. During the hearing, Catherine of Aragon was called to speak. She ignored the officials and made her way over to her husband. She knelt before him and delivered her plea not to cast her aside. This was one example of the total opposition Catherine had to the idea of a divorce. Catherine could stand up to Henry because she had powerful supporters, including John Fisher, the highly respected Bishop of Rochester, and Thomas More, adviser to the king. Public support for the queen was also strong. And she had the backing of Europe's most powerful man, Charles V, her nephew. Because of Catherine's family connection with Charles, the pope was simply not in a position to support an annulment. ### **Reasons for Wolsey's fall** Wolsey's end came quickly. When Campeggio suspended work on the divorce case in July 1529, it was clear that the chief minister's divorce strategy had failed. In October, Henry punished Wolsey by stripping him of most of his powers and possessions, and exiling him to York. In November 1530, Wolsey was summoned to London for trial on charges of praemunire*. His health broken, Wolsey died on the journey southwards and so was spared the fate of almost certain execution. His last words expressed regret that he had served his king better than his God. Henry's faith in Wolsey was undermined by three high profile failures. 1. His failure with the Amicable Grant. 2. His failure to secure the annulment for Henry. 3. His failure to build an alliance against Charles V. ### **The influence of the Boleyn family** Wolsey's downfall was also caused by the influence of the Boleyn family. The Eltham Ordinances highlighted how Wolsey sought to prevent rivals from gaining close access to the king. Up until 1527, he was largely successful. As the relationship between Henry and Anne developed, Wolsey was unable to prevent a powerful new group in court developing around Anne, led by her father Thomas Boleyn and her brother, George The Boleyns argued that Wolsey was deliberately trying to disrupt the divorce proceedings. They said he favoured Catherine and believed the king would tire of Anne. As each effort failed, so their attacks on the chief minister increased. Anne in particular grew to hate Wolsey. Many other nobles with grudges against Wolsey eagerly sided with them. With the final failure of proceedings in the summer of 1529, the Boleyns helped persuade Henry that Wolsey had to go. ### **Summary** * Henry's need for a son, his worries about the validity of his marriage in the eyes of God, and his love for Anne Boleyn, all contributed to the king's decision to seek an annulment. * Wolsey was charged with this task and pursued a wide variety of strategies. The most hopeful was having the case heard in England - but Cardinal Campeggio proved unwilling to give the verdict Henry wanted. * Wolsey failed to secure an annulment because he could not overcome the queen's determined opposition, and because the pope was dominated by Catherine's nephew and supporter, Charles V. * Wolsey's failure led to his downfall, as the king lost confidence in him, encouraged by the powerful Boleyn faction. He was charged with praemunire, but did not live to face trial. ### **Key term** * **Praemunire**: Treason by a member of the clergy as a result of working in the interests of the pope, not the king. *** ## 1.3 Wolsey's foreign policy (continued) ### The Treaty of London, 1518 Ever ambitious, Wolsey saw his first chance to place England at the centre of European diplomacy in 1518 when he put forward the idea of a 'universal peace'. He wanted to end warfare permanently between France, England and Spain. Under the terms of Wolsey's proposal, each state would promise to follow a non-aggressive foreign policy - which meant that neither England, France nor Spain would attack one another. If one power did go to war, they risked being attacked by the other two. The 20 leading rulers of Europe signed up to this proposal, including the pope. The Treaty of London was a success for Henry and Wolsey. * It brought immense prestige to Henry VIII, who came to be seen as the great European peacemaker. * England started to be viewed as a significant power. * It placed Henry and Wolsey at the centre of European politics - as the creators of European peace. * It was praised across Europe as a political and diplomatic triumph. However, the high hopes of the Treaty of London did not last. By 1521, the war between France and the Habsburg Empire had restarted. Before this, in 1519, Charles I of Spain was elected Holy Roman Emperor. He now became Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. This event transformed European politics and made war between France and Spain inevitable, for three major reasons. 1. Francis I had hoped to gain the post of Holy Roman Emperor, but Charles was chosen instead. 