High School U.S. History STAAR Review PDF

High School U.S. History Study Guide for the STAAR test Page 1 General Information In the state of Texas, you cannot graduate from high school without passing a test on certain core courses, and U.S. History is one of them. A passing score is II or III of these scoring levels: III—Advanc...

High School U.S. History Study Guide for the STAAR test Page 1 General Information In the state of Texas, you cannot graduate from high school without passing a test on certain core courses, and U.S. History is one of them. A passing score is II or III of these scoring levels: III—Advanced Academic Performance II—Satisfactory Academic Performance I—Unsatisfactory Academic Performance It is advisable to take this required test as soon as possible after completing the U.S. History high school course. This way, the content will be fresh in your mind. Then, you can use this study guide to go over key concepts and check your understanding by using our STAAR High School U.S. History practice questions and flashcards. Basically, this is what the STAAR U.S. History high school test is like: It contains 68 multiple-choice questions on the content of the four major areas covered in this study guide. About 30% of the questions will also require you to use “Social Studies Skills,” as defined by the State of Texas. You will not receive a separate score on these skills, but using them will contribute to your ability to answer these questions correctly. For this reason, we have listed them at the end of this study guide under a heading of the same name. Let’s get started! Here is an outline of the content on which you’ll be tested. History of the United States Almost half of the test (30 of 68 questions) assesses your knowledge of United States History. This covers major events, themes, people, and ideas of relevance throughout the history of our country. Don’t let this overwhelm you! Follow this guide and you will gain a good general overview of what you need to know. Celebrate Freedom Week Program As you may know, Celebrate Freedom Weekemphasizes the founding of our country through the study of our founding documents. Studying the founding of the U.S. is a good place to start in your review of U.S. History. Let’s look at the founding documents first. Founding Documents The founding documents explain the intentions and goals our founding fathers had for this new nation. These documents lay the foundation for how government and society should operate in the United States. Declaration of Independence—the official document declaring the 13 American colonies independent from Great Britain. You need to be able to recognize the first three paragraphs of this document. U.S. Constitution—the supreme law of the U.S. that frames the national government. The Constitution is a living document and can be amended or changed, as needed, to meet the needs and desires of the people. Bill of Rights—the first ten amendments to the Constitution that outline the rights and responsibilities of citizens in the U.S. and protect these rights. Connection of Founding Documents to U.S. Historical Events The founding documents are important to the daily functions of government and society in the U.S. For example, the U.S. Constitution was amended after the Civil War to prohibit slavery in the U.S. It has been amended to provide other rights and responsibilities concerning things like universal suffrage (the right of all to vote, regardless of race or sex), limiting presidential terms, and allowing the federal government to levy an income tax. Since the Constitution can be amended, U.S. citizens have power to influence these changes through civic engagement and electing officials that reflect their ideology. Founding Fathers The Founding Fathers were an extraordinary group of men who risked their lives in the pursuit of creating a new nation. This is just a short list with brief information, so you may want to research more on your own. Benjamin Rush—a signer of the Declaration of Independence, from Philadelphia, best known for his position as Treasurer of the U.S. Mint. He was also a prominent statesmen and physician. John Hancock—the first to sign the Declaration of Independence, well known for signing his name large and prominent on the document. He was a very successful and wealthy New England businessman and remained a prominent figure in Massachusetts politics after the revolution. John Jay—most well-known for his position as first chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. He also helped draft the 1783 Treaty of Paris that ended the Revolutionary War. John Witherspoon—another signer of the Declaration of Independence who was highly educated and the first president of Princeton University (then known as the College of New Jersey) in 1768. His support of the revolutionary cause drew much attention and respect among colonists. John Peter Muhlenberg—born in Pennsylvania, educated in Germany, later returned to the colonies, and became an ordained clergyman. He joined the military and led a brigade of German Virginians during the Revolutionary War, rising to the rank of Major General. Charles Carroll—a signer of the Declaration of Independence who was an early supporter of independence. He served in the Continental Congress and later in the U.S. Senate. Jonathan Trumbull Sr.—The only colonial governor to support the rebel cause, he served as governor of the Connecticut colony under British rule and later, after the revolution, served as the first governor of the state of Connecticut. Points in History from 1877 to the Present A major aim of this test is to assess your knowledge and understanding of the most important times and events in U.S. History, beginning in 1877. Follow the guidelines below and study the topics provided. Historical Eras You must be familiar with the historical eras listed in this study guide. Eras are simply periods of time characterized by main events that allow people to contextualize history. You should be able to identify them and be able to explain the main characteristics of each one. Sequence of Historical People and Events Furthermore, you must understand these eras across time. In other words, you should know the chronological order in which these historical eras progress. When you identify a person or event, you need to know when they lived or took place as well as what happened before and after that time. Turning Points in History These are major events or time periods that drastically changed the narrative of history. Be sure to understand the significance of these events and consider how our world today would be different if these events had never happened. Here are some important examples: 1898 (Spanish-American War)—This conflict between the U.S. and Spain ended Spanish rule in the Americas and gave the U.S. control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, the Philippines, and several other territories. 1914–1918 (World War I)—Also known as the Great War or the War to End All Wars, WWI was largely caused by growing militarism, staunch alliances, imperialism, and nationalism in Europe. The spark that started the war was the assassination of the Archduke of Austria by a Serbian nationalist. The conflict grew large due to alliances and dragged on due to new military technology like the machine gun, tank, and trench warfare. 1929 (Great Depression** begins)—Following an economic boom of the 1920s, the **stock market crashed as bank loans and credit soared to unsustainable levels. People panicked and rushed to withdraw their money. Inflation soared, and the depression worsened as businesses responded by cutting back and laying off workers. Roosevelt’s New Deal programs helped, but WWII would prove to be the force behind kickstarting the U.S. economy once again. 1939–1945 (World War II)—Growing nationalism in Europe (and Japan) once again led to global war. The Axis v. Allies fought on nearly every continent and the result left tens of millions dead and the world forever changed. 1957 (Sputnik Launch)—In the space racebetween U.S. and Soviets (largely an extension of the Cold War), the successful launch of Sputnik was a major blow to the U.S. as many feared the Soviets would quickly outpace U.S. technological ability. 1968–1969 (MLK assassination and moon landing)—The assassination of MLK is often seen as the end of the Civil Rights Movement and the catalyst for the passage of an equal housing billthat is seen as the last significant piece of legislation from the movement. The following year, America became the first to put a man on the moon, bringing an informal end to the Space Race. 1991 (Cold War ends)—The Cold War ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union, largely due to internal problems like communist economic principles, vast ethnic divides, and large government bureaucracy. 2001 (911)—On September 11, 2001, the deadliest terror attack on U.S. soil was carried out by members of the Al Qaeda terror group. The twin towers of the World Trade Center and the Pentagon were targeted by commercial jets, while a fourth plane (believed to be targeting the White House) was put down in rural PA. 2008 (first black president elected)—Barack Obama became the first black person to be elected president in the United States, signifying a major step in civil rights and a turning point in American politics. [Following this is a look at the major eras in U.S. history and some of the major political, economic, and social issues during that time. Political issues typically refer to government policy or the system of representation the U.S. enjoys. Economic issues include anything that deals with business, the stock market, and the principles of supply and demand. Finally, social issues deal with people in a country or society. These issues are things like homelessness or unemployment.] U.S. History from 1877 to 1898 This period of time is often referred to as the Gilded Age and lasted roughly from the 1870s to 1900. Political Issues There were a variety of politically related issues during this time. Be sure to especially study these: Indian Policies—refer to how the U.S. government deals with native tribes within the U.S. The Constitution provides the Federal government with this responsibility. In the late 1800s, the U.S. was particularly brutal with Indians. As the U.S. continued to spread westward, Indians were killed, their land taken, and often confined to poverty on reservations. Political Machines—closely resembled organized crime in the nineteenth century. Bosses, as they were known, represented a political party and provided favors to voters in exchange for their voting loyalty. Immigrants in urban areas were especially targeted by bosses and