Geography Notes PDF

Geography ​ https://archive.org/details/makingconnection0000unkn/page/n5/mode/2up ​ Source of Notes: Textbook, Quests, Powerpoints, written notes https://quizlet.com/_co88xz?x=1jqt&i=3d1tgt (better version) Password is ‘geo’ :D​ ​ Unit 1: Interactions With The Physical Environment​ Chapter 1: Ca...

Geography ​ https://archive.org/details/makingconnection0000unkn/page/n5/mode/2up ​ Source of Notes: Textbook, Quests, Powerpoints, written notes https://quizlet.com/_co88xz?x=1jqt&i=3d1tgt (better version) Password is ‘geo’ :D​ ​ Unit 1: Interactions With The Physical Environment​ Chapter 1: Canada’s Population Patterns Map making rules: ➔​ Title of area shown, topic, or focus of map, in all caps ➔​ North arrow (point at angle) ➔​ Scale ➔​ Border ➔​ Legend (shows symbols on maps, have a title) ➔​ Colors ​ Geography - The study of earth and people’s relationship with it​ ​ Ecosystem - A community of living things and the physical environment in which they live in​ ​ Types of Location​ ➔​ Relative location - Where something is located in relation to other geographic features​ ➔​ Absolute location - Where something is located in terms of latitude and longitude ​ Key Questions​ ➔​ What is where? - Describes location of something (types of locations). The geographic concepts interrelationships and spatial significance help answer the question​ ➔​ Why there? - Describes reasons why something is where it is (natural environment or human actions). The geographic concept spatial significance helps answer the question ➔​ Why care? - Describes reasons why something matters in geography (its effects on humans and the environment). The geographic concept patterns and trends helps answer the question Geographic Concepts​ ➔​ Interrelationships - Relationships that exist between different patterns and trends.​ ➔​ Spatial significance - The importance of a particular location in geography. ​ ➔​ Pattern - The arrangement of objects on the earth’s surface in relationship to each other​ ➔​ Trend - A noticeable change in a pattern over time. ​ ➔​ Geographic perspective - A way to look at the world that includes political, environmental, and social implications ​ Geographic inquiry - An active, questioning approach to learning about the world from a geographic perspective​ ​ Available Sources​ ➔​ Field sources (e.g. studies in local neighborhoods, school grounds, and various sites)​ ➔​ Primary sources (e.g. census data, letters, photographs, speeches, and works of art)​ ➔​ Secondary sources (e.g. documentaries and other films, news articles, reference books, most websites)​ ➔​ Visuals (e.g. satellite images, maps, globes, models, graphs, diagrams)​ ➔​ Community resources (e.g. local conservation areas, resources from community groups and associations, government resources, local plans)​ Geotechnology - Use of advanced technology in the study of geography and in everyday use ​ Global Positioning System (GPS) - A satellite based system that provides location data​ ​ Geographic Information System (GIS) - Computer system that manages and analyzes geographic information​ ​ Georeferencing - Linking geographic data to a particular location​ ​ Remote sensing - Seeing or measuring something from a considerable distance, often a satellite​ ​ Telematics - Any technology that involves the long-distance transmission of digital information. Telematics is short for “telecommunications informatics”​ ​ Population density - The average number of people living in a particular place. The formula is population/km^2 (note: do not round the answer, use exact decimals)​ ​ Census Metropolitan Areas (CMAs) - Urban areas in Canada with a population over 100,000. They center around a city and extend beyond the borders of it.​ Community - A group of people who share common characteristics (history, culture, beliefs, space of living)​ ​ Continuous ecumene - The part of the country where there is continuous, permanent settlement​ ​ Discontinuous ecumene - The part of the country where there are significant patches of settlement​ ​ Fields of Geography​ ➔​ Physical - Includes the study of landforms, climates, soils, etc.​ ➔​ Urban - Includes the study of “built-up” areas, city layouts, land use and urban problems (e.g. transportation, pollution, garbage disposal)​ ➔​ Social - Includes the study of people and how they interact with themselves and the environment​ ➔​ Environmental - Includes the study of our surroundings and how humans utilize (and often abuse) the environment​ ➔​ Economic - Includes activities which extract or create goods and provide services ​ Map projections - Created when features of a globe are transferred onto a flat surface. There is no accurate representation of the Earth on a flat map since the pictures become distorted.​ ​ Common Types of Map Projections​ ➔​ Mercator - Gives true compass bearings between points. Well suited for navigation charts, distorts size of land masses (countries closer to the equator appear small than they actually are, countries closer to the poles appear larger than they actually are)​ ➔​ Winkel Tripel - Provides balance of size. shape, distance, and direction; gives realistic representation of earth (though a little tall)​ ➔​ Equal-Area Map - Distorts shape, but has accurate area size ​ Map - representation of Earth’s features drawn on a flat surface. Uses colors and symbols to represent features of an area, focuses on relevant elements​ ​ Types of Maps​ ➔​ General purpose map - Provides many types of information on a map which might include bodies of water and roads​ ➔​ Thematic map - Provides specific information about one place, designed to show specific information about a particular easy topic to understand​ ➔​ Small-scale map - Small amounts of detail in large area, used for physical, political, and economic information. > 1:250,000 = small-scale maps​  ➔​ Large-scale map - Large amounts of detail in a small area​ ➔​ Isodemographic map - determines a country’s size by its population ​ Survey system - A grid system used to locate and identify parcels of land and roads ​ Population Patterns in Rural Areas​ ➔​ Dispersed population - A population spread evenly across land; common in agricultural areas​ ➔​ Concentrated population - A population with specific resource industries, such as mines or paper mills; common around resources​ ➔​ Linear population - A population settled along a line, such as a coastline, river, or highway ​ Important Factors That Affect Rural Settlement​ ➔​ Natural resources - includes farmland, water bodies, forests, etc​ ➔​ Transportation methods - boats, railways, roads, etc​ ➔​ Role of government - influence and help provided ​ Chapter 2: Exploring Connections: Landforms, Geology, and Human Activities​ ​ Tsunami - a set of large ocean waves caused by an earthquake or other powerful disturbance under the sea ​ Plate Tectonics​ ​ The theory that the Earth’s outer shell is made up of individual plates that move​ ​ It is believed that the movement of tectonic plates is the cause of earthquakes, volcanoes, mountains, and formation/destruction of areas of crust​ ​ It also explains why we have the deepest parts of the ocean, high mountain ranges, and majestic plains​ ​ States that the crust is floating on molten rocks within the earth ​ Plates - pieces that make up the earth’s crust​ ​ Continental Drift​  ​ The theory the the continents were once together, but drifted apart as a result of unimaginable forces​ ​ Proposed by German scientist Alfred Wegener in 1915​ ​ The land masses were in constant motion and collided to form a super continent 300 million years ago (known as Pangaea which means “all land”)​ ​ About 200 million years ago, Pangaea started to break apart and the continents as we know them drifted to their present locations ​ Reasons For The Theory​ ​ Fossils of similar species of plants and animals in Africa and South America were found​ ​ At a specific angle, South America and Africa fit together perfectly​ ​ Mountains in Europe and North America are of similar age and rock composition​ ​ There used to be ice sheets in South Africa and India ​ Mid-ocean ridge - A feature created by the spreading of the sea floor where 2 plates are diverging ​ Subduction - The process in which one plate slides