Geography Notes PDF

# Geography ## Unit 1: Interactions With The Physical Environment ### Chapter 1: Canada's Population Patterns **Map Making Rules:** - Title of area shown, topic, or focus of map, in all caps - North arrow (point at angle) - Scale - Border - Legend (shows symbols on maps, have a title) - Colors...

# Geography ## Unit 1: Interactions With The Physical Environment ### Chapter 1: Canada's Population Patterns **Map Making Rules:** - Title of area shown, topic, or focus of map, in all caps - North arrow (point at angle) - Scale - Border - Legend (shows symbols on maps, have a title) - Colors **Geography** - The study of Earth and people's relationship with it. **Ecosystem** - A community of living things and the physical environment in which they live. **Types of Location:** - Relative location - Where something is located in relation to other geographic features - Absolute location - Where something is located in terms of latitude and longitude **Key Questions:** - **What is where?** Describes location of something (types of locations). The interrelationships and spatial significance help answer the question - **Why there? **Describes reasons why something is where it is (natural environment or human actions). The geographic concept spatial significance helps answer the question - **Why care?** Describes reasons why something matters in geography (its effects on humans and the environment). The geographic concept patterns and trends helps answer the question **Geographic Concepts** - Interrelationships - Relationships that exist between different patterns and trends - Spatial significance The importance of a particular location in geography. - Pattern - The arrangement of objects on the earth's surface in relationship to each other - Trend - A noticeable change in a pattern over time. - Geographic perspective - A way to look at the world that includes political, environmental, and social implications **Geographic Inquiry** - An active, questioning approach to learning about the world from a geographic perspective **Available Sources** - Field sources (e.g. studies in local neighborhoods, school grounds, and various sites) - Primary sources (e.g. census data, letters, photographs, speeches, and works of art) - Secondary sources (e.g. documentaries and other films, news articles, reference books, most websites) - Visuals (e.g. satellite images, maps, globes, models, graphs, diagrams) - Community resources (e.g. local conservation areas, resources from community groups and associations, government resources, local plans) **Geotechnology** - Use of advanced technology in the study of geography and in everyday use. **Global Positioning System (GPS)** - A satellite-based system that provides location data. **Geographic Information System (GIS)** - Computer system that manages and analyzes geographic information. **Georeferencing** - Linking geographic data to a particular location. **Remote sensing** - Seeing or measuring something from a considerable distance, often a satellite. **Telematics** - Any technology that involves the long-distance transmission of digital information. Telematics is short for "telecommunications informatics" **Population density** - The average number of people living in a particular place. The formula is population/km^2 (note: do not round the answer, use exact decimals) **Census Metropolitan Areas (CMAs)** - Urban areas in Canada with a population over 100,000. They center around a city and extend beyond the borders of it. **Community** - A group of people who share common characteristics (history, culture, beliefs, space of living) **Continuous ecumene** - The part of the country where there is continuous, permanent settlement. **Discontinuous ecumene** - The part of the country where there are significant patches of settlement. ## Fields of Geography - Physical - Includes the study of landforms, climates, soils, etc. - Urban - Includes the study of "built-up" areas, city layouts, land use and urban problems (e.g. transportation, pollution, garbage disposal) - Social - Includes the study of people and how they interact with themselves and the environment - Environmental - Includes the study of our surroundings and how humans utilize (and often abuse) the environment. - Economic - Includes activities which extract or create goods and provide services **Map projections** - Created when features of a globe are transferred onto a flat surface. There is no accurate representation of the Earth on a flat map since the pictures become distorted. **Common Types of Map Projections** - Mercator - Gives true compass bearings between points. Well suited for navigation charts, distorts size of land masses (countries closer to the equator appear small than they actually are, countries closer to the poles appear larger than they actually are) - Winkel Tripel - Provides balance of size. shape, distance, and direction; gives realistic representation of earth (though a little tall) - Equal-Area Map - Distorts shape, but has accurate area size. **Map Representation** - Earth's features drawn on a flat surface. Uses colors and symbols to represent features of an area, focuses on relevant elements. **Types of Maps** - General purpose map - Provides many