were provided jobs and housing in exchange for their votes. Civil Service Reform—The Pendleton Civil Service Act of 1883 provided for government jobs to be filled based on merit (or ability to do the job), rather than party affiliation. The goal was, basically, to fill jobs with the best-qualified person rather than giving a job to someone’s relative or friend (a practice known as nepotism). Populism—refers to the political movement of focusing on representing the common man rather than the elite, wealthy people in society. The populist party was founded in 1892, upheld the cause of the common man, and opposed big business. Economic Issues Economic issues refer to business dealings or the way money is made and spent across the country, especially on a large scale. Industrialization—The Gilded Age was most characterized by rapid industrialization in the U.S. The period is known for economic growth as the country saw new factories, railroads, and mining. Growth of Railroads—the expansion of railroads in the late 1800s that allowed for the growth of industry as goods could be transported further and faster than ever before. Railroads also encouraged and allowed people to settle further westward. The rapid expansion of railroads also led to intense competition between railroad companies during this period. Growth of Labor Unions—happened as industrialization meant the growth of factories and industry and more people moved to cities to work in factories. Factory owners often took advantage of workers, making them work long hours at dangerous jobs for little pay. Labor unions were formed to advocate for the rights of the workers and provide better working conditions, limiting the hours in a workday, fighting for better pay, and much more. Farm Issues—arose as machinery was introduced to farming on large scales during this period and farmers were able to produce more than ever before. As a result, prices dropped (simple supply and demand economics) and farmers struggled. Lower market prices coupled with the high cost of shipping on railroads caused farmers to advocate for a change in government policy. Boom of the Cattle Industry—happened with the growth of the railroad. Cattle ranching grew in the west as the railroad finally connected the wide open ranges with large eastern markets. Also, with more economic prosperity, more people could afford red meat in their diet. These factors led to a rapid rise in cattle ranching during the Gilded Age. Rise of Entrepreneurship—or people starting businesses. During this age, many people rose as prominent, successful entrepreneurs that are household names today. John Rockefeller was known for establishing Standard Oil while Andrew Carnegie started U.S. Steel with J.P. Morgan and Charles Schwab. The Vanderbilt family was known for dominating the rail and shipping businesses. Free Enterprise—the economic system that allows anyone to start a business and allows those businesses to compete for your dollar. In other words, individuals own businesses and can make all decisions about their businesses, from production to sale. Big Business Pros and Cons—The Gilded Age is well known for the rise of big business as larger businesses bought out smaller ones and some gained a monopoly. This often expanded access to goods for the consumer but sometimes led to lower quality goods as the one big business had no competition or pressure to improve their product or service. Social Issues Rapid growth in industry led to rapid urbanizationin the U.S. during this period. These changes brought a handful of problems for people. These problems that people faced across the country can be referred to as social issues. Women—advocated for suffrage, or the right to vote, during this period. This was largely driven by the fact that more women were getting an education and working outside the home, so the argument was that if women could work, they should be able to vote, too. Minorities—issues concerning mainly black people, who were especially mistreated during this era. Since the end of slavery, African Americanshad gained many rights. This didn’t sit well with many whites, especially in the South, and campaigns were launched to pass laws requiring segregation. Children—problems concerning children who worked dangerous jobs in mines and factories during this time. There was a big push for legislation to end child labor practices and send kids to school instead. Immigrants—those who immigrated to the U.S. during this period of rapid industrialization and economic growth. They often faced discrimination and were confined to poor neighborhoods. Urbanization—rapid urbanization that took place as people moved to cities to work in factories. This often led to overcrowded living conditions as cities couldn’t keep up with the rapid pace of population growth. The Social Gospel—movement started by Christian ministers as an effort to improve the economic, moral, and social conditions of the urban poor. Philanthropy—as many industries thrived, the obligation felt by many wealthy business owners to give some of their wealth to promote the welfare of others. They started organizations and gave money to improve the lives of those less fortunate. Immigrant Optimism This period was also known for optimistic immigrants who came to the U.S. seeking job opportunities and a better life. Many people believed that anyone had a chance to become rich in the free enterprise system of the U.S. Page 2 U.S. History Between 1898 and 1920 The U.S. emerged as a global power in the early 1900s largely due to the U.S. victory in the Spanish American War. The U.S. had acquired new territory from the war and built a formidable Navy in the process. Finally, as a result of industrialization, the U.S. became a major global trading power. Events, People, and Policies This era was characterized by several major events, people, and policies. A brief overview is provided below. Be sure to do more research more if these are unfamiliar. Spanish-American War—fought between U.S. and Spain, largely over oppressive Spanish rule in Cuba Expansionism—policy of the U.S. to grow and expand in both territory and influence Henry Cabot Lodge—U.S. Senator most famous for his opposition to U.S. membership in the League of Nations following WWI Alfred Thayer Mahan—U.S. Navy officer who was influential in helping make the U.S. a major naval power worldwide Theodore Roosevelt—26th president, known for expanding U.S. influence and policy in Europe and Asia in the early 1900s Sanford B. Dole—first president of the Republic of Hawaii and later first governor of the state when Hawaii was annexed by the U.S. Missionaries—as the U.S. acquired new territories, religious groups sent representatives (missionaries) to convert the people living in these places to Christianity and help them become more civilized in the process U.S. Acquisitions As a result of the U.S. victory in the Spanish American War, the U.S. gained the territories of Guam, Hawaii, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and more. World War I WWI was also known as the Great War or the War to End All Wars. It was the most devastating and far-reaching war the world had seen to date. It was characterized by new technology like the machine gun and, consequently, new techniqueslike trench warfare. Causes—M.A.I.N. is a good way to remember the causes of WWI. Militarism was growing in Europe at the time as countries were building up and modernizing their militaries with new technology. Alliances were forming as countries signed agreements to support each other in the event of conflict. Imperialism was growing as European powers were competing for colonies and resources in Africa and Asia. Nationalism is the last cause because European countries were growing in their national pride and sense of power. These MAIN causes acted as powder keg that simply needed a spark to ignite. Reasons for U.S. Participation—The Lusitania, a passenger ship traveling from NYC to London (it was secretly carrying weapons to help the British), was attacked by Germany and sank. The U.S. warned to intervene but did not, claiming to remain neutral and isolated from the war. Later, the British intercepted the Zimmerman telegram, which was a note sent from Germany to Mexico to convince them to attack the U.S. If the Central Powers won the war, Germany promised to give Mexico back the territory the U.S. took from them in the Mexican-American War. The U.S. joined the war for the Allies with knowledge of this telegram. American Expeditionary Forces Led by John J. Pershing, the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) were the first Americans to fight alone in Europe during WWI. American troops had fought alongside French and British troops prior to this force launching their independent offensive in 1918. World War I Technology Machine guns—changed the way war was fought as one machine gun had the fighting power of over 70 riflemen Trench Warfare—largely a response to machine guns, armies dug trenches for protection from machine gun fire Poison Gas—was used largely to force men out of the trenches and into the open battlefield between the trenches, known as no-man’s land Airplanes—were first used as reconnaissance to see enemy positions but quickly were outfitted with guns to shoot at enemy planes and drop bombs Tanks—were developed as a safe way to drive over barbed wire and attack enemy trenches while escaping enemy machine gun fire These technologies and strategies led to a stalemate in Western Europe in which trenches often changed hands multiple times through a series of attacks and counterattacks. U.S. Involvement and Related Issues American involvement in WWI was complicated. Many Americans were immigrants and still held some degree of loyalty to their home country. Therefore, the U.S. public was widely split about which side to support. The government decided to take an isolationist and neutral approach to the war for as long as possible. Isolationism and Neutrality—practiced by the U.S. for as long as possible because many citizens felt that WWI was Europe’s problem and the U.S. should not get involved. Neutrality was also an aim of the U.S. for some time before their involvement because there were immigrants from many European countries that advocated the U.S. support different sides. In an effort to keep all citizens happy, the U.S. officially tried to stay neutral and isolated from Europe. Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points—outlined his plan for long-term peace and stability in Europe after WWI The Treaty of Versailles—officially ended WWI, created the League of Nations, and mandated Germany take the blame for the war and pay reparations Major Events Some major events of WWI include these: Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand(June 28, 1914)—the spark that set off a chain of events leading to wide participation in war Battle of Verdun (Feb–Dec 1916) and Battle of the Somme (Jul–Nov 1916)—two of the longest, costliest battles of the war as over 1 million casualties were inflicted at Verdun alone Battle of Argonne Forest (Sep–Nov 1918)—last Allied offensive that led to the end of the war Early Twentieth Century The early twentieth century brought a time of sweeping reforms (changes) and wide public participation and interest in social and political issues. Activism was at a high as people sought to reform political, social, and economic injustices. The rise of third parties was a direct result of this increased civic participation, as many candidates ran on different platforms to represent the varying ideas held by the public. Reforms The Progressive Era was characterized by widespread activism and reform. You should know that initiative is the right of people to propose a new law. You should also know that a referendumis when people vote on a particular issue and that a recall is the ability of the people to petition, vote, and have an elected official removed from office. The following amendments were influenced greatly by these terms and the desire of the people of the U.S. at the time. 16th Amendment—adopted in 1913, this amendment allowed the Federal government to collect an income tax. 17th Amendment—also adopted in 1913, this amendment provided that each state would elect two senators on the basis of popular vote for a term of 6 years. Prior to the 17th Amendment, state legislatures voted on who the state would send to the Federal Senate. 18th Amendment—adopted in 1919, this amendment banned the production, sale, and transportation of alcohol in the United States. This is the only amendment to later be repealed by the 21st Amendment in 1933. 19th Amendment—passed in 1920, this amendment gave women the right to vote. Often seen as a major civil rights victory, this was a big step in the movement for women’s rights. Reform Leaders The following people were influential during the Progressive Era. Sometimes called muckrakers**, these people brought to light the injustices and poor practices of big business and fought to improve conditions across the country. Upton Sinclair—author who wrote The Jungle, which exposed many of the problems, downfalls, and poor practices of the meat-packing industry in the U.S. His work led to strict reforms and new laws to keep the food industry accountable for producing healthy, safe food. Susan B. Anthony—best known as an activist for the women’s suffrage movement (right to vote). Ida B. Wells—African American investigative journalist who was an early activist for Civil Rights and one of the founding members of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored Persons. W. E. B. DuBois—early activist for Civil Rights, another founding member of the NAACP, strongly protested segregation. Third Parties Several third parties sprouted up in the early twentieth century, but the most successful were the Populist party and the Progressive party. The Populist party, sometimes known as the People’s party, was established to represent the common man and fought against the interests of the elite railroads, bankers, corporations, etc. The Progressive party was formed by Theodore Roosevelt and it sought prohibition of child labor as well as strict tariff reform, and it called for women’s suffrage and tighter industrial regulation. The 1920s Often referred to as the Roaring Twenties, the 1920s was a time of widespread economic prosperity, social well-being, and progressive change. Events and Social Issues Several events and social issues marked the 1920s. It was a time of great reform in thinking as well as change in social life. Review the following to gain an idea of what characterized the 1920s. Immigration—U.S. Government limits on immigration due to the rising numbers of immigrants coming to the U.S. and the rising fear of communist foreigners. The government did this in 1924 with the National Origins Immigration Act of 1924. Social darwinism—the idea of survival of the fittest applied to society; used to justify imperialism and resist reform Eugenics—the highly controversial idea and practice of improving the human race by attempting to improve genetic quality through eliminating bad qualities Race Relations—an effect of racial tension that increased during the 1920s as organizations like the KKK carried out hate crimes against black people Nativism—political ideology of promoting the interest of those native to the country over the interests of immigrants The Red Scare—refers to the fear that the U.S. would become communist after the Russian revolution in 1918. Widespread hysteria about communism characterized the 1920s. Prohibition—18th amendment prohibiting the production, transportation, and sale of alcohol in the U.S. as an attempt to improve society Women’s New Roles—the right to vote (gained in 1920) and more women working outside the home, smoking in public, and dancing. It was a liberating time for women. Important People The following are important people from the 1920s. These people brought about change, or reform, that influenced the country as a whole and its future. Clarence Darrow—defense lawyer in the Scopes Trial, a court case involving the teaching of evolution in public schools William Jennings Bryan—prosecution lawyer in the Scopes Trial and open opponent of the teaching of evolution in public schools Henry Ford—inventor of the assembly line style of production, leading to the mass production of automobiles, specifically the *Ford® brand name commonly known today Glenn Curtiss—founder of the U.S. aircraft industry, the first company to produce airplanes Marcus Garvey—leader of the black nationalist movement, he sought to improve the lives of African Americans and advocated for an end to imperial rule on the continent of Africa Charles A. Lindbergh—first person to fly non-stop across the Atlantic Ocean from New York to England Page 3 World War II World War II changed the world. You need to understand the domestic and international impact of U.S. participation in the war. Largely, the U.S. entered the war reeling from the Great Depression and emerged a superpower on the global stage. Reasons for U.S. Involvement Extreme nationalism in Europe (specifically Italy and Germany) as well as in Japan led to growing concerns in the U.S., France, and the UK. Weak leaders in other European countries consistently gave in to the demands of aggressive dictators. The U.S. was determined to stay out of the conflict as long as possible but was brought into the war after the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. U.S. Presidential Leadership The war brought the country out of the Great Depression as the government approved spending for rapid industrialization and mobilization for the war effort. Domestic policies put people back to work and rallied the nation around the war effort. Franklin D. Roosevelt—U.S. president during much of the war; helped bring the country out of the Great Depression Harry Truman—took over the presidency after Roosevelt’s death and made the decision to drop the atomic bombs on Japan. U.S. Office of War Information The Office of War Information was created during WWII to encourage people to work at jobs that were in support of the war. Many advertisements supporting the war effort were created by this office. Major Issues During the War The WWII era had many other problems aside from the fighting. Familiarize yourself with the following topics that occurred during the war. The Holocaust—genocide of Jews in Europe by the Nazis. Hitler also targeted homosexuals, Gypsies, handicapped persons, and others. Internment of German, Italian, and Japanese Americans—the confinement by the U.S. Government of people from these countries and backgrounds to internment camps for the duration of the war Executive Order 9066—signed by President Roosevelt authorizing the internment of thousands of Japanese Americans New Weapons—included many advances in air forces, navy, artillery, tanks, and more. The largest and most world-changing advance came with the advent of the atomic bomb, which later led to the arms race during the Cold War. Military Events The following are a few of the main military events of WWII that you should be able to analyze. Having some knowledge of the importance of these events will be helpful. The Battle of Midway—successful preemptive strike on Japanese Navy by the U.S., allowed the U.S. an offensive position in the Pacific and was a turning point in the war. The Pacific Islands—advancement through the Pacific Islands that was very difficult and costly for the U.S. This strategy and process was called island hopping, as the U.S. slowly advanced toward Japan one island at a time. The Bataan Death March—when Japanese military forces captured American and Filipino forces in the Philippines and forced them to march 65 miles to prison camps, with thousands dying on the journey The Invasion of Normandy—Allies landing at beaches in Normandy, northern France, to liberate France and begin the push toward Berlin; a turning point in the European theater Multiple Fronts—both the Allies and Axis powers fighting a war on multiple fronts or in multiple places at once. Germany was fighting the Soviets to the East and the French, Americans, and British to the West. The U.S. was also fighting Japan in the Pacific. Liberation of Concentration Camps—happened as the Allies pushed closer to Berlin and found concentration camps, freeing the prisoners. The atrocities found at these camps led to the preservation of the facilities so the world would never forget what happened there. Military Leaders The following men were instrumental U.S. military leaders during WWII. You should be familiar with their contributions to the success of the war for the Allies. Omar Bradley—distinguished U.S. general in charge of forces in North Africa, Italy, and instrumental in Normandy invasion Dwight Eisenhower—leader of U.S. Expeditionary forces in Europe Douglas MacArthur—leader of U.S. troops in the Pacific Chester A. Nimitz—leader of U.S. Navy in the Pacific George Marshall—Secretary of the Army, in charge of all U.S. forces during WWII, came up with the Marshall Plan for reconstructing Europe after the war George Patton—leader of U.S. troops in the Mediterranean and Europe during WWII. The Homefront At home, many Americans supported the war. There were record numbers of volunteers serving in the military, people were buying war bonds to help fund the war, and women were working in factories to boost the production of