beneath another​ ​ Types of Plate Movement​ ​ Divergent - 2 plates move away from each other. It is typically caused by volcanic activity and mostly happens along mid-ocean ridges. ​ Convergent - 2 plates move toward each other. There are 2 types of convergent plate movement: when a continental plate meets another continental plate, they fold and are forced upward. When a continental plate meets an oceanic plate, the oceanic plate subducts (because it is denser than the continental plate) and falls into the interior of the Earth. The existing crust is recycled by subduction. The crust being melted balances the new forming crust at a divergent plate boundary​ ​ Transform - 2 plates slide roughly parallel but opposite directions along a transform plate boundary (also called conservative boundary). Usually happens fairly smoothly, many small earthquakes but usually no catastrophic damage. Sometimes, plates lock up for many years and release a large amount of energy which leads to damaging earthquakes, but less damaging than subduction zones. Rock Cycle​ ​ Igneous rocks - Form when magma or lava cools. They usually form at the bottom of the ocean or inside the Earth's crust. The crystal structure of an igneous rock indicates where it formed. Types of Igneous Rocks​ ​ Intrusive - igneous rocks that form below the earth's surface. They usually have many crystals. ​ Extrusive - lava (type of molten rock) that cools on the surface. They usually do not have visible crystals, ​ Sedimentary rocks - created after millions of years of compaction and cementation of loose sediments. The type of sediment rock that forms depends on the sediment. ​ Compaction - occurs as loose sediments become tightly packed from drying or the weight of other sediment layers on top​ ​ Cementation - occurs when minerals deposited between sediments pushes them toward each other ​ Limestone - a sedimentary rock that forms from natural shells of tiny marine animals Sedimentary rocks typically form in oceans next to continents. Three things can happen to the sedimentary rocks: ​ they sit at the bottom of the ocean ​ they could act as bumpers to 2 colliding continental plates ​ they could be lifted out of the sea by tectonic forces Weather Processes​ ​ Weathering - the process of breaking down wind by water, chemicals, and living things​ ​ Erosion - the process of moving broken-up pieces of rock (e.g. rivers)​ ​ Deposition - the process of eroded materials building up in a new location​ ​ Metamorphic rocks - changed versions of igneous, sedimentary, and other metamorphic rocks. The changes occur when molten rocks intrude into other rock layers, creating heat and pressure. Metamorphic versions of sedimentary rocks are always much harder than its original form. Precambrian Era (Earliest) ​ 4.6 billion to 570 million years ago ​ Precambrian shields formed (in Canada and Brazil) ​ First unicellular and multicellular organisms came Paleozoic Era (Ancient) ​ 570 million to 245 million years ago ​ Large parts of North America covered by shallow areas ​ Appalachian Mountains formed ​ Large swamps (became basis of fossil fuel industry), ​ First plants, animals and insects appeared Mesozoic Era (Middle ages) ​ 245 million to 66 million years ago ​ Shallow seas in interior of various times  ​ Innuitian mountains formed ​ Rocky mountains began to form ​ Age of reptiles (includes dinosaurs) ​ First flowering plants, mammals, and birds Cenozoic Era (Present) ​ 66 million to today ​ Ice sheets cover most of North America ​ Continents take present form ​ Rocky Mountains completely form ​ Humans and other modern life forms develop Processes Caused By Moving Plates​ ​ Folding - the process that bends and twists rocks, usually by compression and squeezing. The process is found when plates move together. ​ Faulting - the process where rocks move past each other along a fracture or crack. It occurs where plates are separating, sliding past one another or moving together ​ Vulcanism - describes movement of molten rock (or magma) beneath or above the Earth's surface volcanic activity. It is commonly found where plates are separating or coming together.​ ​ Crust - outer layer of Earth (plates) ​ Mantle - liquid rock beneath the crust​ ​ Core - centre o f the Earth, source of heat which melts rocks in the mantle ​ Glaciation - the process of ice advancing and covering large areas of land ​ Glacier - a huge mass of ice that moves slowly over land. They form when snow is compressed by other layers of snow and turns into ice Glaciers move in 3 ways: ​ Gravity and weight ​ Slipping along melt water below ​ Chunks breaking off and floating away (icebergs) ​ Types of Glaciers ​ Alpine - Moves down valleys. They sharpen the upper portion of mountains and create a rugged/jagged appearance. They create U-shaped valleys ​ Continental - Occupy larger land areas. They spread from a center point or zone of accumulation and extend outward. They erode highpoints, creating smooth appearances on land. They only exist in Greenland and Antarctica today.​ Glacier Movement​ ​ Advancing - the rate of melting is slower than the accumulation rate, causing the glacier to enlargen ​ Stationary - the rate of melting is equal to the rate of accumulation so the glacier stays the same in size ​ Retreating - the rate of melting is faster than the rate of accumulation, so the glacier decreases in size ​ Glacial Features​ ​ Striations - form when glaciers move and embedded rocks in it scrape against the ground. They appear as rocks with lines (scrapes) in the same direction ​ Glacial spillways - carved out by glacial melt water. They appear as wide valleys. ​ Till plains - rocks and sediments that release from melted glaciers. They appear as small hills and valleys; deposits of clay, sand and gravel. ​ Moraines - forms from deposition of ice (sediments released from glaciers). They appear as ridges and deposits of till ​ Drumlins - molded by passing glaciers that scraped away surrounding soil. They appear as egg-shaped hills ​ Erratics - picked up by glaciers and dropped. They are large rocks ​ Eskers - form from glacial melt water and sediment deposits. They are rivers flowing within or under glaciers, deposits of sediments ​ Lake plains - form from glacial melt water and sediment deposits. They are lakes and sediments ​ Till - a mixture of loose, unsorted sediments and rocks of all size Effects of Glaciation Erosional effects ​ Glaciers scrape away soil and rocks ​ Change in drainage patterns of rivers, streams, and lakes. New lakes form in rock basins filled with water as glaciers melted away Depositional effects​ Deposition by Ice ​ Till plains are created. They are rather featureless, but have small hills and valleys. They form from rock and sediment released from glaciers as they melt ​ Moraines are created. They are deposits of till that form at the edges of a glacier Deposition by water ​ Meltwater moves glacial debris. Fast-moving water moves heavy particles like gravel and rocks. Slow water deposits particles based on weight. The materials are sorted by size ​ Meltwater rivers flow into meltwater lakes. Light materials are deposited. ​ Landform regions in Canada Canadian Shield ​ An immense area of worn down mountains ​ Oldest region and of Precambrian age ​ One of the most important sources of diamonds and metallic minerals in the world ​ Not good for farming because of rocks and poor soil ​ Abundant supply of fresh water Areas of lowlands ​ They surround the Canadian shield ​ There are 3 lowland areas: Interior Plains, Great Lakes St. Lawrence Lowlands, and Hudson Bay-Arctic Lowlands. Most Canadians live in GL-SL ​ IP and GL-SL are the most important agricultural areas in Canada ​ The sedimentary rock underlying IP is used to produce oil and natural gas (Canada’s most important export products), as well as a world leader for potash, a major ingredient in fertilizer ​ GL and SL is separated into 2 parts by a narrow band of the Canadian Shield ​ Hudson Bay (consists of the mainland in the south) and Arctic (part in several islands in Hudson Bay) Areas of highlands ​ They surround the lowlands ​ There are 3 regions: Innuitian, West Cordillera, and the Appalachian Mountains (much older than the first 2, a lot less low in elevation) ​ WC and AM extend into the U.S; WC also extends into Alaska ​ Innuitian is the most remote region in Canada ​ Chapter 3: Exploring Connections: Climate, Soil, and Natural Vegetation and Human Activities​ ​ Natural vegetation - the plants that would grow in an area without human intervention​ ​ Climate - long-term conditions of atmosphere​ ​ Weather - day to day conditions of the atmosphere​ ​ Climate Processes​ LOWERN: latitude, ocean currents, wind and air masses, elevation, relief, near water​ ​ Latitude - the location of something in terms of north and south position ​ the further a location is from the equator, the less direct sunlight it receives ​ it is cooler in the poles and northern locations ​ Ocean currents - movement of seawater from one location to another ​ currents that move away from the equator are warm, currents that move toward the equator are cooler, which causes the land near them to warm up/cool down ​ Temperature of currents affect the temperature of air above which affects the temperature of the land because wind brings the temperature to the land that they cross ​ Winds and air masses ​ Wind is air that moves over earth’s surface from areas of higher air pressure to areas of lower air pressure ​ Air masses are large volumes of air that takes on the climatic conditions of the area in which it forms (e.g. one that forms above an ocean has moist air, one that forms far from an ocean contains dry air) ​ Air masses move depending on weather patterns at a given time (characteristics vary) ​ Wind belts are created by the pattern of low and high pressure areas on Earth. The patterns of Westerlies (west to east) movement gives most of our weather and change air masses that affect us ​ Wind helps move air from one location to another and brings the air temperature with it. It will also bring moisture with it if it came from over water​ Elevation ​ The higher you are in altitude, the colder the temperature gets. This is because at higher altitudes, there is less air pressure, so the air expands and cools ​ When expansion without condensation happening occurs, the air will cool by 1.0°C for every 100m it increases by because the sun’s radiation has less air to heat ​ Cold air cannot hold as much moisture which causes condensation to occur. Condensation gives off heat so that the rate of cooling drops to 0.6°C for every 100m in elevation ​ Relief ​ Relief is the shape of the surface of the land ​ Relief can determine the amount of precipitation an area gets ​ Places on the windward side of a height of land (side facing the wind) get more rain and snow than places on the leeward side (also called the rain shadow. It is the opposite side, away from the wind direction) Near water ​ Places near an ocean have maritime climate. They have small temperature range and high precipitation ​ In these areas, winters are mild and summers are not too hot. For this reason, the annual temperature range (temperature of warmest month minus temperature of coldest month) is small ​ Places far from oceans have continental climate. They have large temperature range and low precipitation ​ Land heats and cools faster than water, so extreme temperatures are common in areas with continental climate  ​ Modified continental - areas far enough from the ocean that they should be continental climate, but also have partial maritime influence. They somewhat moderate temperatures and provide a source of moisture since they aren’t frozen. They act as land when frozen. ​ Types of precipitation ​ Relief ​ Condensation creates water droplets that can no longer stay suspended, falling as rain ​ Cold climates result in water vapor condensing as snow ​ Windward: (up) air expands -> cools -> condensation ​ Leeward: (down) evaporates -> warms -> contracts (to the side) -> regular air Convectional ​ Warm air rises -> air expands and cools -> condensation (upward), clouds form vertically ​ Sun heats ground (ground is hot from sun, but cooled by the rain) ​ Cool air is drafted down with precipitation Cyclonic ​ Low pressure system that occurs when a warm air mass and a cold air mass collide ​ Most forms of precipitation occur in Canada during winter ​ Climate graph - a graph that summarizes climate data for a particular location​ ​ Seasonal distribution of precipitation - summer max if peak precipitation is in summer, winter max if peak precipitation is in winter​ ​ Average annual temperature - sum of month temperatures/12 (Degrees Celsius) Temperature range - highest temperature minus lowest temperature. Summer max >= 25 degrees celsius, winter max < 25 degrees celsius​ ​ Total annual precipitation - sum of month precipitations (mm)​ ​ Movement of air (bottom to top): air rises, expands and cools as it rises, water vapor condenses, evaporates ​ Air may rise because it hits a barrier (relief precipitation), it absorbed heat from the ground, causing it to rise, or there is a cooler, denser air mass beneath, causing cyclonic precipitation​ ​ Precipitation can come in many forms such as rain, dew, frost, fog, snow, hail, sleet, etc ​ Water cycle - the circle of how water changes form through weather processes  ​ Soil and Natural Vegetation​ ​ Components of soil ​ Minerals ​ Come from rocks and are called "parent material" They become part of soil when rocks are broken down into smaller particles of sand, silt, and clay. ​ Calcium, phosphorus and potassium are examples of nutrients that minerals provide for plant growth ​ Bacteria and organic material ​ Bacteria and organic materials: decomposition of plant and animal remains occurs because of bacteria ​ As organic matter breaks down, humus forms and provides nutrients for plants ​ Soil gets its darker color from humus ​ Air ​ High humus levels help produce air in the soil because loose, decaying materials allow for many air pockets ​ Worms, insects, and small animals that tunnel through soil create air space ​ Moisture ​ Water dissolves nutrients in the soil and is taken up by plants through their roots ​ It is also necessary in chemical and physical processes that weather rock and decay organic materials ​ Loam is a balanced mixture of sand, silt, clay, and humus: best soil for plants because it encourages root growth and holds moisture ​ Soil profile - a cross section of soil layers. It is the 3 different layers beneath the surface of the ground that exist in soil ​ Topsoil - modern term for A horizon (top layer of soil). It helps determine whether soil is fertile or not. Darkness and thickness are implications of fertile soil. The dark color comes from nutrient-rich organic (plant) material. ​ ​ Dry-climate: thick and dark layer of soil, water moves up through the soil and evaporates on the surface. Organic material of plant decay remains near the surface ​ Subsoil - modern term for B horizon (middle layer of soil). It tends to be light brown to grey. Most water soluble minerals are gone, with only compounds of iron and aluminum left. ​ Parent material - modern term for C horizon (bottom layer of soil), is rocks ​ Soil Processes Geology ​ Fertile soil develops when there is a thick layer of loose parent material available ​ Most of Canada develops from sorted and unsorted glacial deposits ​ Geology is not a problem if there is lots of time for rocks to weather into loose minerals ​ Climate ​ Long growing season is required for rich plant growth in summer ​ Right amount of precipitation ​ Soil loses its fertility from leaching​ Leaching ​ In areas of high precipitation ​ Wet-climate regions ​ Downward water movement ​ Removes nutrients ​ Thin, poor top layer of soil ​ Calcification ​ Areas of low precipitation ​ Dry-climate soils ​ Upward water movement (evaporation at surface) ​ Builds nutrients ​ Layer of mineral deposits that is poisonous to plants Leached soils are called wet-climate soil Wet climate soil - develops where leaching is the dominant soil forming process. Other characteristics include a thin layer of soil, excessive rainfall washes down organic materials that are water soluble ​ A horizon is thin, rainfall washes down soluble organic materials ​ B horizon is light brown to grey, most soluble minerals are gone, only iron and aluminum compounds are left Dry-climate soils - soils that develop where calcification