types of information on a map which might include bodies of water and roads - Thematic map - Provides specific information about one place, designed to show specific information about a particular easy topic to understand - Small-scale map - Small amounts of detail in large area, used for physical, political, and economic information. > 1:250,000 = small-scale maps - Large-scale map - Large amounts of detail in a small area - Isodemographic map - determines a country's size by its population - Survey system - A grid system used to locate and identify parcels of land and roads **Population Patterns in Rural Areas** - Dispersed population - A population spread evenly across land; common in agricultural areas - Concentrated population - A population with specific resource industries, such as mines or paper mills; common around resources - Linear population - A population settled along a line, such as a coastline, river, or highway **Important Factors That Affect Rural Settlement** - Natural resources - Includes farmland, water bodies, forests, etc. - Transportation methods - boats, railways, roads, etc - Role of government - influence and help provided ## Chapter 2: Exploring Connections: Landforms, Geology, and Human Activities **Tsunami** - A set of large ocean waves caused by an earthquake or other powerful disturbance under the sea. ## Plate Tectonics - The theory that the Earth's outer shell is made up of individual plates that move. - It is believed that the movement of tectonic plates is the cause of earthquakes, volcanoes, mountains, formation/destruction of areas of crust. - It also explains why we have the deepest parts of the ocean, high mountain ranges, and majestic plains. - States that the crust is floating on molten rocks within the earth. **Plates** - Pieces that make up the earth's crust. ## Continental Drift - The theory that the continents were once together, but drifted apart as a result of unimaginable forces. - Proposed by German scientist Alfred Wegner in 1915. - The land masses were in constant motion and collided to form a super continent 300 million years ago (known as Pangaea which means "all land"). - About 200 million years ago, Pangaea started to break apart and the continents as we know them drifted to their present locations. ## Reasons For The Theory - Fossils of similar species of plants and animals in Africa and South America were found. - At a specific angle, South America and Africa fit together perfectly. - Mountains in Europe and North America are of similar age and rock composition. - There used to be ice sheets in South Africa and India. **Mid-ocean ridge** - A feature created by the spreading of the sea floor where 2 plates are diverging. **Subduction** - The process in which one plate slides beneath another. ## Types of Plate Movement - Divergent - 2 plates move away from each other. It is typically caused by volcanic activity and mostly happens along mid-ocean ridges. - Convergent - 2 plates move toward each other. There are 2 types of convergent plate movement: when a continental plate meets another continental plate, they fold and are forced upward. When a continental plate meets an oceanic plate, the oceanic plate subducts (because it is denser than the continental plate) and falls into the interior of the Earth. The existing crust is recycled by subduction. The crust being melted balances the new forming crust at a divergent plate boundary - Transform - 2 plates slide roughly parallel but opposite directions along a transform plate boundary (also called conservative boundary). Usually happens fairly smoothly, many small earthquakes but usually no catastrophic damage. Sometimes, plates lock up for many years and release a large amount of energy which leads to damaging earthquakes, but less damaging than subduction zones. ## Rock Cycle - Igneous rocks - Form when magma or lava cools. They usually form at the bottom of the ocean or inside the Earth's crust. The crystal structure of an igneous rock indicates where it formed. - Intrusive - Igneous rocks that form below the earth's surface. They usually have many crystals. - Extrusive - Lava (type of molten rock) that cools on the surface. They usually do not have visible crystals - Sedimentary rocks - Created after millions of years of compaction and cementation of loose sediments. The type of sediment rock that forms depends on the sediment. - Compaction - occurs as loose sediments become tightly packed from drying or the weight of other sediment layers on top - Cementation - occurs when minerals deposited between sediments pushes them toward each other - Limestone - a sedimentary rock that forms from natural shells of tiny marine animals - Sedimentary rocks typically form in oceans next to continents. Three things can happen to the sedimentary rocks: - they sit at the bottom of the ocean - they could act as bumpers to 2 colliding continental plates - they could be lifted out of the sea by tectonic forces - Metamorphic rocks - Changed versions of igneous, sedimentary, and other metamorphic rocks. The changes occur when molten rocks intrude into other rock layers, creating heat and pressure. Metamorphic versions of sedimentary rocks are always much harder than its original