war machines. Patriotism abounded as citizens happily planted victory gardens, rationed foodfrom the grocery store, and participated in rubber and metal drives. The heroic actions of groups like the Tuskegee Airmen, the Flying Tigers, and the Navajo Code Talkers encouraged support for the war effort. One downfall on the homefront was the lack of rights for minorities in the U.S. Many were frustrated that minorities could serve in the military and give their lives but still face discrimination and segregation at home. The Cold War Immediately following WWII, the Cold War began. The U.S. and the **Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR or Soviet Union) were the two most powerful countries after the war. The Cold War was an ideological war between the U.S. and the Soviet Union and the ideas of free enterprise economics and communism. The Korean and Vietnam Wars were active conflicts that were the result of U.S. attempts to stop the spread of communism. U.S. Response to Soviet Aggression During the Cold War, the U.S. and the Soviet Union were the two superpowers in the world. The Soviet Union was trying to spread their influence of communism, while the U.S. was trying to stop the spread of communism. If many other countries around the world became communist, the U.S. economy would suffer by losing trade partners. The Truman Doctrine—U.S. policy of containment during the Cold War with the goal of stopping the influence of the USSR and the spread of communism The Marshall Plan—name given to the U.S. plan for reconstruction in Europe after WWII NATO—military alliance between the U.S., Canada, and many countries in Western Europe to combat the Soviet Union and the spread of communism The Berlin Airlift—Allied plan of providing West Berlin with supplies during the Soviet blockade of East Germany JFK and the Cuban Missile Crisis—AKA 13 Days in October 1962; JFK sent the U.S. Navy to block Soviet ships from reaching Cuba with nuclear missiles. Berlin Wall—Germany was divided after WWII and occupied by the Allies. For the duration of the Cold War, Germany and Berlin would be split East and West as separate countries. Causes of Rising Tension As the Cold War dragged on, tensions rose. The U.S. and the Soviet Union fell into an arms race and the fear of mutually assured destruction (the fear that everyone would lose their lives if either side used nuclear weapons). The Arms Race—after the atomic bomb was dropped and the Cold War began, the two superpowers were in a race to see who could produce the largest, most powerful weapon. The Space Race—referred to the race to send people to space and see who could control this frontier. The Russians launched the first satellite, but the Americans were the first to the moon. McCarthyism—named after Senator McCarthy, was the practice of accusing people of being members of the Communist Party without citing proper evidence House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)—committee in Congress that invested allegations of communist activity in the U.S. The Venona Papers—An American effort to decode Soviet messages to spies in the U.S. during the Cold War. The Domino Theory The Domino Theory was the idea that, if one country became communist, others would soon follow suit in a process similar to stacked dominos falling and knocking each other down. For this reason, the U.S. stuck to the policy of containment during the Cold War. If we couldn’t stop countries that are already communist from being communist, maybe we could at least stop the spread of communism. This is why we sent troops to Korea and Vietnam to fight alongside the people there against communist regimes that wanted to take over the country. The Korean War As the U.S. desperately tried to stop the spread of communism, the country got involved in the Korean War as a communist party attempted to overthrow the peninsula. The U.S. fought alongside the Southern capitalists in Korea, and the war ultimately ended in a bitter stalemate as both sides recognized the 38th parallel as the border between the new countries of North and South Korea. North Korea became communist, while South Korea was a free-market democracy. The Vietnam War The Vietnam War was one of the longest conflicts in which the U.S. was involved and became very unpopular in the U.S. It was an attempt to maintain the policy of containment and prevent the spread of communism. By stopping the first domino from falling, we could prevent the others from falling too. This was the basic philosophy behind involvement in Vietnam. The Tet Offensive—coordinated attack by North Vietnamese on over 100 cities in South Vietnam; news coverage of the offensive caused American public support of the war to decline The Escalation of Forces—over the course of the war, continually escalated U.S. troop numbers in an effort to win the war. Eventually, the U.S. was forced to withdraw without victory. Vietnamization—U.S. policy of slowly pulling troops out of Vietnam and turning over responsibility and war decisions to South Vietnam. The Fall of Saigon—marked the end of the war with North Vietnamese forces capturing Saigon on April 30, 1975 The Draft—the power to conscript men for military service during the Vietnam War, a highly unpopular decision as the war dragged on The 26th Amendment—set the voting age at 18 years old. The argument during the Vietnam War was that men could be conscripted at 18 but not vote, so the voting age was changed. The Media’s Role—high coverage of the war by the media; public exposure to images of wounded soldiers and burning villages The Credibility Gap—the difference between what is said and what is done. The public was upset with the difference between what government officials promised and what actually happened. The Silent Majority—argument by Nixon that the majority of the nation agreed with his policies and those who protested him were the noisy minority. The Anti-War Movement—The Vietnam War was possibly the most unpopular war in which the U.S. has been involved. Many people, including veterans of the war, protested U.S. involvement and advocated for bringing troops home, especially after news coverage of the Tet Offensive. Page 4 The American Civil Rights Movement You need to grasp the impact of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States. In other words, you should understand how this movement in the 1950s and 1960s changed everyday life across the country. Basic Development The Civil Rights Movement is often referred to as the time period of activism for equal rights during the 1950s and 60s. However, the movement dates back to the period of slavery in the U.S. when abolitionists advocated for the end of slavery. Then, during the late 1800s and first half of the 1900s, Jim Crow laws segregated black and white people in most public places. There was pushback against these laws throughout this period. Finally, civil rights are an ongoing issue in the U.S. that have influenced fair housing laws, same-sex marriage court decisions, racial profiling, women’s rights, and more. 13th Amendment—passed in 1865; formally abolished slavery and involuntary servitude in the United States 14th Amendment—passed in 1868; granted citizenship to “all persons born or naturalized in the United States,” which was a big step in civil rights for recently freed slaves 15th Amendment—passed in 1869; prohibited federal or state governments from denying a person the right to vote based on “race, color, or previous condition of servitude.” This was also a big step for black people and former slaves. In the span of 5 years, African Americans gained freedom from slavery, citizenship as Americans, and the right to vote. 19th Amendment—passed in 1920; gave women the right to vote; often seen as a major civil rights victory and a big step in the movement for women’s rights. Political Organizations Political organizations promoted the rights of different groups of people in the U.S. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored Persons (NAACP) is the main organization that advocates for African American rights. The Chicano Movement advocates for the rights of Mexican Americans and was led by people such as Cesar Chavez. The American Indian Movement is the principal organization that advocates for the rights of Native Americans. You should understand the different approaches to achieving equal rights. Martin Luther King Jr. advocated for peaceful, nonviolent civil disobedience to achieve equal rights. The Black Panthers advocated for more extreme measures that sometimes called for fighting back. Leaders of Movements The following people were important leaders of various movements for civil rights with which you should be familiar. Martin Luther King Jr.—leader of the African American Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s. He led on the foundational teaching of peaceful protests and non-violent activism. He was imprisoned several times and is well known for his Letter from Birmingham Jail in which he outlined his strategy for nonviolent protest against racism. Finally, he is perhaps most well known for his I Have a Dream speech during the March on Washington in which thousands of people marched in protest to segregation. MLK spoke about his dream of a world free of racism and hate. Cesar Chavez—co-founder of the National Farm Workers Association and political activist for the rights of farm workers Rosa Parks—peacefully refused to give up her seat to a white person on a public bus, which subsequently began the Montgomery Bus Boycott Hector Garcia—activist for the rights of Mexican Americans and founder of the American G.I. Forum Betty Friedan—political activist for women’s rights and co-founder of the National Organization for Women Actions by the President and Congress One of the characteristics of a republic like the United States is that the people have the ability to bring about change. The following are actions that were taken by the government in response to the demands of various civil rights activist groups. Armed Forces Desegregation—executive order signed in 1945; ended segregation in the military and allowed for African Americans to sign up for the draft Civil Rights Act of 1957—protected the rights of all citizens to vote, regardless of race and prohibited states from making obstacles to voting Civil Rights Act of 1964—eliminated discrimination for jobs based on race, color, religion, sex, or nation of origin (created what is known as equal opportunity employment) Voting Rights Act of 1965—eliminated discriminatory practices in terms of voting, like the literacy test requirement (which was often used in the South to keep black people from voting) Opposing Individuals and Groups The following are some