is the dominant forming process  ​ A horizon is thick and dark brown to black, water moves up and evaporates through soil due to dry conditions, organic materials from decay of plants remain near the surface Soil regions in Canada: ​ Tundra soils (most of nunavut, north of quebec) ​ Dry-climate soils (prairies) ​ Wide range of soils in mountainous area (Yukon, BC) ​ Wet climate soils (everything else) Tundra Soil -​ Covers most of northern Canada. -​ Does not have distinct horizons like other spoils, but rather an unusual condition called permafrost occurs. -​ This is where the soil past a meter deep doesn’t unfreeze because of the temperature. That 1 meter is the active layer for the soil. -​ This permafrost trapped water from draining away, making the area swampy. -​ Many dead animals are trapped in the permafrost, not decomposing since it is too cold and is preserved. -​ Climate change can melt the tundra soil, causing the decomposition of a lot of dead organic material, which will release methane (CH4) as there is little oxygen. -​ CH4 is a lot more potent than CO2, and its release will cause a feedback loop that will melt more soil, releasing more gas. -​ Climate change can be good for the north, as the trees can grow farther north, plant life can flourish, and construction will be easier as the water drains or evaporates. Natural Vegetation Process -​ Is a product of the particular combination of temperature and participation Canada has 6 main vegetation regions: Tundra: -​ Harsh for plant growth, small shrubs and short trees grow here -​ Plants don’t grow tall, but wide and try to soak up as much heat as possible during the short growing seasons. Grassland: -​ Some trees grow here like aspen willow and spruce, in the wetter areas, and by river valleys in the drier ones. -​ Two types of grasses grow, tall-grass praire, which grows in the wetter areas, and short-grass prairie, which grows in the dryer areas. -​ A transition zone called parkland, exists between the tall grasses and boreal forest, where there's a mix of trees and grasses. Forests 4(subtypes): Coniferous (or evergreen, needle-leaved, or soft Deciduous (also called broadleaf, wood). broad-leaved, hardwood) Examples: white,black spruce; balsam fir; white, Examples: sugar maple, beech hickory, red pine poplar, red oak.  -​ Able to survive in poor quality soils -​ Sheds leaves in winter to lessen load -​ Makes the soil a bit acidic on branches -​ Can stay active during cold conditions -​ Dormant during winter, but -​ Their sap acts as antifreeze, saps flows strong as spring stopping their needles from starts freezing -​ Most species need at least 5 months -​ Needles and flexible branches with an average temperature of 10oC. shed snow, preventing damage -​ Waxy needles and thick bark preserve moisture during dry spells. Boreal -​ Canada’s is one of the largest the forest regions in the world -​ Growing season is longer and the precipitation levels are generally higher the farther south, resulting in more biodiversity and lush forests. Some hardy deciduous trees can survive here, like white birch and poplar. -​ Farther north, only hardy coniferous trees can survive, like black spruce and balsam fir. -​ Winters are long and cold; summers short and warm. -​ The spoil conditions aren’t good, with thin, acidic soils, an poor fertility caused by large amounts of leeching Deciduous -​ Very tiny, is in southwestern Ontario. -​ Is actually the tip of a large deciduous belt in the US. -​ Hot summers and mild winters(by Canadian standards) allow a wide range of species to survive. This includes maple, beech, oak, and some exotics (for canada) like tulip trees and butternut. -​ Almost the entire region has been cleared for farming and urban growth. -​ Solids are fertile, and aren't as acidic as the soils up north. Mixed -​ The more south, the more deciduous trees, the more north, the more boreal. -​ Winters are cool and summers are warm -​ Soils are transitional, as are the climate and vegetation. Meaning the soils are in between the soils of the south and the north in terms of fertility. -​ Much of the southern areas has been cleared for agriculture or urban growth. West Coast -​ Tall trees (some >50m) -​ Mild temperatures and abundant precipitation. -​ Could be seen as part of the cordilleran region, but its distinct appearance and importance for forestry separate it. -​ Is a temperate rainforest -​ Large coniferous trees like Douglas fir, Sitka, Spruce, red cedar, and western hemlock, dominate the region. The Mountainous region is special, as it is not uniform and a combination of multiple vegetation. Unit 2: Resources and Industries​ ​ Chapter 4: Rethinking How We View And Use Natural Resources ​ Total stock - all components of the environment taken together (e.g. energy, organisms, non-living materials) ​ Resource - parts of total stock that becomes useful to humans ​ Natural resources - resources found in the natural environment Renewable resources - resources that can be regenerated if used carefully. They are being replenished by nature at a rate fast enough that they should be available to humans for as long as they need them (e.g. trees, soil, fish stock) Non-renewable resources - Resources that are limited and cannot be replaced after they are used up. Nature creates them so slowly that what exists today is all there will ever be (e.g. minerals and fossil fuels)​ ​ Flow resources - resources that are replaced by natural action and must be used when and where they occur or be lost. They are constantly developed by nature and their supply cannot be damaged by human activity. (e.g. wind, sunlight, water currents)​ ​ Other resources - Any resource that does not fit in the 3 categories (e.g. Northern lights, Rocky Mountains, any tourist destination)​ ​ Resources and the 3Rs ​ Reducing - items are not used or bought to begin with, fewer items are produced. It saves most resources ​ Reusing - items are used by someone else when no longer of use to you, environmental cost of manufacturing the item is avoided. It saves more resources​ ​ Recycling - Item is destroyed when no longer wanted, but its material is recovered for reuse; environmental cost of obtaining raw materials for item is avoided. It saves some resources​ ​ None of the 3Rs - Items are taken to landfill or incinerators. It saves no resources. ​ Useful items and material are gone ​ Pollutes groundwater and surrounding environment ​ Costs money to build and operate a landfill or incinerator, cost is added to local property taxes ​ Garbage is covered with a layer of soil, landfills are covered by thick layers of soil ​ Leachate - water leaking from landfill. It is collected and treated ​ Methane gas produced by rotting garbage is collected and burned to produce electricity ​ Recycling ​ Contents are collected by a local government or a private company truck  ​ Materials are sorted and all aluminum containers go to aluminum recycler ​ Waste diversion - processes that reduce the amount of waste that goes to landfills (e.g. 3Rs)​ Reusing ​ Reusing rather than replacing saves material ​ Examples: Hand me downs, used clothes stores, glass bottles for beer, reselling for reuse, recycling, freecycling​ Reducing ​ Buy products only when needed, companies choose to reduce use of resources (e.g. less packaging) Conservation - Wise use of resources​ ​ Chapter 5: Managing Renewable Resources Successfully​ ​ Mining resources - exploiting our resources in an unsustainable way​ ​ Sustained yield management - the process of managing our renewable resources to make sure we harvest less than we need. The amount we harvest does not cause long term depletion of the resource. The amount harvested should be less than or equal to the amount replenished in a year​ Farming ​ Resources needed:, deep, fertile soil and good climate (sufficient precipitation, temperature in growing season days) ​ Problems: soil deterioration: soil erodes into rivers, soil loses its fertility, urban growth affects amount of land available ​ Risk: moderate ​ Climate change: affects where farming can be done, changes temperature and rainfall patterns Forestry ​ Resources needed: Long growing season, good climate ​ Problems: soil erosion, poor forestry causes shrubs to