form. ## Weather Processes - Weathering - The process of breaking down wind by water, chemicals, and living things - Erosion - The process of moving broken-up pieces of rock (e.g. rivers) - Deposition - The process of eroded materials building up in a new location ## Soil and Natural Vegetation **Components of soil:** - Minerals - Come from rocks and are called "parent material". They become part of soil when rocks are broken down into smaller particles of sand, silt, and clay. Calcium, phosphorus and potassium are examples of nutrients that minerals provide for plant growth. - Bacteria and organic material - decomposition of plant and animal remains occurs because of bacteria. As organic matter breaks down, humus forms and provides nutrients for plants. Soil gets its darker color from humus. - Air - High humus levels help produce air in the soil because loose, decaying materials allow for many air pockets. Worms, insects, and small animals that tunnel through soil create air space. - Moisture - Water dissolves nutrients in the soil and is taken up by plants through their roots. It is also necessary in chemical and physical processes that weather rock and decay organic materials. Loam is a balanced mixture of sand, silt, clay, and humus: best soil for plants because it encourages root growth and holds moisture. **Soil profile** - a cross section of soil layers. It is the 3 different layers beneath the surface of the ground that exist in soil. - Topsoil - modern term for A horizon (top layer of soil). It helps determine whether soil is fertile or not. Darkness and thickness are implications of fertile soil. The dark color comes from nutrient-rich organic (plant) material. - Dry-climate: thick and dark layer of soil, water moves up through the soil and evaporates on the surface. Organic material of plant decay remains near the surface. - Subsoil - modern term for B horizon (middle layer of soil). It tends to be light brown to grey. Most water soluble minerals are gone, with only compounds of iron and aluminum left. - Parent material - modern term for C horizon (bottom layer of soil), is rocks **Soil Processes:** - Geology - Fertile soil develops where there is a thick layer of loose parent material available. Most of Canada develops from sorted and unsorted glacial deposits. Geology is not a problem if there is lots of time for rocks to weather into loose minerals - Climate - Long growing season is required for rich plant growth in summer. Right amount of precipitation, too much causes leaching. Leaching removes nutrients that are important for plant growth. **Leaching:** - In areas of high precipitation - Wet-climate regions - Downward water movement - Removes nutrients - Thin, poor top layer of soil **Calcification:** - Areas of low precipitation - Dry-climate soils - Upward water movement (evaporation at surface) - Builds nutrients - Layer of mineral deposits that is poisonous to plants Leached soils are called wet-climate soil. **Wet climate soil** - develops where leaching is the dominant soil forming process. Other characteristics include a thin layer of soil, excessive rainfall washes down organic materials that are water soluble - A horizon is thin, rainfall washes down soluble organic materials - B horizon is light brown to grey, most soluble minerals are gone, only iron and aluminum compounds are left. **Dry-climate soils** - soils that develop where calcification is the dominant forming process. Moisture moves upward from horizons and brings valuable plant nutrients with it - A horizon is thick and dark brown to black, water moves up and evaporates through soil due to dry conditions, organic materials from decay of plants remain near the surface. **Page 73, 75** **Tundra:** - Harsh for plant growth, small shrubs and short trees grow here. - Plants don't grow tall, but wide and try to soak up as much heat as possible during the short growing seasons. **There are 7 distinct soil regions: tundra, boreal and taiga forest, grassland, mixed forest, deciduous forest, west coast forest and wide range of vegetation types in mountainous area.** **Deciduous** - Very tiny, is in southwestern Ontario - Is actually the tip of a large deciduous belt in the US. - Hot summers and mild winters(by Canadian standards) allow a wide range of species to survive. - This includes maple, beech, oak, and some exotics (for canada) like tulip trees and butternut. - Almost the entire region has been cleared for farming and urban growth. - Solids are fertile, and aren't as acidic as the soils up north. **Mixed** - The more south, the more deciduous trees, the more north, the more boreal. - Winters are cool and summers are warm - Soils are transitional, as are the climate and vegetation. Meaning the soils are in between the soils of the south and the north in terms of fertility. - Much of the southern areas have been cleared for agriculture or urban growth. ## Page 83-85 **Total stock** - all components of the environment taken together (e.g. energy, organisms, non-living materials) **Resource** - parts of total stock that becomes useful to humans **Natural resources** - Resources that can be regenerated if used carefully. They are being replenished by nature at a rate fast enough that they should