individuals and groups known for their opposition to civil rights. George Wallace—Governor of Alabama and perhaps the most widely known opponent to the civil rights movement and equal rights for black people Orval Faubus—Governor of Arkansas who opposed school integration and spoke out against allowing black students to Central High in Little Rock, Arkansas Lester Maddox—Governor of Georgia in the late 60s, opponent to civil rights known for defying civil rights legislation by refusing to serve black people at his restaurant (he owned a restaurant prior to becoming governor) Southern Democrats—party that maintained tight control over nearly all Congressional seats in across the South due to practices of making it difficult for black people to vote (often by requiring that they pass difficult literacy tests or making voter registration difficult) Related Results You need to understand that one of the greatest impacts, or results, of the civil rights movement was the increased participation of minorities in the political process. Because of the struggle and fight that these people underwent, we see black people, women, and people of other minorities serving in public office, voting, and enjoying equal access to many things they didn’t have before. Be sure to connect these results with those that came about as the result of the civil rights movement. Landmark Cases The following court cases were landmarks in that they changed the landscape of American life. Be sure to review the role each of these cases had in protecting the rights of minorities in the U.S. Brown v. Board of Education—overruled the previous court case Plessy v. Ferguson by stating that segregated schools were separate but in no way equal as black schools often lacked funding, good facilities, teachers, and opportunities when compared with white schools Mendez v. Westminster—1947; first case to rule that segregation of schools was unconstitutional Hernandez v. Texas—ruled that Mexican Americans and all other national groups in the U.S. have equal protection under the 14th Amendment Delgado v. Bastrop I.S.D.—ended segregation of Mexican children from whites in Texas schools Edgewood I.S.D. v. Kirby—argued students in poor schools were discriminated against due to lack of funding; case brought about a change in school funding policy Sweatt v. Painter—1950 case in which a black man was denied entrance to the University of Texas Law School because state law restricted entrance to whites only; a case that was influential in the Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954 The 1970s through 1990 Several important people, events, and trends were important during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s as political, economic, and social factors. Review the list below and research more, if needed, to gain an understanding of the main events of this period. Presidential Leadership Nixon and Reagan were the two most iconic leaders during this period. Richard M. Nixon—normalized relations with China and experienced a time of lower tension between the U.S. and Soviet Union Ronald Reagan**—negotiated the fall of the Berlin Wall, supported lower taxes and fewer government restrictions on the free market Energy Americans consume most of the world’s energy resources, though we only make up about 5% of the world’s population. Increased demand for energy has led to problems like the Oil Crisis in 1973 and increased U.S. involvement in the Middle East. The Middle East Historically, the Middle East is a volatile region that contains many different ethnic groups and most of the world’s oil reserves. Supporting Israel—U.S. high degree of support for Israel for several reasons, including similar political ideology, public support for Jews after the Holocaust, and an active pro-Israel lobby in the U.S. Whatever the reason, the U.S. has given Israel billions of dollars over the years and been a close military ally. The Camp David Accords—meeting between U.S., Israel, and Palestinian leaders in which much progress toward a peace agreement was achieved. Palestinians were given limited self-rule and recognition as a country, while Israel was also recognized as a state by many of their neighbors. The Iran-Contra Affair—during the Reagan presidency, an accusation of the U.S. of selling weapons to Iran in exchange for help in the release of hostages in Lebanon Marines in Lebanon—in 1983; killing of 241 U.S. Marines in a suicide attack on their barracks in Lebanon. The troops were there with a multinational force to oversee the withdrawal of Palestinians from the country. The Iran Hostage Crisis—more than 60 Americans held hostage for 444 days as Iran experienced a power shift and the protest of American influence in the country Conservative Resurgence In general, the average American was older in 1980 than in 1960 and the conservative movement gained traction in response to the counterculture movement of the 60s. This was known as the New Right Movement. Reagan was attractive to this movement as he advocated for the common man. Phyllis Schlafly— women’s rights activist and advocate against the Equal Rights Amendment, which she said would threaten a woman’s security in the workplace or home The Contract with America— series of legislation passed in 1994 after Republicans gained a majority in both the House and Senate The Heritage Foundation— conservative think tank organization that advocated for conservative public policy The Moral Majority— activist group organized in the 1970s to promote conservative reforms like allowing prayer in schools and strict restrictions on abortion The National Rifle Association (NRA)— organization that exists to protect the rights granted to citizens through the 2nd Amendment, the right to bear arms Societal Issues Largely characterized by the conservative movement, this time period also saw some major cultural shifts such as the birth of MTV and the increase in cable, movies, and television. Page 5 The 1990s through Early 21st Century The 1990s brought economic prosperity, relative peace, and and a golden age of culture. It is often looked back on and referred to as the good decade. World Affairs and the U.S. In world affairs, the U.S. was involved in bringing an end to the Cold War, standing up for Kuwait in the Persian Gulf War, and promoting peace in Palestine. End of the Cold War—ended in 1991 with the official breakup of the USSR The Persian Gulf War—Invasion of Iraq by the U.S. in the early 1990s to defend Kuwait against Iraq’s invasion of their oil fields and ports The Balkans Crisis—in the early 1990s, ethnic conflict that engulfed the former Yugoslavia as Serbs, Bosnians, and Croats declared independence and Serbia set out to create an ethnically pure state. The U.S. and U.N. sent peacekeeping forces to the area. It is estimated that over one million people lost their lives in this genocide. 9/11—Al Qaeda terrorist attack on the U.S. Two planes flew into World Trade Centers in NYC, one into the Pentagon, and another was prevented from reaching its target and went down in a field in PA. The Global War on Terror—After the 9/11 attacks, the U.S. invaded Afghanistan and Iraq on a mission to bring down the terrorist organizations responsible for the attacks. It has now been the country’s longest-running war. Political Advocacy Political advocacy in this period largely includes reactions to the War on Terror and the treatment of soldiers returning from war, including PTSD. Other issues include the national budget, the housing bubble crisis of 2008, and the recession that followed. Third Parties Third Parties are growing in importance. The Green Party has fielded a candidate in several major elections, as has the Libertarian Party. An increasing number of independents have impacted elections not by getting elected but by taking votes from major party candidates. The 2008 Presidential Election In 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected president. Geography and Culture Geography and culture attempt to explain why things are where they are. Your test will include 12 questions on this topic. Geography and Major Events Major events in history largely become important to learn about because of their geography and place in time. Major events tend to happen in important places, and sometimes places become important because of the events that take place there. These two concepts are closely related. Human and Geographic Influences The following are a few examples of the impact of humans on the physical landscape and how places became important. Geography has impacted the settlement patterns and events of these places. Settlement of the Great Plains—influenced by the Homestead Act which gave people land if they settled in this area Klondike Gold Rush—the discovery of gold that led thousands to move west to California and Alaska, influencing the population distribution we see today The Panama Canal—greatly cut down on travel time; took a long time to build and was controlled by the U.S. for decades after its completion The Dust Bowl—due to the drought that caused many farmers to leave the plains as their fields dried up and succumbed to dust storms; thousands moved east in search of work elsewhere New Orleans Levee Failure—after Hurricane Katrina when the failure of the levees in New Orleans led to the flooding and destruction of much of the city; caused many people to leave and shift the population of the area dramatically Political Boundary Changes Over time, geography has been influenced by the change of political boundaries. As the U.S. grew over time, territories and states were added to the country. Also, as wars were fought, land changed hands. Statehood—applied for at one time by each of the 50 United States; caused geographic growth of the U.S. in size with each addition International Conflicts—territory gained by the U.S. as the result of the Mexican American War and the Spanish American War Migration and Immigration These both influence population patterns across space on the Earth. There are also causes and effects of each. Migration Migration refers to the permanent movement of people from one place to another. In this case, all of the following examples refer to migration trends within the U.S. Western Expansion—migration of people West as the U.S. grew in territory; trend over time of the U.S. population moving west and south Rural to Urban—the movement of people to cities as countries develop because fewer farmers are needed to produce massive amounts of food (machines do much of the work) The Great Migration—the movement of black people out of the South in favor of urban areas in the North during the era of segregation. The North was a much easier place to live for African Americans than