replace high quality forests ​ Risk: moderate to high ​ Climate change: affects size and borders of forest, warm temperatures increase risk of bugs damaging forest Fishing  ​ Resources needed: Natural fish stocks ​ Problems: Mining fish/overfishing, pollution reduces number of fish and makes them dangerous to eat ​ Risk: High ​ Climate change: Warm temperatures causes fish populations to move ​ GDDs (Growing Degree Days) - measures the temperature of growing season days in a given location. A higher GDD means warmer climate (crops can be grown in a shorter period of time) and a wider range of crops. Any GDD below 1100 cannot be used for commercial agriculture. Farmers measure GDD to know how developed their plants are at a given time and when to apply fertilizers and pesticides​ ​ Seasonality food - food that grows during specific seasons CLI stands for Canadian Land Inventory. It was conducted by the government of Canada in the 1960s to determine land capability for agriculture. It divided land into classes separated by quality. Only the first 4 were considered good enough for commercial agriculture. ​ ​ Land Quality Classes ​ 1: no limitations for agriculture ​ 2: no land or climate limitations ​ 3: some climate and land limitations, certain farming activities are not possible ​ 4: some limitations such as shorter growing season or poor soil condition ​ 5: serious limitations, very short growing season ​ 6: severe limitations, very short growing season, only used for rough grazing ​ 7: incapable of farming (in survey, may have been too far north to measure) ​ They are downgraded because of soil erosion, stony soil, shallow soil, poor quality soil, excess water in soil, total precipitation is too high, low GDD, low precipitation in growing season, and land is too hilly​ Intensive farming: large amounts of labor, small amounts of land, located in urban areas, produces products to nearby populations, common products include dairy products, eggs, fruits and vegetables.​ ​ Extensive farming: small amounts of labor, large amounts of land, exports products, common products includes anything related to wheat, oil, and seeds Old-growth forests - a forest that has never been logged​ ​ ​ ​ Aquaculture - fish farming​ Commercial fishing in Canada is important for several reasons: ​ It is the oldest industry in Canada (evidence shows that it has been around since before 1497) ​ Remote areas do not have alternatives for money ​ Certain towns and cities will die without the profit ​ Groundfish - fish caught near the ocean floor (haddock, pollock, cod)​ ​ Pelagic fish - fish caught near the surface (salmon, tuna)​ ​ Shellfish - fish with hard shells, but without backbones (e.g. shrimp, lobster, oyster, etc)​ ​ Continental shelf - part of the ocean that is next to a continent, typically less than 200m deep Bank - shallow part of the continental shelf that is good for fishing​ ​ Inshore fishery - commercial fishing done near shallow water with small, independently owned boats​ ​ Offshore fishery - commercial fishing done farther from shallow waters with large, company owned boats. Less traditional, but more productive for catching fish. Chapter 6: Freshwater - Canada’s Special Resource?​ ​ Precipitation - Water from the atmosphere that falls to the surface of the Earth. Forms of it include rain, snow, hail, fog, sleet, etc. Stores - Places in the world where water is stored (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, ice sheets, groundwater) Flows - Mechanisms in the world where water is stored (e.g. precipitation, evaporation) Most of the global water is stored in the ocean, while most of the freshwater is stored in ice and snow. ​ Groundwater - Water held underground in tiny spaces in the soil or some types of rocks​ ​ ​ Potential Evapotranspiration - The natural demand for water in a particular environment, including evaporation from the land surface and transpiration by plants ​ ​ Aridity Index - A value used to show water availability. It combines measures of supply with natural demand​ ​ Aridity Index = Precipitation / Evapotranspiration​ ​ Index value - a value without units, usually calculated in comparison to a common base number​ ​ Extraction - the process of taking water from a store to be used. After use, it is returned to the store where it is available to be used again Consumption - the process of taking water from a store, but it is not returned to the store (e.g. it evaporates) and cannot be reused​ ​ Drainage basins - areas of land in which all water flows (drains) to the same body of water (e.g. river, lake, ocean, etc). Canada basins in all directions: ​ West, to the Pacific Ocean (Columbia River) ​ North, to the Arctic Ocean, either directly or through Hudson Bay (Yukon River, Mackenzie River) ​ East, to the Atlantic Ocean (St. Lawrence River) ​ South, to the Gulf of Mexico, from a very small region of southern Saskatchewan and Alberta (Nelson River) Bulk water exports - Any water exports in quantities large than 20 litre containers (according to NAFTA rules) Chapter 7: Managing Non-Renewable Resources Successfully​ ​ Major categories of non-renewable resources: fossil fuels, minerals ​ Reserves - how much of a resource is thought to be in the ground ​ Production - how much of a resource is taken from the ground each year ​ R/P ratio - The number of years that reserves of a non-renewable resource will last at current rates of production ​ R/P ratio changes when reserves or production changes. It constantly changes, but is an easy way to understand our situation of a resource​ Bauxite - the mineral used to make aluminum​ ​ Fossil Fuels​ ​ Fossil fuels formed from remains of animals and plants that lived over 100 million years ago ​ Sediments gradually became layers of sedimentary rock and covered the remains while plant and animal remains decomposed into our fuels ​ Animals remains in the sea became oil and natural gas, plants remains became coal (it is possible to find coal with fossilized leaves in them ​ Natural gas and oil have low densities, so they tend to move through the pores of rocks. They may get caught in a geological trap under a layer of rock above that has been bent ​ Oil sands/tar sands - deposits of sand containing a heavy form of crude oil called bitumen. In Canada, large deposits can be found in Athabasca, Alberta. People who support its development call it oil sands, while those who oppose it call it tar sands​ ​ 4 Sectors of Energy in Canada:​ ​ Transportation - includes 2 distinct parts: movement of people (cars, buses, airplanes) and freights (trucks, trains, and airplanes)​  ​ Residential - includes households​ ​ Commercial and institutional - includes shopping malls, office buildings, government buildings, and hospitals​ ​ Industrial - includes power plants, factories, and farms ​ ​ Assumptions of other factors determine the projections of changes. The 3 main assumption factors are population growth (more people means greater demand), economic growth rate (growth in percent per year), and no significant re-thinking (continual of current behaviors) ​ Fracking - A variety of techniques used to break up shale layers far below the surface to free trapped natural gas or oil. It involves injecting a mixture of water, sand, and dozens of chemicals into a well which breaks up the rock. It is short for hydraulic fracturing​ Advantages Disadvantages ​ Efficiency ​ Contamination of groundwater ​ Helps reduce the rate and amount of ​ Air pollution climate change ​ Destroys productive farmland ​ Imports are not necessary in areas that ​ Goes onto land of the First Nations frack ​ Water supply and FN treaty concern ​ Helps with industry, which benefits the ​ Lowers urgency to find more economy environmental friendly energy sources ​ Less carbon emitted and cleaner than coal while producing the same amount of electricity as it ​ ​ ​ In general, non-renewable meet a higher percent of total capacity of peak demand than renewable and cost less or around the same, but emit more carbon​ ​ Bioenergy - electricity generated from burning biomass (wood or plant products, garbage) or biogas (produced in landfills and sewage treatment plants) ​ Minerals​ ​ Though fossil fuels are consumed when used, minerals can usually be recycled. ​ Components of fertilizer: nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium (comes from potash) ​ Mineral - a naturally occurring, inorganic substance or solid that has a particular chemical formula. There are 2 types of minerals: ​ Metallic minerals - minerals that have metals, typically comes from metamorphic or igneous rocks (e.g. gold, copper, silver, nickel, etc)​ ​ Non-metallic minerals - Minerals that do not change form when melted, commonly comes from sedimentary rocks (e.g. diamond, asbestos, potash, etc)  ​ Ore - rock that contains enough of a valuable metallic mineral to make mining profitable ​ Mineral reserves - a mineral deposit that can be mined profitably ​ Types of Mining Name of method Definition Steps Strip mining The cheapest, but only used for mineral ​ Remove overburden deposits very close to the surface. It is ​ Blasting used to extract minerals such as sand, ​ Transport through trucks, gravel, some coal deposits, and oil sands. conveyor belts, or dragline It has the most severe environmental (a large bucket that is impact because large areas are affected dragged to pick up loose with this method materials) Open-pit mining Used for minerals close to the surface, ​ Remove overburden though deeper than what can be accessed ​ Hole drilled 10-15 meter from strip mining, though more deep expensive than strip mining. Minerals ​ Ore is loaded in large trucks mined by it are some diamond deposits, by shovels oil sands, and iron ore deposits Underground mining May be more than 1000m below the ​ Vertical shafts with surface of the Earth; can be 3000m deep elevators and horizontal in extreme cases, but it is the most shafts (called slopes) expensive mining method. Used to ​ Explosives black rocks at extract potash and valuable ores, such as end of slopes gold, nickel, and copper ​ Blasted rock is moved to an underground crusher ​ Crushed rock goes to surface to await further processing ​ ​ Indicator minerals - are found in the same rocks as diamonds, used to find diamonds since they are so rare. They are found in igneous rocks called kimberlite​ ​ Socio-Economic Monitoring Agreement (SEMA) - an agreement that had to be made between the government, mining companies, and First Nations before mining could begin. It ensured the First Nations peoples got their share of benefits from the diamond mining that occurs in their land ​ Archons - large areas of rock between 2.5 billion and 3.5 billion years old. Most kimberlite pipes are found in archon areas.​ Chapter 8: Prospects for Canadian Manufacturing​ ​ Outsourcing - When companies move part of their operations to other countries. It is done to take advantage of cheaper labour cost and/or less stringent labour and environmental controls​ ​ Primary industry - industries that focus on producing or extracting natural resources​ ​ Secondary industry - industries that focus on making products from resources of primary industry​ ​ Tertiary industry - industry that focuses on providing services. It is almost anything that does not fall under primary or secondary industry​ ​ Location factors for manufacturing​ ​ Location of customers ​ Delivery time shorter, costs lower ​ Delivering reliably and on time (Just-in time) ​ Proximity of raw materials ​ Raw materials are heavier and bulkier than finished goods ​ Company processes raw material that is difficult to transport without spoiling or damaging ​ Availability of freshwater and/or power ​ Cooling and cleaning (lakes/rivers) ​ Cheap electricity for energy-intensive production plants ​ Labour supply ​ Knowledge-based industries (manufacturing based on ideas, knowledge and skills of a well-educated workforce ​ Quality and quantity of workers ​ Globalization - the process by which something is done at a global rather than national level​ ​ Transportation ​ Effective for raw materials and finished products ​ Speed and cost (speed = cost) ​ Political factors ​ Government offers financial incentives ​ City planning and infrastructure influences business (e.g. road transport) ​ Circumstances ​ Where someone lives and if they have no reason to move ​ Immigration (based on origin and skills of people within a company) ​ ​ Free trade - international trade without tariffs or trade barriers​ Tariffs - tax applied to imported goods. They protect domestic manufacturers by making foreign goods more expensive​ ​ Tariff wall - protection of domestic businesses afforded by high tariffs on foreign goods that make them less competitive in the market Branch plants - factories built by foreign-owned companies due to tariff walls​ ​ Global village- a view of the world as a single community through telecommunications​ ​ General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) - encouraged nations to reduce tariffs and eliminate trade barriers ​ North American Free Trade Act (NAFTA) - a free trade agreement that allowed free trade among Canada, U.S and Mexico​ ​ For free trade Against free trade ​ Consumers benefit ​ Loss of jobs ​ No country gets a greater benefit ​ Less attraction to consumers ​ Good relations between countries ​ Protection of industries ​ Countries meet needs of market ​ Branch plants ​ More sold ​ Frequent transport ​ Developing countries benefit from ​ Less economic benefits industrial development ​ Exploitation of human rights ​ Near-total dependence on foreign countries ​ Canada’s most important trade balance products are ​ Energy products ​ Farm, fishing and intermediate products ​ Metallic and non-metallic mineral products Canada’s biggest decrease trade balance products are ​ Consumer products ​ Electronic and electrical equipment and parts ​ Industrial machinery, equipment and parts​ Chapter 9: The Service Sector And Its Role In The Economy​ ​ Basic jobs - jobs that bring money into an economy from somewhere else​ ​ Non-basic jobs - jobs that circulate money within an economy​ ​ Multiplier effect - increase in wealth or income which occurs from basic jobs​ ​ Unit 3: Changing Populations​ ​ Chapter 10: Canada’s Population​ ​ Demography - the study of human population​ ​ Birth rate - the number of births in a population per year per 1000 people (births in a year/population x 1000)​ ​ Death rate - the number of deaths in a population per year per 1000 people (deaths in a year/population x 1000)​ ​ Natural increase rate - birth rate minus death rate​ ​ Immigrants - people who move from one country to another​ ​ Emigrants - people who leave a country to move to another​ ​ Immigration rate - the number of immigrants in a population per year per 1000 people (immigrants in a year/population x 1000) ​ Emigration rate - the number of emigrants in a population per year per 1000 people (emigrants in a year/population x 1000)​ ​ Net migration rate - immigration rate minus emigration rate​ ​ Population growth rate - natural increase rate plus net migration rate​ ​ Doubling time - the estimated time it will take for the population to double​ ​ Rule of 70 - a simple calculation to estimate the doubling time (70/population growth rate)​ ​ Pull factors - factors that attract people and encourage them to immigrate​ ​ Push factors - factors that encourage people to emigrate ​ ​ Intervening obstacles - problems that may get in the way of immigrating or emigrating (e.g. distance, cost, citizenship)​ ​ The highest percentage of Canada’s immigrants are in Ontario and BC, followed by Quebec and Alberta​ ​ Immigrant Classes in Canada​ ​ Skilled Worker Class - potential skilled-worker immigrants who want to work in Canada. They are judged on a point system and their entire family is admitted if the highest point member qualifies. People with experience in jobs of high demand are fast-tracked.