2. France was now surrounded by Habsburg land. 3. As Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, Charles had inherited a claim to the duchy of Milan, which was currently under French control. ### **The 'Field of the Cloth of Gold', 1520** As key figures in European diplomacy, Wolsey and Henry organised a series of conferences with Francis and Charles to prevent war. Realistically, they also wanted to see what would be offered in return for English support if a war did break out. After all, England could be a valuable ally for either side. It was well placed to invade northern France, or disrupt Spanish control of the Netherlands. The most spectacular of these diplomatic meetings took place between Henry and Francis in the 'Field of the Cloth of Gold', just outside Calais, in June 1520. Both men wanted to show off their prestige and so no expense was spared in a fortnight of feasting and jousting, carefully organised by Wolsey. The highpoint was an unplanned wrestling match between the two kings. Although it was a grand occasion between two powerful monarchs, nothing of any substance was achieved. * No decisions were made that would bring peace to Europe. This meeting merely increased suspicion in Spain that England was already taking sides. * England's relationship with France did not improve as a result of this meeting and the two countries would be at war with each other in less than two years. Despite this, Henry viewed the 'Field of the Cloth of Gold' as a success because it brought him immense honour and prestige. The king was exactly where he wanted to be: in the centre of European politics, meeting on equal terms with one of its superpower rulers. For Henry, appearances were everything: being seen as a great king mattered far more than ruling England effectively. ### War with France, 1522-25 The Treaty of London and the 'Field of the Cloth of Gold' were the highpoints in Wolsey's foreign policy. After this, he experienced increasing difficulties and set-backs. Francis I declared war on Charles V in April 1521. Wolsey attempted to put together a peace deal in August, but failed. With his grand hopes for 'universal peace' at an end, it now became a case of deciding which side to support. With England's political and trade interests more strongly linked with the Habsburg Empire, Henry declared war on France in May 1522. Initially, England's contribution consisted of a minor raid on French soil led by the Earl of Surrey. In 1523, however, a triple attack on Paris was agreed between the two allies. They were to be joined by the Duke of Bourbon, a leading French nobleman who had taken up arms against Francis following a dispute over inheritance. In August, the Duke of Suffolk began his advance on Paris with 11,000 troops. However, the promised troops from Charles never turned up, while the Duke of Bourbon failed to raise any support. Within 80 km of the capital, Suffolk was forced to retreat. Because of these setbacks, English enthusiasm for the war declined. However, that changed when Francis and Charles fought in the Battle of Pavia, in what is now northern Italy in 1525. The outcome stunned Europe: the French army was destroyed and Francis I was taken prisoner. It was clear that Charles V had used Henry's troops to distract the French while he attacked Francis. Henry and Wolsey immediately pressed Charles to exploit this victory by a joint invasion of the now leaderless France. Under the plan they submitted to Charles, France would be divided between the two allies and Henry would take the French crown. Charles, however, had different ideas. He had no wish to expand Henry's power. He also released Francis after securing a promise that the humiliated French king would not seek revenge. Having been let down so obviously by their Habsburg ally, Wolsey opened negotiations with France, signing a peace treaty in 1525. Henry's second war against France had not gone well. * It had become obvious that Charles did not view England as an equal or valued ally. * Charles had deserted Henry in 1523, when the Duke of Suffolk attempted to capture Paris, and had instead used English forces to distract France while he focused his efforts on the Italian peninsula (what is now known as Italy). * Charles had not been prepared to share any of the spoils from his own success at Pavia. * The financial cost to Henry had been high, totalling £430,000. The tax increases and forced loans had hurt Henry's popularity in England. After three years of war, Henry had nothing to show for his efforts. *** **Source B** 'The Field of the Cloth of Gold', painted by an unknown artist for Henry VIII, c1545. *** ### Support for France, 1525-29 ### Timeline * **Foreign affairs after 1525:** * 1525-29: Wolsey's diplomatic U-turn results in an Anglo-French alliance * 1528: England and France declare war on Charles V. * 1529: Charles V and Francis I make peace in the Treaty of Cambrai and leave England isolated * 1527: Henry VIII's plan to divorce Catherine of Aragon becomes the focus of English foreign policy * Pope Clement VII captured by Charles V ### **The Treaty of More** Once Charles had won the Battle of Pavia, he did not repay Henry for his help. With all faith in Charles destroyed, and concern for Charles' growing power, Wolsey carried out a dramatic change in foreign policy by siding with their old enemy, France. In 1525, the Treaty of More was signed, bringing peace to the two countries. Under the treaty, Henry agreed to give up his claims to France in return for an annual payment. ### **The Treaty of Westminster** The following year, Wolsey helped to organise (but did not join) the League of Cognac. This created an alliance of France, the pope, Venice and Florence, with