be available to humans for as long as they need them (e.g. trees, soil, fish stock) **Non-renewable resources** - Resources that are limited and cannot be replaced after they are used up. Nature creates them so slowly that what exists today is all there will ever be (e.g. minerals and fossil fuels) **Flow resources** - resources that are replaced by natural action and must be used when and where they occur or be lost. They are constantly developed by nature and their supply cannot be damaged by human activity. (e.g. wind, sunlight, water currents) **Other resources** - Any resource that does not fit in the 3 categories (e.g. Northern lights, Rocky Mountains, any tourist destination) **Page 102** **Mining resources** - exploiting our resources in an unsustainable way **Sustained yield management** - the process of managing our renewable resources to make sure we harvest less than we need. The amount we harvest does not cause long term depletion of the resource. The amount harvested should be less than or equal to the amount replenished in a year - Many major sawmills in West Coast/Cordilleran forest - Many major pulp and paper mills in boreal forest (Southern part of both Ontario and Quebec) - Carolinian forest - A small part of the US' deciduous forest located in the south part of Ontario - Forest Stewardship Council - an international organization that ensures products are environmentally responsible # Page 113-115 **Achieving Sustained Yield Management** Need to find balance between conservation and economic use, as canadian rely heavily on forests for products, homes, export, etc... The Forest Stewardship Council(FSC) helps determine whether a product is environmentally responsible and provides jobs by certifying them. Is made up of forestry companies, producers that use lumber and paper, indigenous people, and environmental/social action groups. ## Developed standards # Page 120-121 **Inshore fishery:** - Within 16-25 km of shore - 85% of fishing industry labour force - Boat 6-20m in length - Individuals and families own boats and equipment - 1-6 people in a crew - Mainly done in warmer months - Fishing boats travel to coastal fishing areas every morning - Processes fish onshore - People often live in small coastal communities, low unstable income and dependence on government support **Offshore fishery:** - Edge of continental shelf for groundfish; far beyond for pelagic fish - 15% of fishing industry labour force - Ships are 50m or longer, factory trawlers can be longer - Large companies own boats - 12-16 people in a crew - Year round, any type of weather - Canadian boats are at sea for 2 weeks at a time; foreign fishing boats for months, and only going to nearby ports to unload their catch, refuel and resupply - People live in large coastal communities; high stable income # Page 146-147 **What happened to the East Coast ?** - Fossil fuels formed from remains of animals and plants that lived over 100 million years ago. - Sediments gradually became layers of sedimentary rock and covered the remains while plant and animal remains decomposed into our fuels. - Animals remains in the sea became oil and natural gas, plants remains became coal (it is possible to find coal with fossilized leaves in them - Natural gas and oil have low densities, so they tend to move through the pores of rocks. They may get caught in a geological trap under a layer of rock above that has been bent. **Oil sands/tar sands** - deposits of sand containing a heavy form of crude oil called bitumen. In Canada, large deposits can be found in Athabasca, Alberta. People who support its development call it oil sands, while those who oppose it call it tar sands. # 4 Sectors of Energy in Canada: - **Transportation** - includes 2 distinct parts: movement of people (cars, buses, airplanes) and freights (trucks, trains, and airplanes) - **Residential** - includes households - **Commercial and institutional** includes shopping malls, office buildings, government buildings, and hospitals - **Industrial** includes power plants, factories, and farms **Assumptions of other factors determine the projections of changes.** The 3 main assumption factors are population growth (more people means greater demand), economic growth rate (growth in percent per year), and no significant re-thinking (continual of current behaviors) # Page 170 **Primary industry** - industries that focus on producing or extracting natural resources **Secondary industry** - industries that focus on making products from resources of primary industry **Tertiary industry** - industry that focuses on providing services. It is almost anything that does not fall under primary or secondary industry. # Page 184 **Free trade** - international trade without tariffs or trade barriers **Tariffs** - tax applied to imported goods. They protect domestic manufacturers by making foreign goods more expensive. **Tariff wall** - protection of domestic businesses afforded by high tariffs on foreign goods that make them less competitive in the market. **Branch plants** - factories built by foreign-owned companies due to tariff walls # Page 187 **Canada's most important trade balance products are** - Energy products - Farm, fishing and intermediate products - Metallic