the South during this period. Rust Belt to Sun Belt—due to the closure of many factories in the North around the Great Lakes (Rust Belt) in the later half of the twentieth century as industry was outsourced overseas; movement of many people to the Sun Belt (Southern U.S.) in favor of better weather and job opportunities there along with the relatively lower cost of living compared to the North. Immigration Immigration refers to people coming into the country from other countries. This can happen both legally and illegally. Legal immigrants enter the country with the correct documentation and knowledge of the U.S. as well as their country of origin. Illegal immigrants come into the country with no documentation or permission to enter. Population Growth and Modernization As population continues to increase and society continues to develop, the environment takes a hit. The earth is made of limited resources and the more people there are on earth, the more resources we demand. Additionally, as countries develop and standards of living rise, people have a greater impact on the environment as more people drive cars, live in single-family homes, and buy more things. Effects on the Physical Environment As population increases so does strain on the environment. This is especially true of urban areas and the logistics required to provide for the needs of urban dwellers. Some effects of population on the environment include deforestation, desertification, soil degradation, pollution, and resource depletion. Managing the Environment As the population in the U.S. grew, the government and private groups took up the cause of caring for and regulating environmental issues. The following are some examples of groups that have attempted to help preserve and conserve the physical environment. National Park Systems—established in 1916, a federal group that works to preserve and protect some of the most pristine and wild places in America Environment Protection Agency (EPA)—federal organization that regulates industry and prevents environmental degradation and pollution Endangered Species Act—passed in 1973, attempts to protect endangered species by placing heavy fines on violations of the law. Effects of Governmental Actions The government’s actions have impacts on industries, communities, and individuals. The laws and government agents that enforce them are in place for all to follow, no one is exempt from the law. Impact on Fifth Amendment Property Rights—states that private property cannot be taken for public use without just compensation. The Arts The arts are often viewed as a reflection of the period in which they were created. You can learn a lot about the past by examining the art produced during each era. The arts often reflect the events and public perception of the time. Reflection of U.S. Issues U.S. issues are often reflected in art, music, film, and literature. Think about the books you’ve read in English class or the music that is produced today. Both reflect the issues of the times. The literature reflects the issues of the period in which it was written, while modern music often reflects current issues. Positive and Negative Impacts The arts often drive social movements. They can have positive or negative impacts but most often affect change in one way or another. Tin Pan Alley—origins of the popular music industry, in NYC where musicians and producers made the popular music of the early 1900s The Harlem Renaissance—focus on the arts and cultural contributions by black people in the U.S.; often seen as the beginning of the Civil Rights Movement. The Beat Generation—group of authors in the 1950s who influenced and wrote about culture in post WWII America Chicano Mural Movement—began in the 1960s in the American Southwest; attempted to shine a light on Mexican-American culture Rock and Roll—originating as early as the 1950s, widely popular music style that influenced American pop culture for decades Country and Western Music—origins in folk music, told stories about life and brought attention to rural lifestyle in America American Culture and the World Over time, as the U.S. gained prominence and prosperity, popular culture from the U.S. spread across the world. The influence of powerful American companies (and outsourcing), the presence of the U.S. military globally, and the success of the entertainment business are all factors contributing to the spread of American culture worldwide. American Culture Diffusion American culture originally diffused through the movement of people and through literature. Later, as more technology became available (radio, telephone, TV, and, ultimately, the Internet), culture continued to spread rapidly. The National Identity The U.S. is a nation of immigrants. Our country is made up of many different ethnic groups from many different places with many different backgrounds. Our national identity has been molded by accepting and celebrating those differences. Our form of government also celebrates the ability of all groups and individuals to have their voices heard. Actions to Expand Economic Rights and Political Opportunities Over time, our country has undergone major changes. The Constitution is a living document that is meant to change and adapt over time to the needs of the people as times change. Action groups and political organizations have worked to change the country for the good in terms of gaining rights for all races, women, and other minorities. The Americanization Movement As the country expanded westward and gained new territory, much of the land was taken from Native Americans. This movement sought to civilize the natives and force them to adopt an American lifestyle and give up their traditional ways of life. Diversity of Contributions Today, the unique contributions of all groups are welcomed and celebrated. The diversity of ethnic, cultural, and religious groups makes the U.S. great. The ability of millions of people to get along and thrive mark the culture of the country. Influential Women Some of the most influential women in U.S. history went to great lengths to bring change. Here are a few of the most noted ones: Frances Willard—fought for women’s suffrage in the late 1800s Jane Addams—known as the Mother of Social Work; a leader for women’s suffrage and world peace Eleanor Roosevelt—First Lady, outspoken political activist, and diplomat Delores Huerta—Mexican-American labor and civil rights activist Sonia Sotomayor—first Hispanic Supreme Court Justice Oprah Winfrey—talk show host, philanthropist, and one of the most successful women in U.S. history Mottos The following are two of many mottos our country has. Think about where you have seen or heard these and consider their importance. ”E Pluribus Unum”—Out of many, One. Refers to the unity that holds the U.S. together. ”In God We Trust”—used on our money, in the pledge, and in other places; evidence of a basis of faith Congressional Medal of Honor This is the highest U.S. military honor that one can achieve. Receiving this decoration is rare and holds a lot of meaning. Vernon J. Baker—only living black man to receive this honor for his service in WWII; recognized for clearing four machine gun nests in Italy Alvin York—one of the most decorated soldiers of WWI; known for capturing 132 Germans Roy Benavidez—received this honor for his service in Vietnam and was known for fighting for his rights as a veteran Page 6 Government and Citizenship Ten of the 68 questions on this test will ask you about your knowledge of government and citizenship. Think back to the structure and roles of government and citizens. The Changing Role of Government Over time and as the country grew in size and population, the role of the government changed. Largely, the influence of the federal government has increased over time. New Deal Legislation The New Deal was Roosevelt’s plan to get the U.S. out of the Great Depression. It required heavy government spending to get people back to work. This spending included creating various organization and many building projects that are today upkept by state and local governments. Federal Government Policy Changes As the country faces challenges, policy of the federal government has to adapt and change to meet these challenges. World War I—The U.S. had a policy of isolationism prior to WWI in which the country tried to stay out of foreign affairs and alliances. The devastation of the war led to U.S. to continue to pursue this model after the war. The Great Depression—This period led the government to spend more to help jump-start the economy. World War II—The country emerged a superpower on the world scale and marked the beginning of the U.S. maintaining a high level of influence in global affairs. The 1960s—Countercultural and Civil Rights movements along with the Vietnam War led the government to make some major changes and pass several amendments to the Constitution. 9/11—The events of this day spurred a dramatic shift in airline security and led to increased government surveillance programs. Political Scandals Political scandals impact leaders and the government in negative ways and lead to a distrust of the government by the public. Teapot Dome—when a member of Harding’s cabinet accepted a bribe while in office; marked the first time a Federal official was convicted of a crime Watergate—when government officials broke into competing party’s offices leading up to an election; led to the resignation of President Nixon. Impeachment of Bill Clinton—president impeached for accusations of sexual relations and an affair with a White House staff worker Contemporary Government Legislation The decisions the government makes impact on everyone, including businesses and private individuals. These are a few examples. Community Reinvestment Act of 1977—helped low income communities by providing the means for citizens to get loans USA PATRIOT Act of 2001—passed after the 9/11 attacks; helps the government detect and prevent terrorist attacks by monitoring communications American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009—economic stimulus bill to help those most impacted by the recession in 2008 and 2009 International Activities You should be able to evaluate the pros and cons of U.S. participation in international organizations and treaties. Some examples include NATO, NAFTA, and the UN. The Three Branches of Government The Founding Fathers designed our government to have three branches with checks and balances in order to prevent the government from becoming too powerful. The legislative branch is made up of elected representatives who speak for the needs of the people and make laws. The executivebranch enforces the law and the judicial branch interprets the law to make sure everything is operating according to the Constitution. Executive and Legislative Branch Relations Sometimes, the executive and legislative branches share power in times that demand quick action. The following are some examples of this. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution—during which Congress gave the president complete power to do whatever he felt necessary to combat communist aggression in Vietnam War Powers Act—limited the ability of the president to use military force without the consent of Congress All Three Branches All three branches must work together for our government to be effective. The following are examples of how the branches relate to each other and sometimes impact major events. F.D.R. and the Supreme Court—FDR attempt to increase the number of justices on the Supreme Court; other branches resisted this action saying that it was his attempt to pack the court (the president appoints judges to the court) Presidential Election of 2000—controversial election that was the closest in history and the only race to be decided by a Supreme Court ruling Constitutional Issues As citizens influence change in government policy, American society changes. The laws of the land influence the daily lives and activities of citizens. The following are examples of court cases that have impacted daily life in American society over time. Landmark Supreme Court Decisions Sometimes, the Supreme Court hears cases and makes decisions about the constitutionality of certain situations. The court rulings always impact society and sometimes impact what people can and cannot do on a regular basis. Brown v. Board of Education—ruled that segregation in schools was unconstitutional and mandated that schools must integrate Plessy v. Ferguson—ruled that segregation was legal and that public facilities could be separate but equal Hernandez v. Texas—ruled that Mexican Americans and all other racial groups had equal protection under the law Tinker v. Des Moines—ruled that students were allowed to express their peaceful protest of the Vietnam War at school Wisconsin v. Yoder—ruled that Amish children could not be required to go to school past 8th grade White v. Regester—challenged an earlier ruling that congressional districts be drawn according to roughly equal population size Historical Reasons for Constitutional Amendments Historically, Constitutional Amendments have been made to meet the needs of the people. As our society grows and changes over time, so do the needs of the people. The Constitution was designed to adapt to these changes and that has happened through the adding of amendments over time. Amendments have been passed to address issues in American society at different points in time. American Exceptionalism In the early 1800s, Alexis de Tocqueville, a French political scientist, wrote Democracy in America, in which he praised the American form of government. He argued that the following five values were critical to the success of the unique and exceptional form of government in the U.S. Liberty—freedom from tyranny, or an oppressive government Egalitarianism—equal status in society, no class structure or limitations on social class Individualism—people free to pursue their own happiness and goals Populism—all people in society permitted and encouraged to participate in politics Laissez-faire—a hands-off government approach to the economic system. Democratic Process Expansion The democratic process relies on the participation of the people. Over time, many efforts have been made to increase civic participation. This has come through the work of individuals, groups, and government legislation. Increasing Participation The following are a few specific ways that people and groups have attempted to increase participation in the democratic process. Lobbying—the process of seeking to influence legislation, often through campaign contributions Non-violent Protest—the process of deliberately disobeying laws in a peaceful manner to bring about change Litigation—the process of taking legal action to make a change, often through court cases Constitutional Amendments—additions to the Constitution to allow minorities and women the right to vote and protect the rights of all citizens. Achieving Political Rights The following amendments and laws have been passed to provide rights to people who lacked them. 19th Amendment—granted women the right to vote 24th Amendment—eliminated the poll tax, a fee people had to pay in some states in order to vote. This provided greater access to voting as people of lower income levels could now vote without paying a tax. 26th Amendment—set the legal voting age to 18 American Indian Citizenship Act of 1924—granted American Indians born in the U.S. full citizenship and rights of citizens, including the right to vote Effects of Participation Participation in the democratic process is a reflection of our nation’s founding and the freedoms we enjoy as a society. The Founding Fathers wanted to prevent the kind of government that abuses its power. Therefore, it is our responsibility as citizens to take part in the civic process to maintain a government for the people and by the people. Effective Leadership Effective leadership is also important in our country. We need leaders who can work together and provide for the needs of the people for the good of the country as a whole. Andrew Carnegie—influential in the growth of the steel industry and major philanthropist who contributed to the growth of social institutions like the public school system Thurgood Marshall—active in the Civil Rights Movement and first black Supreme Court Justice Billy Graham—Christian evangelist and moral leader who served under multiple presidents Barry Goldwater—presidential candidate and long-serving senator known for his moderate stance and good leadership Sandra Day O’Connor—first woman appointed to the Supreme Court Hillary Clinton—wife of President Bill Clinton, senator, and first female candidate for president Page 7 Economic, Science, Technology, and Society Another 16 questions on this test will ask you about economics, science, technology, and society. You will need to tell how these topics have influenced society over time. Economics: 1870s to 1920 Largely known as the Gilded Age and then Progressive Era, many changes in economics and business took place over this period. The country was expanding westward and industry was evolving with the continued adoption of new technology. For the most part, business was good and the economic base of the country was expanding. The Frontier Closing Developments over this period led to the shrinking of the frontier. As new transportation systems connected the country, more people settled the west, and the frontier slowly disappeared. Transcontinental Railroad—rail line running across the country connecting the east and west coasts The Homestead Act—granted land to people who would move west and improve the land by farming and building structures, consequently settling the west Federal Government and Private Businesses Business in the U.S. has historically enjoyed little government regulation. However, during this period, some big businesses became corrupt and monopolies formed. Government policy had to act in order to keep business in check. Laissez-faire—government policy set forth by the Founding Fathers that the government would have a hands-off approach to economics and business in the country Anti-Trust acts—a series of laws that attempted to prevent any one company from controlling the market and becoming too powerful, or a monopoly The Interstate Commerce Act—law passed to regulate the railroad industry and break up its monopoly The Pure Food and Drug Act—prevented the production and sale of mislabelled or tainted food and drugs Foreign Policies Foreign policy refers to how the U.S. interacts with other countries and people coming into our country. These policies impact economics through labor, trade, and foreign markets. Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882—limited the number of immigrants that could enter the U.S. from China. During the construction of the transcontinental railroad, many Chinese immigrated for work. The Open Door Policy—allowed for equal trade with China among foreigners and the preservation of Chinese authority in their own country Dollar Diplomacy—expansion of U.S. trade in Latin America and East Asia through the provision of loans to countries in those regions Immigration Quotas—limits set on the number of immigrants from specific regions allowed into the U.S. These quotas for different regions varied over time. International Military Conflicts The following wars during this period greatly impacted economics, especially in terms of the cost of funding a war. Both opened economic opportunity after the war, though. Spanish-American War—war during which the U.S. gained many territories and invested in a powerful navy that would prove to be effective in opening up more trade around the world World War I—costly war in terms of finances and lives but led to a prosperous economic climate in the U.S. during the 1920s Emergence of Monetary Policy As our country grew and became more powerful economically, the government needed to pass laws to regulate and protect American business. Federal Reserve Act of 1913—created the Federal Reserve, or the central bank of the U.S., to regulate and stabilize the economy Shift from Gold Standard to Flat Money—change from money being backed by gold to being backed by the government Economics: Between World Wars I and II Economics varied greatly between the world wars. Immediately following WWI, the U.S. experienced economic prosperity in the 1920s followed by depression in the 1930s. Growth and Prosperity in the 1920s The following are all factors contributing to the prosperity of the 1920s. Overall, the health of the stock market and the increase in consumption of American-made goods were driving forces behind the Roaring 20s. Warren Harding’s Return to Normalcy—occurred when Harding won the election of 1920 and promised a return to pre-war thinking; marked the beginning of increased consumer spending as the fear of war was lifted Reduced Taxes—taxes cut drastically in the 1920s which left people with more money in their pockets to spend on consumer goods Increased Production Efficiencies—as companies found ways to increase efficiency (like the assembly line style of production), prices for goods dropped and sales increased Causes of the Great Depression The Great Depression was characterized by high rates of inflation, unemployment, and overall low confidence in the economy. Here are a few specific causes of the depression. Tariffs—specifically high tariffs (tax on imports) that caused a decline