the aim of preventing further conquests on the Italian peninsula by Charles V. The forces of Venice and Florence then began fighting Habsburg forces, but with little success. In 1527, Wolsey strengthened relations with France further still by signing the *Treaty of Westminster*. This threatened Charles with armed intervention if he did not seek to improve relations with his neighbours. ### Other developments England was now firmly committed to fighting Charles and his Habsburg Empire; but further events in 1527 caused Wolsey to question whether he had made the right decision in turning on England's former ally. 1. First, Henry began pressing for a divorce from Catherine of Aragon (see pages 29-30) and made this Wolsey's chief mission. Catherine was the aunt of Charles V. 2. Second, Habsburg troops ransacked Rome and the pope became a virtual prisoner of Charles V. This was bad news for Wolsey: the pope alone possessed the power to grant Henry's divorce, and would not do so while under the control of Catherine's nephew. Wolsey had no control over these developments, but they significantly complicated his foreign policy. Wolsey's decision to side with France ruled out any possibility of Charles assisting Henry in seeking a divorce. Wolsey had to rely on the hope that military success by the League of Cognac would break Charles' dominance on the Italian peninsula. This was a risky strategy as Charles was very powerful. In 1528, France and England declared war on Charles, and Francis I invaded the Italian peninsula. However, despite the declaration of war, no English troops were sent to fight. This discredited the idea that England was a serious international player. Wolsey introduced a trade embargo* of the Netherlands, as this was part of Spain's territories. However, this was called off because of protests from English cloth workers, who needed access to the markets in Antwerp. Most importantly, in June 1529, Charles defeated the French at the Battle of Landriano in northern Italy. As a result, Charles' power over Italy and the pope remained, and Wolsey's hopes of securing a divorce for Henry were over. ### **Key term** * **Trade embargo**: The hostile act of cutting trade links with another country. ### **The Treaty of Cambrai** In August 1529, following his defeat, Francis made peace with Charles in the Treaty of Cambrai. Wolsey was only informed of the peace negotiations at the last minute. England was no longer being treated as an equal by either France or the Habsburg Empire. ### **Main aims of England/Henry's policy** * **To become an internationally respected leader.** * **To achieve military victories.** * **To ensure England was not isolated in Europe.** ### **Activities** 1. Make a timeline of the main foreign policy events up to 1529. For each event, say if Wolsey was following an anti-French, anti-Habsburg or neutral policy. 2. Highlight Wolsey's greatest success and greatest failure on your timeline. Explain your choices. 3. Do you think Wolsey's foreign policy was more of a success or a failure? Explain your decision. ### **Summary** * Directing Henry's foreign policy was Wolsey's most important task. Given the relative weakness of England, this was not an easy job. * Wolsey managed to increase English influence in Europe. * The 'Field of the Cloth of Gold' should be viewed as one of Wolsey's greatest achievements, alongside the Treaties of London and Bruges. * However, England was not as powerful as France or the Habsburg Empire, and struggled to compete with them. * Wolsey's efforts to achieve military glory against France, 1522-25, achieved nothing and he was powerless to prevent Charles V from ignoring English interests. * The French alliance of 1525-29 was a failure. It made Wolsey's task of securing Henry's divorce more difficult. *** ### Recap: Henry VIII and Wolsey, 1509-29 ### **Recall quiz** 1. What was the size of England's population when Henry became king in 1509? 2. Why was a papal dispensation needed before Henry VIII could marry Catherine of Aragon? 3. List the key parts of government at the time of Henry VIII. 4. Name the important government position granted to Wolsey in 1515. 5. How much money did Wolsey raise through the subsidy up to 1529? 6. Describe the *Eltham Ordinances*. 7. Name the two most powerful leaders in Europe that Wolsey had to deal with, and the countries they ruled over. 8. Why was 1525 a significant year in Wolsey's foreign policy? 9. Give two reasons why Henry VIII became convinced that his marriage to Catherine was not supported by God. 10. What name is given to the powerful group in Henry's court that opposed Wolsey? ### **Exam-style question, Section B** "Wolsey's failure to gain an annulment for Henry was the main reason why he fell from power in 1529". How far do you agree? Explain your answer. You may use the following in your answer: *The treaty with France* *The Boleyn faction*. You must also use information of your own. **16 marks** ### **Activities** 1. Imagine that you have been placed in charge of teaching a pupil in the year below about Henry VIII. For each of the following topics, decide what four key points you would want them to learn. * England in 1509 * Henry's coronation. * Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon. * The rise