and non-metallic mineral products **Canada's biggest decrease trade balance products are** - Consumer products - Electronic and electrical equipment and parts - Industrial machinery, equipment and parts # Page 197 - Most people will work in the tertiary sector [on diff page: bc of multiplier effect] - We need to be careful about calling certain towns diff terms such as manufacturing, tourism, or university town. - Although it is what the towns are known for, it is incorrect to assume most people work in that sector/job in the town. - Most people work in the tertiary industry, followed by secondary and primary industry. # Page 198-200 **Basic job** - Brings in money from somewhere else **Non-basic job** - Circulates money already in the economy **(On page 201) Multiplier effect** - The increase in total wealth/income that occurs when new money is injected into an economy - Since money will always 'leak out' of the town/province/country to pay for other things, new money always must come in. - Money in doesn't have to equal Money out, as every new dollar in an economy is spent 3 more times (on average), before leaking. - This 3:1 ratio also means for every 1 basic job, there are 3 non basic job. # Page 210 # Page 213-215 **Demography** - the study of human population **Birth rate** - the number of births in a population per year per 1000 people (births in a year/population x 1000) **Death rate** - the number of deaths in a population per year per 1000 people (deaths in a year/population x 1000) **Natural increase rate** - birth rate minus death rate **Immigrants** - people who move from one country to another **Emigrants** - people who leave a country to move to another **Immigration rate** - the number of immigrants in a population per year per 1000 peoople (immigrants in a year/population x 1000) **Emigration rate** - the number of emigrants in a population per year per 1000 people (emigrants in a year/population x 1000) **Net migration rate** - immigration rate minus emigration rate **Population growth rate** - natural increase rate plus net migration rate **Doubling time** - the estimated time it will take for the population to double **Rule of 70** - a simple calculation to estimate the doubling time (70/population growth rate) # Page 217 **Pull factors** - factors that attract people and encourage them to immigrate **Push factors** - factors that encourage people to emigrate # Page 219-227 **Highest points** - expansion of Western Canada, post war boom, good economic times **Lowest points** - WW II, Depressions **Largest population income** - 1913: 413000 people **Main sources of Canada's immigrants in:** - 1900-1920: UK, US, Italy - 1965: UK, Italy, US - 2012: China, Philippines, India **Most to least of Canada's immigrant classes:** - economic, family, refugee and other **Most immigrants live in Ontario and BC (provinces and territories)** **Most immigrants live in Toronto and Vancouver (cities)** **Immigrants choose to live in large Cities because** - they came from large cities and are more comfortable living in them - In Canada, large CMAs have growing economies and have good job opportunity - They have friends and relatives who live in large cities - It is easy to transition to life in Canada since they have formal supports (e.g.- government programs/organizations, charities) and informal supports (e.g.- businesses and services) # Immigrant Classes in Canada **Skilled Worker Class** - potential skilled-worker immigrants who want to work in Canada. They are judged on a point system and their entire family is admitted if the highest point member qualifies. People with experience in jobs of high demand are fast-tracked. **Skilled Trade-Worker Class** - immigrants who have specific trade skills that are short in supply in Canada, though only some are eligible. It is a pass or fail system with 4 conditions: job offer in Canada, at least 2 years of trade experience, fluent English or French, and qualification for the job by Canadian standards **Canadian Experience Class** - immigrants who have worked in Canada for at least a year. It is a pass or fail system, but no job offer is required. **Start-Up Visa** - immigrants who want to start a business in Canada. They must meet 4 conditions: have approved Canadian investors who agree to sponsor their business idea, sufficient money to support themself until the business profits can support them, fluent French or English, and at least 1 year of post-secondary education. **Temporary Foreign Workers** - are granted work permits by the temporary foreign worker program, especially in areas with low unemployment rates. They often apply for Canadian experience class later. They often fill in labour shortages or are accepted for extraordinary talents they have that can benefit the economy or culture in Canada. **Family Class** - a sponsor can agree to be financially responsible for close family members. The agreement lasts for between 3-10 years depending on the relationship. **Refugee Class** - all countries must accept legitimate refugees. People can apply for this class while in Canada or in another country. They are judged by their merits. Refugees are people who experience cruel or inhumane treatment for religion, race, sexual