​ ​ Skilled Trade-Worker Class - immigrants who have specific trade skills that are short in supply in Canada, though only some are eligible. It is a pass or fail system with 4 conditions: job offer in Canada, at least 2 years of trade experience, fluent English or French, and qualification for the job by Canadian standards​ ​ Canadian Experience Class - immigrants who have worked in Canada for at least a year. It is a pass or fail system, but no job offer is required​ ​ Start-Up Visa - immigrants who want to start a business in Canada. They must meet 4 conditions: have approved Canadian investors who agree to sponsor their business idea, sufficient money to support themself until the business profits can support them, fluent French or English, and at least 1 year of post-secondary education​ ​ Temporary Foreign Workers - are granted work permits by the temporary foreign worker program, especially in areas with low unemployment rates. They often apply for Canadian experience class later. They often fill in labour shortages or are accepted for extraordinary talents they have that can benefit the economy or culture in Canada. ​ ​ Family Class - a sponsor can agree to be financially responsible for close family members. The agreement lasts for between 3-10 years depending on the relationship.​ ​ Refugee Class - all countries must accept legitimate refugees. People can apply for this class while in Canada or in another country. They are judged by their merits. Refugees are people who experience cruel or inhumane treatment for religion, race, sexual orientation, political opinion, nationality, or membership in a specific social group​ ​ Population pyramid - a type of graph that shows population distribution by gender and age​ There are 3 distinct age groups in population pyramids: children ( cools -> condensation ​ Leeward: (down) evaporates -> warms -> contracts (to the side) -> regular air ​ Convectional ​ Warm air rises -> air expands and cools -> condensation (upward), clouds form vertically ​ Sun heats ground (ground is hot from sun, but cooled by the rain) ​ Cool air is drafted down with precipitation ​ Cyclonic ​ Low pressure system that occurs when a warm air mass and a cold air mass collide ​ Most forms of precipitation occur in Canada during winter ​ Climate graph​ ​ Climate graph - a graph that summarizes climate data for a particular location​ ​ Seasonal distribution of precipitation - summer max if peak precipitation is in summer, winter max if peak precipitation is in winter​ ​ Average annual temperature - sum of month temperatures/12 (Degrees Celsius) Temperature range - highest temperature minus lowest temperature. Summer max >= 25 degrees celsius, winter max < 25 degrees celsius​ ​ Total annual precipitation - sum of month precipitations (mm)​ ​ Movement of air (bottom to top): air rises, expands and cools as it rises, water vapor condenses, evaporates ​ Air may rise because it hits a barrier (relief precipitation), it absorbed heat from the ground, causing it to rise, or there is a cooler, denser air mass beneath, causing cyclonic 2 precipitation​ ​ Precipitation can come in many forms such as rain, dew, frost, fog, snow, hail, sleet, etc ​ Water cycle - the circle of how water changes form through weather processes Continental Drift​ ​ The theory the the continents were once together, but drifted apart as a result of unimaginable forces​ ​ Proposed by German scientist Alfred Wegener in 1915​ ​ The land masses were in constant motion and collided to form a super continent 300 million years ago (known as Pangaea which means “all land”)​ ​ About 200 million years ago, Pangaea started to break apart and the continents as we know them drifted to their present locations ​ Reasons For The Theory ​ Fossils of similar species of plants and animals in Africa and South America were found​ ​ At a specific angle, South America and Africa fit together perfectly​ ​ Mountains in Europe and North America are of similar age and rock composition​ ​ There used to be ice sheets in South Africa and India ​ Emigration - leaving a country to move to another​ Fishing ​ Resources needed: Natural fish stocks ​ Problems: Mining fish/overfishing, pollution reduces number of fish and makes them dangerous to eat ​ Risk: High ​ Climate change: Warm temperatures causes fish populations to move ​ Aquaculture - fish farming​ Commercial fishing in Canada is important for several reasons: ​ It is the oldest industry in Canada (evidence shows that it has been around since before 1497) ​ Remote areas do not have alternatives for money ​ Certain towns and cities will die without the profit ​ Groundfish - fish caught near the ocean floor (haddock, pollock, cod)​ ​ Pelagic fish - fish caught near the surface (salmon, tuna)​ 3 ​ Shellfish - fish with hard shells, but without backbones (e.g. shrimp, lobster, oyster, etc)​ ​ Continental shelf - part of the ocean that is next to a continent, typically less than 200m deep Bank - shallow part of the continental shelf that is good for fishing​ ​ Inshore fishery - commercial fishing done near shallow water with small, independently owned boats​ ​ Offshore fishery - commercial fishing done farther from shallow waters with large, company owned boats. Less traditional, but more productive for catching fish. ​ Geology ​ Fertile soil develops when there is a thick layer of loose parent material available ​ Most of Canada develops from sorted and unsorted glacial deposits ​ Geology is not a problem if there is lots of time for rocks to weather into loose minerals ​ Immigrant Classes in Canada​ ​ Skilled Worker Class - potential skilled-worker immigrants who want to work in Canada. They are judged on a point system and their entire family is admitted if the highest point member qualifies. People with experience in jobs of high demand are fast-tracked.​ ​ Skilled Trade-Worker Class - immigrants who have specific trade skills that are short in supply in Canada, though only some are eligible. It is a pass or fail system with 4 conditions: job offer in Canada, at least 2 years of trade experience, fluent English or French, and qualification for the job by Canadian standards​ ​ Canadian Experience Class - immigrants who have worked in Canada for at least a year. It is a pass or fail system, but no job offer is required​ ​ Start-Up Visa - immigrants who want to start a business in Canada. They must meet 4 conditions: have approved Canadian investors who agree to sponsor their business idea, sufficient money to support themself until the business profits can support them, fluent French or English, and at least 1 year of post-secondary education​ ​ Temporary Foreign Workers - are granted work permits by the temporary foreign worker program, especially in areas with low unemployment rates. They often apply for Canadian experience class later. They often fill in labour shortages or are accepted for extraordinary talents they have that can benefit the economy or culture in Canada. ​ ​ Family Class - a sponsor can agree to be financially responsible for close family members. The agreement lasts for between 3-10 years depending on the relationship.​ ​ 4 Refugee Class - all countries must accept legitimate refugees. People can apply for this class while in Canada or in another country. They are judged by their merits. Refugees are people who experience cruel or inhumane treatment for religion, race, sexual orientation, political opinion, nationality, or membership in a specific social group​ ​ Landform regions in Canada Canadian Shield ​ An immense area of worn down mountains ​ Oldest region and of Precambrian age ​ One of the most important sources of diamonds and metallic minerals in the world ​ Not good for farming because of rocks and poor soil ​ Abundant supply of fresh water Areas of lowlands ​ They surround the Canadian shield ​ There are 3 lowland areas: Interior Plains, Great Lakes St. Lawrence Lowlands, and Hudson Bay-Arctic Lowlands. Most Canadians live in GL-SL ​ IP and GL-SL are the most important agricultural areas in Canada ​ The sedimentary rock underlying IP is used to produce oil and natural gas (Canada’s most important export products), as well as a world leader for potash, a major ingredient in fertilizer ​ GL and SL is separated into 2 parts by a narrow band of the Canadian Shield ​ Hudson Bay (consists of the mainland in the south) and Arctic (part in several islands in Hudson Bay) Areas of highlands ​ They surround the lowlands ​ There are 3 regions: Innuitian, West Cordillera, and the Appalachian Mountains (much older than the first 2, a lot less low in elevation) ​ WC and AM extend into the U.S; WC also extends into Alaska ​ Innuitian is the most remote region in Canada ​ Location factors for manufacturing​ ​ Location of customers ​ Delivery time shorter, costs lower ​ Delivering