in global trade, which also led to fewer sales and less economic growth Stock Market Speculation—occurred when the success of the 1920s led to a drastic rise in stock prices but the growth was not sustainable and eventually people panicked when it began to drop Bank Failures—spurred by the success of the 1920s which led to increasing use of credit; followed by banks failing when people were not able to make the payments on their loans; panic of people who withdrew their money in fear that the banks would lose it The Federal Reserve’s Monetary Policy—result of the market crash; people held their money and spent less; the Fed failed to take corrective action to this constriction and matters just got worse Effects of the Great Depression The Great Depression was characterized by high unemployment rates and falling income levels across the country. Widespread Unemployment—rates as high as 25% during the 1930s Deportation and Repatriation—many people considered “non-native” to the U.S. forced out of the country during the Great Depression because these groups were seen as taking jobs and opportunity from Americans born here; actions are often looked back on as racist and controversial The New Deal FDR announced the New Deal as a government spending program to pump money back into the economy and get people back to work. Opponents argued this would only make things worse as the country’s economy depended upon free enterprise. Far-Reaching Effects Several agencies and programs created through the New Deal have had long and far-reaching impacts since the Great Depression. These programs were created to provide immediate and temporary assistance to needing Americans during the Great Depression. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)—insured bank deposits in the event of a bank failure so that the average citizens were guaranteed their money up to a certain amount (it has been changed several times) in the event of a bank failure Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)—reformed the stock market and the agency now works to protect investors and investments in the stock exchange to prevent any future crashes Social Security Administration (SSA)—enacted to provide immediate relief payments to families, now provides assistance payments to retired and disabled persons The Economics of World War II and the Cold War WWII helped the U.S. economy greatly. Gearing up for war increased government spending for war machines and put many women to work in factories as many men volunteered to serve in the military. After the war, the U.S. economy once again experienced high rates of growth and economic prosperity. World War II and the Home Front The war marked the end of the the Great Depression. It put Americans back to work in massive numbers in factories and farms for the war effort. Everything was used as scrap drives and rations for the war effort were embraced by all. Finally, great numbers of women went to work as many men joined the military. Prosperity in the 1950s After WWII, the U.S. economy boomed as soldiers came home from the war, started families, and bought homes and other consumer goods. Causes—As soldiers returned home from the war, they were granted benefits like the GI Bill, which helped pay for education, housing, and unemployment insurance. Many soldiers used their benefits to buy homes and cars as they settled down and started families. This consumer spending led to economic growth and prosperity. Effects—The post-WWII period is often referred to as an age of mass consumption because of the economic growth and American spending on homes, cars, appliances, and family items. At the same time, agriculture underwent great changes as new technology led to higher crop yields. Increased food production ultimately gave rise to new businesses like the fast food industry. Defense Spending During the Cold War, the U.S. government invested a lot of money in defense and research. Aerospace technology and science education became priorities during this era as the U.S. attempted to stay ahead of the USSR in the space race and arms race. This government spending led to the success of private businesses in these industries. The Government and the Private Sector During this period, the government took several actions to provide economic opportunities and a better life for citizens. The “Great Society”—a large social welfare program of the Johnson administration with the main goal of eliminating poverty and racial injustice; largely successful in reducing poverty; critics argued it was expensive for the government and made people dependent upon the government Affirmative Action—policy favoring people who suffer from discrimination; led to the equal opportunity laws that attempt to prevent any bias in the hiring process Title IX—prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in federally funded educational institutions Trade Policies and the Free Enterprise System The following policies attempt to regulate and encourage trade. Trade is closely related to free enterprise economics as countries and businesses thrive on being able to trade freely on the world stage. The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) Oil Embargo—sets production and price for oil worldwide; in the 1970s, OPEC restricted production and trade of oil to the U.S., resulting in shortages, high prices, and long lines at gas stations The General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade (GATT)—originally created in 1948 to regulate world trade; since has been replaced by the World Trade Organization (WTO) The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)—eliminated tariffs on trade between the U.S., Mexico, and Canada Worldwide Interdependence and the Twenty-first Century Understand that many countries today are interdependent to be successful and prosperous. Countries depend on each other for goods and payments that they cannot provide themselves. No country is truly self-sufficient in the globalized economy of the world today. American Entrepreneurs Entrepreneurs are people who start businesses. This is a very short list of the many successful entrepreneurs in the history of the U.S. Bill Gates—founder of Microsoft Sam Walton—founder of Walmart Estée Lauder—successful woman, founded the company bearing her name, which produces and sells cosmetics Robert Johnson—African American businessman, founder of Black Entertainment Television (BET) Lionel Sosa—successful Mexican-American advertising and marketing executive International Influences Because the world economy is so interconnected, international events drive economics. If tragic events or wars take place in various locations around the world, economics and trade is impacted accordingly. Economical Effects of Science and Technology Science and technology have driven the free enterprise system in the U.S. Because the government has historically had little influence on business, businesses are free to innovate and compete with each other for sales. This innovation to beat the competition has been the driving force behind the constant improvement and continued economic development of the U.S. Inventions and Innovations New inventions and innovations like electricity, telephones, cars, and computers have drastically improved the economic development of the U.S. These are all examples of new innovations that became popular and ultimately necessities in society. As they became household items, more people bought them, which drove the economy and improved the standard of living in the country over time. Needs Drive Discoveries Most innovations come from figuring out a way to meet a need. Many technological discoveries are made during times of war as a country defends itself. New weapons technology or scientific research can often be modified to meet needs in other fields like agriculture and medicine. Effects on Productivity Over time, production in factories improved as new technology was introduced to the process. As innovations like the assembly line, just in time delivery, robotics, and computer technology permeated industry, production increased as cost and the need for workers decreased. This led to people needing more education to do higher skill jobs. A New Standard of Living As new scientific discoveries and technological advances are made, the standard of living in the United States increases. The competition of businesses in the free enterprise economy drives this innovation. Companies compete for your business, and they constantly try to innovate to make a better product than their competitor. This leads to better products, lower prices, and an overall higher standard of living. Inventions and Innovations Innovation in transportation and communication technology have greatly impacted the standard of living in the U.S. First railroads, then cars, and finally airplanes have made transportation much faster and easier. The telegraph, telephone, and now Internet have made communication much faster and easier. These changes improve life through the ease of transportation and communication. We can travel further easier and talk to people from very far away easier. Space Technology and Exploration The improvements in space technology and exploration have improved the quality of life through the improvement of air transportation and satellite communication technology. Simple things we take for granted, like GPS directions, were made possible through space technology and exploration. The Free Enterprise System The competition in the free enterprise marketplace drives innovation as companies compete with each other for your business. This has led to the affordability and increased choice of different cell phones, computers, and other devices like GPS products. We have the free enterprise economic system to thank for the availability and affordability of our everyday electronic devices. Social Studies Skills Sources of Information: You will be expected to apply these skills concerning information use. Use a variety of sources. Analyze the information from these sources by employing sequence, categories, cause and effect, comparison, contrast, main idea, summary, generalization, prediction, inference, and conclusions. Employ the historical inquiry process while researching, interpreting, and using evidence from various sources. Connect a point of view to historical evidence. Gain and interpret information from visual and auditory sources, including graphs, maps, speeches, lectures, and political cartoons. Communication: You will need to explain social studies concepts using correct terminology. Geographic Tools: You will need to ask and answer geographical questions concerning distribution and patterns using charts, maps, graphs, and databases.