orientation, political opinion, nationality, or membership in a specific social group. **The highest percentage of Canada's immigrants are in Ontario and BC, followed by Quebec and Alberta** # Page 239-245 **Demographic transition model** - a model that shows the transition of high birth and death rate demographic patterns to low birth and death rate. It shows gradual population change. **Demographic transition has happened because:** - Development of and improvements in agriculture - Rural to urban life - Understanding of disease prevention and cures - Changes in role of women in society - Changes in family size **Stage 1: Pre-transition** - high birth and death rate (natural increase rate - replacement rate), hunting and trapping are common, simple subsistence farming (farming done to support family's needs rather than commercial purposes), many children meant more workers and a few could survive to adulthood, harsh living conditions. **Stage 2: Early transition** - high birth rate, low death rate (natural increase rate is high), farmers, technology meant farmers could focus on commercial agriculture, improved food storage, sanitation decreased disease. **Stage 3: Late transition** - lower birth rate, low death rate (natural increase rate is lower, but present), accelerated movement to cities, machines result in increased agricultural productivity, less children because parents knew their children would live to adulthood. **Stage 4: Post-transition** - low birth rate, low death rate (natural increase rate = replacement rate), accelerated movement to cities, technology increased productivity, role of women (many working full-time careers). **Replacement rate** - the total fertility rate that will result in a stable population (usually considered 2.1) **Population implosion** - drastic decrease in population **Group 1:** - Post-transition, Canada is in the group - Birth rate and death rate are low (hardly change) - People have high life standards - Economically stable, government wants to maintain economic growth - Environmentally friendly laws are passed out **Group 2:** - Generally at stage 3 and moving toward stage 4; examples are China, Brazil, and Turkey - Death rates are low, birth rates around near stage 4 level **Group 3:** - Later part of stage 2 or early part of stage 3 - High birth rates and low death rates - Some countries in this stage are growing economically which causes their extra money to support populations to grow - When countries in this stage have little money to support themselves, they cannot speed up the process to stage 4 (this is called demographic trap) - Economic and social growth is also stopped by wars, droughts, and ineffective government (these are fragile states) **Land use can lead to conflict** - Usually about how land should be used to produce the maxim benefit for the people of the community, the economy, and the environment. - Ex, the conflict in 2013-2014 about a plan to expand the capacity and reverse the flow of an oil pipeline. It was 40 years old, and went through Sarnia and Montreal, passing through many densely populated areas. **What makes a community liveable:** **Liveability** - Characteristics in a community that contribute to the quality of life (e.g. economic, educational, social opportunities) **Sustainability** - Improving quality of life while living within carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems. **Carrying capacity** - the ability of an environment to support a population without environmental damage. **Land use** - various functions of land in urban and rural areas **The need to Measure Liveability and Sustainability** - Collecting and measuring data is a vital element in most aspects of modern life. - Used to determine if past decisions worked or are working out as hoped. **Can make intelligent future planning/decision making easier.** - More specifically, geographers, government officials, NGOs, companies, and the general public want to know more about how liveability and sustainability in [Canada] is. Did the economy grow, shrink? How are commute times? What's the average global temp? - Measures are designed to be easy to understand. - Liveability itself is hard to measure, but in its place, other measures like happiness, prosperity( not just economic wealth), and well being. **Parts of transportation systems** - Vehicles - trains and trucks used to move goods; cars, bikes, buses, etc to move people - Travel paths - rail lines and 4 road categories (expressways, arterials, collectors, local roads) - Terminal facilities - stations, rail yards, airports, parking lots, garages **Most of the land use is industrial and commercial, followed by transportation; least is vacant.