reliably and on time (Just-in time) ​ Proximity of raw materials ​ Raw materials are heavier and bulkier than finished goods ​ Company processes raw material that is difficult to transport without spoiling or damaging ​ Availability of freshwater and/or power ​ Cooling and cleaning (lakes/rivers) ​ Cheap electricity for energy-intensive production plants ​ Labour supply ​ Knowledge-based industries (manufacturing based on ideas, knowledge and skills of a well-educated workforce 5 ​ Quality and quantity of workers ​ Globalization - the process by which something is done at a global rather than national level​ ​ Transportation ​ Effective for raw materials and finished products ​ Speed and cost (speed = cost) ​ Political factors ​ Government offers financial incentives ​ City planning and infrastructure influences business (e.g. road transport) ​ Circumstances ​ Where someone lives and if they have no reason to move ​ Immigration (based on origin and skills of people within a company) ​ Resource​ Resource - parts of total stock that becomes useful to humans ​ Natural resources - resources found in the natural environment Renewable resources - resources that can be regenerated if used carefully. They are being replenished by nature at a rate fast enough that they should be available to humans for as long as they need them (e.g. trees, soil, fish stock) Non-renewable resources - Resources that are limited and cannot be replaced after they are used up. Nature creates them so slowly that what exists today is all there will ever be (e.g. minerals and fossil fuels)​ ​ Flow resources - resources that are replaced by natural action and must be used when and where they occur or be lost. They are constantly developed by nature and their supply cannot be damaged by human activity. (e.g. wind, sunlight, water currents)​ ​ Other resources - Any resource that does not fit in the 3 categories (e.g. Northern lights, Rocky Mountains, any tourist destination)​ ​ Land use, cities and towns​ Land use - various functions of land in urban and rural areas ​ Population Patterns in Rural Areas​ ➔​ Dispersed population - A population spread evenly across land; common in agricultural areas​ ➔​ Concentrated population - A population with specific resource industries, such as mines or paper mills; common around resources​ 6 ➔​ Linear population - A population settled along a line, such as a coastline, river, or highway ​ Important Factors That Affect Rural Settlement​ ➔​ Natural resources - includes farmland, water bodies, forests, etc​ ➔​ Transportation methods - boats, railways, roads, etc​ ➔​ Role of government - influence and help provided ​ ​ Primary industry - industries that focus on producing or extracting natural resources​ ​ Secondary industry - industries that focus on making products from resources of primary industry​ ​ Tertiary industry - industry that focuses on providing services. It is almost anything that does not fall under primary or secondary industry​ ​ Knowledge-based industries - manufacturing based on ideas, knowledge and skills of a well-educated workforce​ ​ Natural vegetation - the plants that would grow in an area without human intervention​ ​ Rock Cycle​ ​ Igneous rocks - Form when magma or lava cools. They usually form at the bottom of the ocean or inside the Earth's crust. The crystal structure of an igneous rock indicates where it formed. Types of Igneous Rocks​ ​ Intrusive - igneous rocks that form below the earth's surface. They usually have many crystals. ​ Extrusive - lava (type of molten rock) that cools on the surface. They usually do not have visible crystals, ​ Sedimentary rocks - created after millions of years of compaction and cementation of loose sediments. The type of sediment rock that forms depends on the sediment. ​ Compaction - occurs as loose sediments become tightly packed from drying or the weight of other sediment layers on top​ ​ Cementation - occurs when minerals deposited between sediments pushes them toward each other ​ Limestone - a sedimentary rock that forms from natural shells of tiny marine animals 7 Sedimentary rocks typically form in oceans next to continents. Three things can happen to the sedimentary rocks: ​ they sit at the bottom of the ocean ​ they could act as bumpers to 2 colliding continental plates ​ they could be lifted out of the sea by tectonic forces Weather Processes​ ​ Weathering - the process of breaking down wind by water, chemicals, and living things​ ​ Erosion - the process of moving broken-up pieces of rock (e.g. rivers)​ ​ Deposition - the process of eroded materials building up in a new location​ ​ Metamorphic rocks - changed versions of igneous, sedimentary, and other metamorphic rocks. The changes occur when molten rocks intrude into other rock layers, creating heat and pressure. Metamorphic versions of sedimentary rocks are always much harder than its original form. ​ Rural areas - populations outside of cities and towns (?)​ ​ Soil and Natural Vegetation​ ​ Components of soil ​ Minerals ​ Come from rocks and are called "parent material" They become part of soil when rocks are broken down into smaller particles of sand, silt, and clay. ​ Calcium, phosphorus and potassium are examples of nutrients that minerals provide for plant growth ​ Bacteria and organic material ​ Bacteria and organic materials: decomposition of plant and animal remains occurs because of bacteria ​ As organic matter breaks down, humus forms and provides nutrients for plants ​ Soil gets its darker color from humus ​ Air ​ High humus levels help produce air in the soil because loose, decaying materials allow for many air pockets ​ Worms, insects, and small animals that tunnel through soil create air space ​ Moisture ​ Water dissolves nutrients in the soil and is taken up by plants through their roots ​ It is also necessary in chemical and physical processes that weather rock and decay organic materials ​ Loam is a balanced mixture of sand, silt, clay, and humus: best soil for plants because it encourages root growth and holds moisture 8 ​ Soil profile - a cross section of soil layers. It is the 3 different layers beneath the surface of the ground that exist in soil ​ Topsoil - modern term for A horizon (top layer of soil). It helps determine whether soil is fertile or not. Darkness and thickness are implications of fertile soil. The dark color comes from nutrient-rich organic (plant) material. ​ ​ Dry-climate: thick and dark layer of soil, water moves up through the soil and evaporates on the surface. Organic material of plant decay remains near the surface ​ Subsoil - modern term for B horizon (middle layer of soil). It tends to be light brown to grey. Most water soluble minerals are gone, with only compounds of iron and aluminum left. ​ Parent material - modern term for C horizon (bottom layer of soil), is rocks​ ​ Parts of transportation systems ​ Vehicles - trains and trucks used to move goods; cars, bikes, buses, etc to move people ​ Travel paths - rail lines and 4 road categories (expressways, arterials, collectors, local roads) ​ Terminal facilities - stations, rail yards, airports, parking lots, garages ​ Urban areas - populations in cities and towns​ ​ Liveability - Characteristics in a community that contribute to the quality of life (e.g. economic, educational, social opportunities) ​ Sustainability - Improving quality of life while living within carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems​ Term List ​ Climate types, precipitation ​ Climate graphs ​ Continental drift ​ Developed, developing, and newly industrialized nations ​ Ecological footprint ​ Emigration ​ Energy types and power generation ​ Energy consumption ​ Environmental issues ​ Export ​ Fishing ​ Geology ​ Global connections, population issues ​ Types of immigration of Canada ​ Import ​ Landforms ​ Location factor1 ​ Manufacturing process ​ Map of Canada ​ Resources ​ Land use, cities and towns ​ Canada’s population patterns ​ Changing populations ​ Types of industry ​ Pollution ​ Natural vegetation ​ Quality of life standards ​ Renewable resources ​ Rocks ​ Rural ​ Soils ​ Trading partners ​ Transportation ​ Urban ​ Sustainability, liveability ​ Vegetation ​ Waste production ​ Water bodies ​ Water cycle ​ Weather ​ Weathering