** **Human development index *(HDI)* -** a measure of overall quality of life that combines measures of wealth, health, and education. HDI was developed by United Nations - 3 aspects that measure standard of living are economy, health, and education **Ecological footprint *(EF)* -** measures resource use per person, expressed in hectares of productive land needed to support a person. **Gross domestic product *(GDP)* per capita** - measure of size of an economy (in dollars/population) - Describes values of goods and services produced in a country divided by population **Gross national happiness *(GNH)*** - a measure of the happiness of a population - Concept comes from Kingdom of Bhutan (tiny mountainous between China and India) This figure describes what's going on from the perspective of sustainability. It doesn't show an exact time frame since no one knows for sure. This time frame can shorten with a rising population that's getting richer and consuming more. In Canada, it is hard to fix or reduce the time since we need to both decrease our ecological footprint, but also maintain a high degree of liveability. **Is it possible that canada can have a smaller EF in the future?** **VP 1:** - It is our obligation - We are responsible for some/most of the problem - It's only fair to reduce our EF so other countries can increase their standard of living - It is possible to reduce EF while keeping liveability high with tech like renewable energy, effective recycling, or fuel efficient cars. **VP 2:** - It is unavoidable - Our physical geography doesn't allow it - It is naive to think people and nations make decisions based on what's fair. We should only reduce it if we keep a high standard of living. - It's not our fault we live in a country with a low population and lots of productive land - More research is needed before drastic changes. # Page List - 19 - 21 - 37 - 38 - 40-43 - 50 - 51 - 53 - 54 - 59 - 60 - 62 - 64 - 67 - 68 - 73 - 75 - 83-85 - 102 - 113-115 - 120 - 121 - 146 - 147 - 170 - 184 - 187 - idk what to do with this, so i took a pic - 197 - 198-200 - 210 - 213-215 - 217 - 219-227 - 239-245 - 256-259 - 260-262 - 303 - 305 - 308 - 309 # Exam Review Terms **Types of climate:** - Places near an ocean have maritime climate. They have small temperature range and high precipitation. - In these areas, winters are mild and summers are not too hot. For this reason, the annual temperature range (temperature of warmest month minus temperature of coldest month) is small. - Places far from oceans have continental climate. They have large temperature range and low precipitation. - Land heats and cools faster than water, so extreme temperatures are common in areas with continental climate. - Modified continental areas - areas far enough from the ocean that they should be continental climate, but also have partial maritime influence. They somewhat moderate temperatures and provide a source of moisture since they aren't frozen. They act as land when frozen. **Types of precipitation:** - Relief: - Condensation creates water droplets that can no longer stay suspended, falling as rain. - Cold climates result in water vapor condensing as snow. - Windward: (up) air expands -> cools -> condensation - Leeward: (down) evaporates -> warms -> contracts (to the side) -> regular air - Convectional: - Warm air rises -> air expands and cools -> condensation (upward), clouds form vertically. - Sun heats ground (ground is hot from sun, but cooled by the rain) - Cool air is drafted down with precipitation - Cyclonic: - Low pressure system that occurs when a warm air mass and a cold air mass collide - Most forms of precipitation occur in Canada during winter **Climate graph** - a graph that summarizes climate data for a particular location **Seasonal distribution of precipitation:** - Summer max if peak precipitation is in summer - Winter max if peak precipitation is in winter **Average annual temperature** - sum of month temperatures/12 (Degrees Celsius) **Temperature range** - highest temperature minus lowest temperature. Summer max >= 25 degrees celsius, winter max < 25 degrees celsius **Total annual precipitation** - sum of month precipitations (mm) - Movement of air (bottom to top): air rises, expands and cools as it rises, water vapor condenses, evaporates - Air may rise because it hits a barrier (relief precipitation), it absorbed heat from the ground, causing it to rise, or there is a cooler, denser air mass beneath, causing cyclonic precipitation. - Precipitation can come in many forms such as rain, dew, frost, fog, snow, hail, sleet, etc - Water cycle - the circle of how water changes form through weather processes **Continental Drift:** - The theory that the continents were once together, but drifted apart as a result of unimaginable forces - Proposed by the German scientist Alfred Wegner in 1915 - The land masses were in constant motion and collided to form a super continent 300 million years ago (known as Pangaea which means "all land") - About 200 million years ago, Pangaea started to break apart and the continents as we know them drifted to their present locations **Reasons For The Theory:** - Fossils of similar species of plants and animals in Africa and South America were found. - At a specific angle, South America and Africa fit together perfectly. - Mountains in Europe and North America are of similar age and rock composition. - There used to be ice sheets in South Africa and India. **Emigration** - leaving a country to move to another **Fishing** - Resources needed: Natural fish stocks - Problems: Mining fish/overfishing, pollution reduces number of fish and makes them dangerous to eat - Risk: High - Climate change: Warm temperatures causes fish populations to move **Aquaculture** - fish farming